Social Well-Being Author(s): Corey Lee M. Keyes Reviewed work(s): Source: Social Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 61, No.

2 (Jun., 1998), pp. 121-140 Published by: American Sociological Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2787065 . Accessed: 10/01/2013 05:07
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

American Sociological Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Social Psychology Quarterly.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

SocialPsychology Quarterly
1998,Vol. 61,No. 2,121-140

SocialWell-Being*
COREY LEE M. KEYES EmoryUniversity social social integration, of social well-being, The proposal of fivedimensions is theand social acceptance, social actualization, social coherence, contribution, and the construct validity, The theoretical structure, oretically substantiated. in are investigated sourcesofthedimensions ofsocial well-being socialstructural analysesin bothstudiescorroborate Itemand confirmatory factor twostudies. convergently The newscales correlate modelof social well-being. thetheoretical community social constraints, perceived generativity, withmeasures of anomie, discriminantly The newscales correlate and neighborhood quality. involvement physicalhealthand optimism. global well-being, withmeasuresof dysphoria, theclaimthat social well-being substantiate Multivariate analysesin bothstudies attainment and age. The stateand by educational is an achievement, facilitated arediscussed. ofadult functioning ofthestudy direction life? What is the natureof a well-lived Does positivementalhealth includesocial challenges and criteria? Inquiry into the nature of well-beingshould embrace the division of lifeintopublicand private tasks, thathas pervaded social psya distinction chological theory. The self,for example,is both a public processand a privateproduct(James1890; Mead 1934). Individualdifferences in neuroticism and extraversion (Costa and McCrea 1980), self-awareness (Duval and Wicklund 1972;Fenigstein, Scheierand Buss 1975), self-conception (Greenwald and Pratkanis 1984;Trafimow, Triandis and Goto 1991;Triandis1989) and esteem(Luhtanen and Crocker 1992) characterizepeople as to situational or internal exieither attentive
D. and *This research was supported bytheJohn CatherineT. MacArthurFoundation Research Midlife Network on Successful Development (MIDBrim. is Dr. OrvilleGilbert MAC), whosedirector Data forStudy1 are takenfrom a local study of Positive SocialFunctioning, supported byMIDMAC; data forStudy2 come from MIDMAC's national I am indebted to Hazel Rose Markus, AliceS. study. Rossi, Dov Shmotkin,Richard Shweder,and J. Elizabeth Thomson for their support andfeedback on Study1 and an earlier of thispaper.The draft feedback received from theSPQ reviewers and coDr. LynnSmith-Lovin, thepaper editor, improved measurably. Specialthanks go to Jane Allyn Piliavin fortheir and Carol D. Ryff feedback indefatigable and guidance. Direct correspondence to the Department of Sociology, 1555 Pierce Drive, Tarbutton Hall,Atlanta, GA 30322.

genciesand information. the and concepts delineate Role theories betweenpersonal strainsand incongruities (Biddle 1986;Heiss and social expectations 1981) or focuson the waysin whichpeople and between private managetheincongruity 1959;also public lifeand images (Goffman see Shawand Costanzo1982). Finally, as adults age theypurportedly encounter tasksthatforcethemto chooseto or public privateresignation adapt through social involvement (i.e., generativity) (Erikson1950;also see Adler 1979).The private and the public sides of life are two with potentialsources of life's challenges, distinct consequencesforjudginga possibly life. well-lived betweenpublic Despite the distinctions of and privatelife,the leadingconceptions as a priadultfunctioning well-being portray traThe clinical marily private phenomenon. dition tends to operationalize well-being throughmeasures of depression,distress, or substanceabuse (see, e.g.,Thoits anxiety, therefore is theabsenceof 1992).Well-being the result and feelings, negativeconditions of adjustment and adaptation to a hazardous world.The psychologicaltraditionoperaas thesubjective evaluwell-being tionalizes ation of lifevia satisfaction and affect (e.g., Andrewsand Withey 1976;Bradburn1969; Campbell 1981; Campbell, Converse,and Rodgers 1976; Diener 1984; Gurin,Veroff, (Ryff and Feld 1960) orpersonalfunctioning

