CHAPTER 3: Language and Definitions

Prepared By: GALIBUT, Michelle L.

CHAPTER 3: Language and Definitions

3.1 Language Functions

3.2 Emotive Language, Neutral Language, and Disputes 3.3 Disputes and Ambiguity 3.4 Definitions and their Uses

3.5 The Structure of Definitions: Extensions and Intension 3.6 Definition by Genus and Differences

3. 1 Language Functions

3 Major Functions of Language

INFORMATIVE
EXPRESSIVE

DIRECTIVE

3.1 Language Functions

1. INFORMATIVE
used to describe the world or reason about it (Declarative Sentence) affirms or denies propositions have a truth value

War is always the wrong solution to international conflict.

This may indeed be true, but it is also evidence of the beliefs of the person who utters the remark.

War is always the wrong solution to international conflict.

I strongly oppose our involvement in this war on moral grounds.

This is a statement (probably true) about the speaker, but it also serves to express a judgment about the morality of ones own views is by no means deceptive.

I strongly oppose our involvement in this war on moral grounds.

3.1 Language Functions

2. EXPRESSIVE
reports feelings or attitudes of the writer (or speaker), or of the subject, or evokes feelings in the reader (or listener). Neither true nor false

Wow, what a view!

Thats really great!

3.1 Language Functions

2. EXPRESSIVE
Poetry and literature are among the best examples, but much of, perhaps most of, ordinary language discourse is the expression of emotions, feelings or attitudes

It was was the

was the the age

the best of times, it worst of times; it age of wisdom; it was of foolishness ~Charles Dickens

3.1 Language Functions

2. EXPRESSIVE
Two main aspects of this function are generally noted: (1) evoking certain feelings (2) expressing feelings.

When we are expressing our emotion, our sentences are often exclamatory.

Thats fantastic!

What can you possibly mean by that?

Attitudes, on the other hand, may also be expressed using an interrogative form.

3.1 Language Functions

3. DIRECTIVE
used for the purpose of causing (or preventing) overt action.

3.1 Language Functions

3. DIRECTIVE
most commonly found in commands and requests (Imperative Sentence)

3.1 Language Functions

3. DIRECTIVE
NOT normally considered true or false

Close the windows.

Step on the scale, please.

Although declarative

You're smoking in a non-smoking area.

can be used to mean:

Do not smoke in this area.

Exclamatory sentence in the directive function

Take off your pants!

Other uses of language

Ceremonial language

Performative utterances Phatic language

Other uses of language

a. Ceremonial Language
mixing the expressive and directive language functions because performative aspects are included as well

Dearly beloved, we are gathered here together to witness the holy matrimony of

Other uses of language

b. Performative Utterances
performs the action it reports

I congratulate you I accept your offer

I do.

I promise you that

I apologize for my foolish remark.

Other uses of language

c. Phatic Language
Elevator talk" Street-corner conversations accomplishing a social task Greetings and casual discussions

Hi! How are you?

Dangers of Identifying Form with Function in the Use of Language

Most ordinary kinds of discourse are MIXED.

(parent to child)

That conduct is utterly disgusting!

The parent is expressing: an attitude (expressive function), seeking to direct behaviour (directive function), or probably reporting a fact (informative function)

Usual Function/ Sentence Type

Informative The room is cool.

But isn't this room 222A?

Expressive I had a nice time.

Directive I would like some coffee.

assertion / declarative
question / interrogative

Isn't that great? Don't you want to help me?

command / imperative /
exclamation / exclamatory

Read pages 1-10 Have a nice day. for the test.

The universe is bounded! I'm really glad!

Shut the windows.

It's late!

The importance of the differentiation of functions is shown by recognizing that the correct evaluation of a passage requires knowledge of the functions relevant to the situational context.

3. 2 Emotive Language, Neutral Language, and Disputes

Literal and Emotive Meaning

Literal and Emotive Meaning

a. LITERAL or DESCRIPTIVE

refers to the way things are

Literal and Emotive Meaning

b. EMOTIVE/Loaded Language
expresses some (positive or negative) feeling about something These words are said to have emotive significance or emotive meaning or emotional impact

Due to such potential for emotional complication, it is generally advised to AVOID loaded language in argument or speech when fairness and impartiality is one of the goals.

emaciated

1. "Little Marys room is a pigsty." 2. "Little Marys room is untidy." 3. "Little Marys belongings are strewn about the room in gay profusion."

Euphemism is an attempt to avoid loaded language with undesirable connotations, but it often introduces new loaded language.

Janitor -> maintenance workers/custodians

Emotively Neutral Language

 This is preferable when we are trying to get to the facts or follow an argument; our emotions often cloud our reasoning.