121

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

122

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY neighborhood), as well as the degree to which theyfeel that theybelong to their Social integration and society. communities draws on conceptions of social cohesion (Durkheim), cultural estrangementand social isolation (Seeman), and class consciousness (Marx). In Durkheim's view, indiand healthreflect social coordination to each otherthrough viduals' connections forsocinormsand indicatetheirfondness According to Seeman (1959,1983,1991; ety. also see Merton 1949), culturalestrangementis the cleavage of self fromsociety. is the rejectionof societyor Estrangement the realizationthatsocietydoes not reflect Social isolaone's own values and lifestyle. of personalrelationtionis the breakdown ships that provide meaning and support. Like Marx's conceptionof class consciousentailsthe construal ness,social integration and fate. ofcollective membership is theconstrual ofsociSocial acceptance the characterand qualities of ety through other people as a generalized category. social acceptance who illustrate Individuals thatothersare capable of think trust others, kindness,and believe that people can be Socially acceptingpeople hold industrious. favorable views of human nature (see with 1991) and feelcomfortable Wrightsman others(Horney 1945). Social acceptanceis the social analogue to personalacceptance: personaliPeople who feelgood about their ties and accept both the good and the bad livesexemplify good mental aspectsof their health (Fey 1955; Ryff1989). Therefore social acceptance of others mightbe the to self-acceptance. socialcounterpart is the evaluationof Social contribution the beliefthat one's social value.It includes withsomeof society, one is a vitalmember thingof value to give to the world.Social the conceptsof efficontribution resembles is the Self-efficacy cacy and responsibility. certainbehavbeliefthatone can perform iors(Bandura1977) and can accomplish specificobjectives(Gecas 1989). Social responof personalobligais thedesignation sibility to society. contribute tions that ostensibly and to reflects Social contribution whether, they whatdegree, people feelthatwhatever and condo in theworldis valuedbysociety This construct tributes to the commonweal.

and Keyes 1995). Accordingto 1989; Ryff is an excess thisview,emotionalwell-being personal of positiveover negativefeelings; is the presenceof functioning psychological more positivethannegativeperceivedselfAlthough growth. suchas personal attributes models emphasizeprivatefeathe existing tures of well-being, individuals remain and communiembeddedin socialstructures social tasksand chaland facecountless ties, lenges.To understandoptimalfunctioning and mental health, social scientists also should investigate adults' social well-being (also see Larson1992,1996). is to substantiThe purposeof thisstudy that ate and testa socialmodelof well-being I disTherefore socialhealth. positive reflects cussthesocialnature oflifeanditschallenges, that be criteria might becausesuchchallenges individuals use to assess the qualityof their and lives.I propose operationaldefinitions In two repreof social well-being. indicators I examinethe theoretical sentative samples, of each scale,as wellas and validity structure of each origins some of thesocial structural dimension ofsocialwell-being.
Symptomsof Life's Social Challenges

is a or at least its absence, Social health, concernin classic sociological preeminent of anomie theory. Despite the importance Durkheim and Marxalso disand alienation, of positivesocial cussed severaldimensions ofpubbenefits health. Amongthepotential a and cohesion, lic lifeare social integration and and interdependence, senseofbelonging and colleca sense of sharedconsciousness of tive fate (Durkheim1951). The benefits fora global social lifeprovidea foundation ofwell-being. definition ofa socialversion Social well-being is the appraisal of in sociand functioning one's circumstance ety.Below I propose and describeseveral social challenges that constitutepossible ofsocialwellness. dimensions to societyand qualityof one's relationship Healthy individualsfeel that community. they are a part of society.Integrationis therefore the extentto whichpeople feel withothers in common have something they their social reality (e.g.,their who constitute
is the evaluation of the Social integration

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

SOCIAL WELL-BEING

123

is consistent withMarx's thesisthatpeople Social coherenceis analogousto meanare naturally productive (Israel 1971). inglessness in life(Mirowsky and Ross 1989; Alienationis the economiccounterpart Seeman 1959,1991),and involvesappraisals to the diminution of the perceivedvalue of thatsociety is discernable, sensible, and preone's lifeand everyday activities. The devel- dictable. Psychologically, healthier individuals opmentalanalogue of social contribution is see theirpersonal lives as meaningful and generativemotivesand behavior.Midlife, coherent (Ryff 1989).The sense of personal according to Erikson (1950),is a periodwhen coherence, according to Antonovsky (1994), adultscan acton their desireto contribute to maybe a marker of health: individuals who society by molding the nextgeneration into have coherenceattempt to maintain coherproductive members ofsociety (forexample, encewhenfacedwith unpredictable and traubymentoring). matic lifeevents. Social actualization is the evaluationof In sum,perspectives rootedin philosothe potentialand the trajectory of society. phy, social psychological theory and cultural This is the beliefin the evolution of society analysis arguecogently foremphasizing the and thesensethat has potential society which social equally withthe personal nature of is beingrealizedthrough its institutions and well-being.Themes of integration, social citizens. Healthier people are hopefulabout involvement, and public consciousness in thecondition and future of society, and they classicalsociological which theory, are reitercan recognizesociety's potential.Socially ated in social psychological of conceptions healthier people can envision thatthey, and selfin society, suggestthe social challenges people like them, are potential beneficiaries facedbyadults. of social growth. The evaluation of social progressis consistentwith Srole's-(1956) Social Structural SourcesofSocial Well-Being interpretation of anomieas theevaluation of People do not begin or maintain the society'spotentialby the evaluationof the character of society'scustodians (forexam- quest forsocial well-beingwith the same ple, publicofficials). should constrain social actual- assets.Social structure or Similarly, ization resemblesfatalisnm individuals' and opportunity ability (Lefcourt1982) facilitate to respondsuccessfully andpowerlessness to the social chal(Seeman1991). Parallel to self-determination, and aging social lengesof life.Social stratification actualizationis the sense thatsocietycon- are prominent structural aspectsof lifeand trolsitsdestiny. The focuson the realization havebeenthesubject ofprior research on the of social potential also is similar to the sources of otherdimensions of health and themeof potentialand its development In particular, as well-being. educationalattainself-realization (Maslow 1968), eudaimonic mentand processesof aginggenerally affect happiness (Waterman1993), and personal instrumental and self-conceptions. resources growth (Ryff 1989). Optimalfunctioning, Educationalattainment in launchesyoung part, is openness to experience and the adults into specificoccupations,affecting desireand effort to growcontinually. Social whattheyearn and theconditions and peoactualization captures theseideas of growth ple theyencounter daily.Indirectly, through and development. monetary sequelae, education determines Social coherence is theperception of the the qualityof one's housingand neighborand operationof the hood (Karabel and Halsey 1977;Kohn 1969; quality, organization, social world,and it includesa concernfor Kohn and Schooler1982;Sewelland Hauser knowing about the world.Healthierpeople 1975). Lower socioeconomic status (SES) not only care about the kind of world in has been linkedconsistently to diminished whichtheylive,but also feel thattheycan physicaland mentalhealth(N. Adler et al. understand whatis happening aroundthem. 1994),partially because lifeat lowersocioeSuch people do not delude themselves that conomic levelsappearsto impair health-prolivein a perfect they world; have main- moting self-conceptions (Mirowsky and they tainedor promoted thedesireto makesense Ross 1989). oflife. Whereas higher levels of education

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

124

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY (e.g.,generativity) thatmeasureshow greatly individuals perceivethattheyare valued by others, are used as social resources (such as sourcesof advice),and contribute to others' well-being. People who feel socially integrated, close to and deriving comfort from others in their shouldfeelthatthey community, livein a vitaland healthyneighborhood. Socially integrated individuals therefore shouldperceive theirneighbors as trustworthy and their neighborhoods as safe.Adultsintegrated intosocietyalso should be likelyto volunteerto maintain their neighborhood, perhaps because theyfeel theiractionswillbe valued by othersand because theywantto maintain thequality oftheir neighborhood. Finally, people who see life as socially coherent shouldalso feel thattheirprivate lifeis coherent. Therefore individuals with higherscoreson the social coherencescale shouldfeelthattheir personal fives are more predicable, morecontrollable, and thusgensensible and understandable. erally In short, insofar as the new scales meaindisuresocialwell-being, healthier socially vidualsshouldnotregard society and itscusshould perceivethemtodiansas unsavory, selves as social resources,should care for and feel safe in their communities,and shouldlead coherent personallives. in Regression analysisof the disparities social well-being, by educationand age,perstrucmitsinvestigation of thehypothesized tural sources of social well-being. Prior research on thestructural sourcesofpsychothat healthsuggests logicalaspectsofmental social well-being shouldincreaseas thelevel of educationrises. involves Aging, however, losses and the ability to adapt and age successfully. Therefore, althoughsocial wellbeing mayincreasewithage, I explorethe possibility of a nonlinear relationship between age and social well-being. For example,some dimensionsof social wellbeing could increasemore rapidlybecause adults face the same social challengesthat subside withage or adults adapt withage. However,social well-beingcould increase less quickly with age because thesocial chalcannotbe lengesof lifethatmight intensify offset to age successfully. byadults'attempts