Emotively Neutral Language

When resolving disputes or disagreements between persons, it is usually best to try to reformulate the disagreement in NEUTRAL language

Purpose: Communicate->

Language having the least emotive impact->

Avoid being misunderstood

Kinds of Agreement and Disagreement

Kinds of Agreement and Disagreement

Agreement in belief and agreement in attitude Agreement in belief but disagreement in attitude This may become the cause of endless (but pointless) shouting between people whose feelings differ sharply about some fact upon which they are in total agreement

There aren't any problems in this instance, since both parties hold the same positions and have the same feelings about them.

Kinds of Agreement and Disagreement

Disagreement in belief but agreement in attitude Disagreement in belief and disagreement in attitude

Parties may never recognize, much less resolve, their fundamental difference of opinion, since they are lulled by their shared feelings into supposing themselves allied.

parties have so little in common that communication between them often breaks down entirely

Disagreement in Attitude
Positive vs Negative
Neutral vs Positive(or Negative) Come about by our approval or disapproval about the matter at issue.

There is an emotional difference between the disputants

Disagreement in Belief
A different literal significance or a different denotative significance
Disagreement about the facts of the matter.

It is very helpful, although not technically correct, to think of a disagreement in belief as a factual disagreement.

EXERCISE: Consider the following four situations concerning "The Distance to the Sun."
Mr. Smith Situation 1 The sun is incredibly far from the earth; its 60 million miles away.

Ms. Smith Mr. Jones

Yes, the sun is extremely far from the earth, but its 90 million miles away. The sun is not so far; its only 93 million miles away. The sun is, indeed, very far since its 93 million miles away. The sun is very far since its 90 million miles away. Yes that is very far, indeed.
The sun is really very close to earth, only 60 million miles. No, the sun is incredibly far away; its over 93 million miles from earth.

Situation 2

Ms. Jones Mr. Baker Ms. Baker

Mr. Cade Ms. Cade

Situation 3

Situation 4

Rules of Thumb:

1 Find the fact at issue

When the parties agree in belief, the fact at issue will be trivial. These words are said to have emotive significance or emotive meaning or emotional impact . In every disagreement in belief, there are some facts agreed uponthese are not the facts at issue.

Rules of Thumb:

2 Determine each persons emotive significance toward the fact at issue:

The emotive significance toward subsidiary issues is not directly relevant to establishing a disagreement in attitude Restate, in neutral terms, what each person said.

3 Determine the agreement or disagreement in belief:

Rules of Thumb:

Compare what each person said with the fact-atissue (stated as a question) in order to determine whether the parties agree or disagree in belief. no explicit evidence - > Do not assume that there is a disagreement. E.g. as an answer to the question, "Did the child hit the dog?," there is no evidence from these above statements John and Mary disagree.

Rules of Thumb:

4 Determine the agreement or disagreement in attitude:

Compare the emotive significance of the disputants in order to establish any disagreement in attitude.

Rules of Thumb:

5 Attempt to resolve the dispute in accordance with the kind of dispute it is.

disagreement in belief -> use the methods of finding the facts in a mutually agreeable manner: authority, science, or observation disagreement in attitude -> the methods of rhetoric and persuasion might be helpful. This variety of disagreement is the most difficult to resolve. disagreement in both attitude and belief -> resolve the disagreement in belief first.

EXERCISE: Consider the following four situations concerning "The Distance to the Sun."
Mr. Smith Situation 1 The sun is incredibly far from the earth; its 60 million miles away.

Ms. Smith Mr. Jones

Yes, the sun is extremely far from the earth, but its 90 million miles away. The sun is not so far; its only 93 million miles away. The sun is, indeed, very far since its 93 million miles away. The sun is very far since its 90 million miles away. Yes that is very far, indeed.
The sun is really very close to earth, only 60 million miles. No, the sun is incredibly far away; its over 93 million miles from earth.

Situation 2

Ms. Jones Mr. Baker Ms. Baker

Mr. Cade Ms. Cade

Situation 3

Situation 4

These examples exhibit the four possible kinds of agreement and disagreement in belief and attitude:
The Distance of the Sun Situation 1 (Smith) Agree (93 mm)

Belief (in a state of affairs) Disagree(90 mm vs. 60 mm)

Attitude (toward that state of affairs) Agree("incredibly" and "extremely")

How the Dispute Might Be Resolved Find the facts: use a reference book, an authority, or do an experiment to determine the fact at issue.
Use rhetoric and persuasion, comparative arguments, relative terms. No resolution necessary.

Situation 2 (Jones) Situation 3 (Baker) Situation 4 (Cade)

Disagree("not so far" and "very far")

Agree (90 mm) Disagree(60 mm vs. 90 mm)

Agree ("very far") Disagree("very close" vs. very far")

(1) Find the facts. (2) Methods of rhetoric and persuasion.

 Exercise: John: In the last election Mr. Smith failed to receive the number of votes he predicted-he fell short. John: In the last election Mr. Smith failed to receive the number of votes he predicted-he fell short. Mary: Well, Mr. Smith thought he would receive 56% of the vote and he came within 1%. Fact at issue: Johns emotive significance: Marys emotive significance: .

Belief:
Attitude: . How best resolved: .