the relashouldpromotesocial well-being, is equivtionship of age to social 'well-being ocal. Aging and age differencesinclude aspectsthatare notalwaysconsisnumerous condespitetheapparent tent. For example, strictionof social positions and activity (Carstensen 1995; Riley,Kahn, and Foner 1994), and the decline in physical health with age, research illustrateshow adults seem to age successfullythroughseveral (For a discussionof possible mechanisms. see Heidrich and Ryff self-mechanisms, 1996.) Moreover,while some self-conceptions(such as personalcontrol)apparently decline with age (Mirowsky 1995), other age,feelhapfind thatadults, as they studies withtheirlives and pier and moresatisfied of levels of some dimensions report higher well-being (Heidrichand Ryff psychological 1996; Ryff and Keyes 1995). The abilityto of suggests thatsome facets age successfully like psychologicalwellsocial well-being, with age. being, mayincrease In thetwoprobability samplesI investiof the social natureof gate the hypothesis of the social well-being and the hypothesis in socialwellstructural sourcesof variation to the being,and subjectthese hypotheses the of replication. I operationalize standard in a local probability sampleand dimensions nationally reprereplicate themin a larger, sentativesample of adults. Confirmatory factoranalyses permitassessment of the model five-factor of thehypothesized utility thenew ofsocialwell-being. I thencorrelate scales withextantindicatorsand scales of individconstructs and processesthatreflect of positive social functionuals' perceptions ing.In the singleexceptionI correlatethe new scales with a scale of anomie, which measures the absence of social health. Insofar as all of the new scales measure negasocial wellness, theyshouldcorrelate with ofanomie. tively appraisals In particular, social actualization and social acceptanceshould correlatestrongly with anomie because the content of the Srole anomiescale focuseson theperceived qualityof society(as does social actualizaof otherpeople tion) and on the character like public officials(as does social accepon the other tance). Social contribution, witha scale strongly hand,shouldcorrelate

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

SOCIAL WELL-BEING METHODS Samples

125

Study1 is a random-digit-dialing sample (Waksberg1978) of adults age 18 or older livingin Dane County, Wisconsin. Madison is theseat ofDane County and thecapitalof the state.All interviews, utilizing computerwere conductedon the assistedtechnology, telephoneby trained personsat the Letters and ScienceSurvey Centerat theUniversity of Wisconsin, Madison.Afterthe pretesting were and interviewer interviews training, conducted between April and June 1994. When determining householdcomposition, interviewers selectedthehousehold member whohad celebrated hisor herbirthday most recently (see O'Rourke and Blair 1983).The The interview on average. lasted30 minutes sample includes 373 adults,fora response rateof63%. Study2 is a random-digit-dialing sample of noninstitutionalized English-speaking in the48 contiguadultsage 25 to 74, living ous states, included at least whosehousehold one telephone.1 In thefirst stageof themultistagesamplingdesign,the investigators Measures selected householdswithequal probability via telephone numbers. At thesecondstage, Theoretical concepSocial well-being. theyused disproportionate stratified sam- tionsin Study1 (Dane County)promoted The samplewas operationaldefinitions plingto selectrespondents. thatguidedthe crestratified by age and sex; males between ation of indicators(Appendix A). On the ages 65 and 74 wereoversampled. I basis of linguistic clarity and face validity, Field procedures were initiated in retained 10 items(fivepositive and fiveneg1995 and lasted approximately 13 ative) per scale and placed themin a ranJanuary months. The respondents were contacted by dom sequence. Aftersix background questhosewho agreedto tionswereasked,the50 items professional personnel; wereadminisin the entire participate study tookpartin a tered at the beginning of the telephone interview computer-assisted telephone lasting interview. technique Throughthe unfolding 30 minuteson average. Respondentsthen (Groves 1989),respondents statedwhether were mailed two questionnaire booklets theyagreed or disagreed,and thenjudged requiring about 1.5 hourson averageto com- how much(strongly, or slightly). moderately, forparticipation in the The responseoptionstherefore plete.As incentives rangefrom each respondent was offered 1,strongly complete study, to 7,strongly agree. disagree, $20,a commemorative pen,periodicreports Interviewers weretrained to refrain from ofstudy and a copyofa monograph findings, of uncerexpressions converting voluntary on the study. The sample consistsof 3,032 agree tainty (i.e.,"don'tknow"and "neither with a 70% response adults, rateforthetelenor disagree") into substantive answers. A phone phase and an 87% responserate for totalof 87 respondents expressed uncertainty at leastonce in response to theitems.retained 1 Thissamplewas assembled byMIDMAC,the in of "neither agreenor Study 1. Expressions D. and Catherine John T. MacArthur Foundation are coded the of the to midpoint disagree" Research Network on Successful Midlife Development. are assigned scale;"don'tknow't expressions

phase,or theself-administered questionnaire rateof61%. a combined response characTable 1 reports thedemographic teristics of each sample.The data fromthe to adjust nationalsampledata are weighted selecof household forunequalprobabilities of respondent tionand unequalprobabilities selection withinhouseholds. The sample thesampleto match weight also poststratifies theOctober1995Current Population Survey of adultson thebasis of gender, proportions as well andmarital status, age,race, education, in metroas theproportions of adultsliving areas and various regions politan(nonmetro) southand west) of the (northeast, midwest, United States.The mean age of the Dane County sampleis 43.6 (SD = 15.9),compared witha mean age of 45.3 (SD = 13.5) in the In theDane County sample, national sample. fewerrespondentsare marriedand more higher levelsof educahave attained slightly tion.Moreover, the Dane Countysampleis mostlyCaucasian, and more households reportslightly higherhousehold incomes thanin thenational sample.

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

126

QUARTERLY SOCIALPSYCHOLOGY

of Studies from theMacArthur Foundation's Samples ofSpecific andComparison Table1.Characteristics Midlife Successful (Percentages) 1 Study Sample Dane County (N = 373)
Agea

2 Study (Weighted)Sample National (N = 3,032) 40.5 40.3 19.2 43.5 56.5 68.1 8.6 23.3 83.8 11.4 5.7 51.5 25.5 23.0 18.3 16.3 12.2 19.5 33.6

Young Midlife Older Gender Male Female Status Marital Married married Never Other Race Caucasian African-American Other Education Up to 12years 13to 15years ormore 16years Income orless $14,999 to$24,999 $15,000 to$34,999 $25,000 to $49,999 1$35,OOO ormore $50,000
= 40-59;older = 60-74.

44.2 38.9 16.9 41.2 58.8 51.5 27.9 20.6 92.2 3.0 4.8 30.0 30.5 39.4 12.4 19.3 15.7 16.0 36.6

= 25-39; = 40-59; midlife Young sample: National older= 60-89. midlife Young= 18-39; sample: aDane County

and social social responsibility, on a ticipation, existing items themeanofa respondent's scale. In cases in whichtheyagreed or dis- networks. Study1. I measured criteria, Validation oftheir thestrength agreedbutdidnotreport themeanof anomie (Srole 1956) witha scale consisting are assigned respondents feelings, side oftheresponse of threeitemsused in the General Social the"agree"or "disagree" who Survey (GSS) (Davis and Smith 1994). scale. Thus,forexample,respondents theyagree agreedwithan itembut did not knowhow Respondentsindicatedwhether are that(1) "Mostpublicofficials themean of or disagree theyfeltwereimputed strongly of the in the problems or slightly) not reallyinterested moderately the"agree"(strongly, (2) "The lot of theaverage averageperson," scale. sideoftheresponse and (3) not better," worse, Each scale in Study2 consistsof only personis getting intotheworld children to bring three items. (Because of concern about "It is notfair The look forthefuture." I did not include all withthewaythings respondents'fatigue, of the anomie with theself-administeredinternal(alpha) consistency In keeping items.) is identical to theaverage person(in con- scale is .57,which are first all pronouns format, (Ma = .57,SD = .04) of thesame trast to second person in Study 1). The reliability dis- scale oversixyears 1,strongly rangesfrom format response oftheGSS.2 measureaspectsofglobal agree, to 7, stronglyagree. Respondents Two indicators optionlabeled"don't psychological indiweregivena midpoint Respondents well-being. a litsomewhat, know."The social well-being items were catedwhether felt very, they and embedded in a secorderedrandomly 2 GSS data are taken from1984,1985,1987,1988, about social partionof questionsinquiring
1989,and 1990.

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

SOCIAL WELL-BEING

127

feelI am beingpushedaroundin livesright sometimes with their tle, to notat all,satisfied of now.On the same scale, respondents were mylife."The internal(alpha) reliability thatthey theperceived scale is .86. instructed to pretend fora moment constraint of theexperience measured Twelveitems knew theirlife would end next week, and indicated symptoms. Respondents thento indicatehow happytheyfeltabout dysphoric they expeduring thepast30 days, the lifetheyhad been able to live.Finally, howoften, "a had ever rienced "noneof thetime," respondents indicated whether they each symptom: with other "most of worked peoplein their community little ofthetine," "someofthetime," to solve a problem in their community. thetime," or "all of thetime." The symptoms Respondentswho had been involvedthen are feeling could cheer (1) "so sad nothing indicated whether theircommunity activity you up," (2) "nervous," (3) "restlessor fidthepast12months. was occurred (5) "thateverything during gety," (4) "hopeless," 2. Respondents an effort," Validation criteria, Study (8) (7) "cheerful," (6) "worthless," six indicators of genera- "in good spirits," indicatedwhether happy," (10) (9) "extremely a lit- "calmand peaceful," described thema lot,somewhat, tivity and (12) (11) "satisfied," of tle,or notat all.The internal (alpha) reliabil- "full oflife." The internal (alpha) reliability ity of the modified Loyola Generativity thedysphoria scoreindiscale is .92;a higher Scale (based on McAdamsand de St.Aubin catestheexperience ofmorenegative andless 1992) is .84.Higherscoresrevealindividuals positive symptoms. who feelthattheyhave made contributions the telephoneinterview, during Finally, have imparted to society, skillsor advice to respondents indicatedtheirphysicalhealth have as poor,fair, like to teach thingsto others, others, good, verygood, or excellent. had a good influenceon others,and feel Also during thetelephone interview, responneeded by others.A scale measuringper- dentsindicatedwhether "being optimistic" healthconsists of four describedthema lot,somewhat, ceivedneighborhood or a little, indicators intendedto measure feelings of notat all. neighborhood trust and safety. Respondents indicatedwhether the following statements RESULTS describetheirsituations a lot,some,a little, 1 1 retained In Study with a correctitems or not at all: (1) "I feelsafe beingout alone correlation of .30 or higher in myneighborhood during thedaytime," (2) ed item-to-scale of theirrespective constructs. "I feelsafebeingout alone in myneighbor- as indicators in Study2 I retaineditems(three hood during thenight," (3) "I could call on a Similarly, the internal neighborforhelp if I needed it," and (4) per scale) thatdid not suppress estimate as indicators of thelatent "People in my neighborhood trusteach reliability of social coherence One indicator othe'r." The internal of the construct. (alpha) reliability 2 suppressed conthescale internal health scale is .66; a higher in Study neighborhood I omitted therefore it from further score indicatesa stronger feelingof neigh- sistency; The retaineditemsfunctioned as analysis. borhood trust and safety. oftheir constructs latent respective Respondents also completed a scale indicators modelsexamfactor-analytic measuring perceived constraints,which in confirmatory powerof the reflectshow much individuals perceive iningthe relativeexplanatory I used modelof socialwell-being. obstaclesand unpredictable in theoretical contingencies and Sorbom1993a) to their lives (see Lachman and Weaver PRELIS 2 (Joreskog Forthcoming). Respondents indicated create the varianceand covariancematrix, of theparameters and indices whethertheyagree or disagree (strongly, and I estimated ofthemeasurement LISREL or a little)with modelsusing somewhat, eightself-descrip- fit tive statements, including the following as 8 (Joreskog and Sorbom 1993b). To assess indicator-to-construct overlap examples: (1) "There is little I can do to in mylife," thefive-factor changethe important things (2) in Study1,I fitted theoretical "What happens in my life is oftenbeyond modelto thevariance-covariance matrix and standardized modimycontrol," (3) "Thereare manythings that observedthecompletely interfere with whatI wantto do," and (4) "I fication index(CSMI). Wheneach indicator

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

128

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY

ofa series indices offit and thedescriptive and latent constructis standardized,the fit to the variance-covariance of each of models fitted CSMI is the predictedcorrelation 2. As a rule Study1 and Study from otherthan matrices witha latentconstruct indicator witha CSMI of .40 or of thumb,values of goodness of fit and itsown.An indicator item. adjusted goodness of fitindices at .90 or overlapping higher iga potentially models thatfitthe data very signify the theoreticalmodel higher Next I refitted the sample The critical N estimates of the unrelatedcon- closely. the effect estimating fora itemto size neededto rejectthenullhypothesis overlapping on thepotentially struct matrix.One item givenmodel at a givenlevel of alpha (.05) the variance-covariance 200 Ns exceeding social actualization (see Bollen 1989).Critical indicating purportedly largincreasingly models; adequate represent standard> or completely overlapped(.40, even better-fitting er CriticalNs represent it. I omitted therefore ized loading); sample models. I do not entertaintheoriesabout Examination of higher-order thatis,meaerror correlations; univariate andmultivariate measurement moments revealed to be random. is presumed error in both Study1 and surement skewnessand kurtosis Models 1 through 3 serve as null 2. Because of thesmallsamplesize in Study thatthereare as Model 1 asserts to the numberof indicatorsin hypotheses. proportion as indicators(i.e., trans- many latent constructs item-distribution Study1, I identified are not correlated).In contrast, formationsthat minimized the value of indicators that the relationship Model 2 postulates testof skewnessand Mardia's multivariate facis result of a single the among indicators The conclu1989:423). kurtosis Bollen (see intercorwhich meansthatall indicators of itemtrans- tor, sionswerethesame regardless slightly relate at about the same level. Model 3, formations, but the transformations among positsthatthe relationship Consequently, however, thefit ofeachmodel. enhanced likelihood indicatorsis explained by a negative-item I show the resultsof maximum Model 3 is artifacfactor. based on the exponential and a positive-item (ML) estimation it that people respond because posits tual, whichcaused the greatest transformation, but to thevalenceof the skewandkurtosis. not to thecontent inmultivariate reduction 2 was large scale items,agreeing with all positively Because thesamplein Study withall negaenough, I derived parameter estimates phraseditemsand disagreeing items. phrased tively leastsquares(WLS). Using through weighted 7 representtests of Models 4 through variPRELIS 2 to estimatethe asymptotic dimensions of of the whether some proposed I then employed ance-covariancematrix, 4 are Model distinct. posits social well-being WLS to weight the variance-covariance constructs: One causestheindicavari- twolatent of the asymptotic matrix bytheinverse and socialcontribuI achieved(in torsofsocialintegration As a result, ance-covariance. of unbi- tion,and the othercauses the indicators asymptotically distribution-free, theory) and social social social acceptance coherence, In other estimates. parameter ased,efficient Model 5 posits threelatent WLS produces more accurate esti- actualization.3 words, of social the distinctness constructs to test espematesthanML as samplesize increases, from social acceptance indicators coherence are ciallywhen the indicatordistributions Thus one indicators. nonnormal (see Bollen 1989;Browne and social actualization highly social still causes integraof these constructs 1984). Because of the largesamplesize,the another but tion and social contribution, of the indicator distribuskew multivariate whilethethird The fitof all causes onlysocial coherence, influential. tionsprovedhighly and social causessocial acceptance betterwithWLS construct models was substantially conlatent Model 6 positsfour theseestimators thanwith pro- actualization. ML, although the that social to integrastructs test theory I show Therefore conclusions. ducedidentical based onWLS. theestimates only 3 Thereduced do not exhaust models theoretical theoretical Thereduced combinations. all possible Structure Validation: arethebest onconceptual similarity, based models, indexof the chi-square Table 2 presents
hunchesabout whatconstructs theoretical mightnot be distinct.

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

SOCIAL WELL-BEING
Models of Social Well-Being and TheoreticalConfirmatory Table 2. Fit EstimatesofAlternative Study1: Dane CountySample Telephone Interview (N= 373) MaximumLikelihooda Model 1. Independence 2. Single Factor 3. Two-Factor Artifacts 4. Two-Factor Reduced Theory Reduced Theory 5. Three-Factor 6. Four-Factor Reduced Theory Theory 7. Five-Factor ChiSquare 3,747 1,556 1,521 1,259 1,178 1,044 914 df 464 464 463 463 461 458 454 GFI (AGFI) .36 .73 .73 .79 .81 .84 .86 (.27) (.69) (.69) (.76) (.78) (.81) (.84) CN 54 130 132 160 170 190 216

129

Study2: National (Unweighted)Sample Self-Administered Questionnaire (N = 2,887) WeightedLeast Squares Model 1. Independence 2. SingleFactor 3. Two-Factor Artifact 4. Two-Factor Reduced Theory Reduced Theory 5. Three-Factor 6. Four-Factor Reduced Theory Theory 7. Five-Factor ChiSquare 3,372 1,677 1,446 1,211 1,002 740 705 df 77 77 76 76 74 71 67 GFI (AGFI) .76 .88 .90 .91 .93 .95 .95 (.67) (.84) (.86) (.88) (.90) (.92) (.92) CN 94 188 216 257 304 396 397

N. Note:GFI(AGFI) = Goodness of fitindex (adjusted goodness of fitindex); CN = critical own extantitems. a respondent's of mean from Analysesin bothsamplesare based on imputation of itemdistribution. aAnalysisbased on exponentialtransformation

tionis a latentconstruct from distinct social indices of fitsuggestthat the theoretical Model 7 investigates contribution. whether five-factor model in Study 1 fitsthe data and socialactualization Simulation studies, howevsocialacceptance are onlyadequately. thatthe averagevalues of many distinctlatent constructs. In other words, er,suggest indicesdecrease as sample size Model 7 is theproposedfive-factor theoreti- descriptive cal modelofsocialwell-being. decreases and as the numberof indicators (see Bollen 1989:277). To examine how well a model fitsthe increases The theoreteach modelwith theimme- ical model in Study 1 thereforefitswell data,I compared thechi-square despite the smallersample size (N = 373) diately preceding model, using contrast. The difference in chi-square values and thelargenumber ofindicators (32). modelsis distributed fitof the between thesuperior approximately Study2 replicates are equal to theoreticalfive-factor chi-square; degreesof freedom model. Again, chiin the degrees of freedom squarecontrasts the difference illustrate that eachsuccessive between models. and morecomplexmodelfits thedata more In Study1,all chi-square contrasts show closely. In theend,thetheoretical five-factor that each successive and more complex model providesan excellent fitto the data. model providesa betterfitto the data. In The chi-squarecontrastin the theoretical the theoretical Model 7 is the best-fit- model, in comparison fact, with Model 6,is 8.75(p ting model, with a chi-square contrast of32.5 < .005).Moreover, of fit thegoodness indices (p < .001) to Model 6. The descriptive exceed.90andtheCritical N is nearly 400.

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

130

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY In Study1,all newscales correlate negatively withanomie,but social actualization and social acceptance correlate morestrongly, as predicted, withthescale of anomie. As the evaluation of the quality of society, anomierelatesto thosedimensions of social well-being whichindicatethe evolution and ofsociety potential and theperception ofthe character and qualitiesofgeneralized others. of social integration Feelings and social contribution in Study1 are higher amongindividualswho have recently been involvedin their communities (i.e.,in community action) than among people who have never been involved. As expected, integration is associated withmaintaining recentprosocialties in one's community. An unanticipated finding was the of theassociation ofrecent strength communityactionwithsocial contribution. Viewed in retrospect, to solve a problem attempting in one's community also couldJie considered productive activity thatshouldbe connected with a senseofcontribution. Study 2, however,revealsthe distinction betweenintegration and contribution. As expected,social withgeneracontribution correlates strongly tivity: People who feelthattheyare socially valuedalso feelthatthey possessthepersonal resourcesand qualities needed to guide Social integration, on theotherhand, others. correlates morestrongly withthe perceived healthof one's neighborhood. Thus people who feelclose to othersin theircommunity are safe also feel thattheirneighborhoods are trustworthy. their and that neighbors correlates socialcoherence Finally, strongwiththe scale of perceived ly,as predicted, Individualswho findthe social constraints. and world moreunpredictable, morecomplex, moreincoherent also tendto viewtheir own full ofinsurmountable livesas complex affairs, obstacles andunpredictable contingencies.5
5 Somenewscalesin Study 1 are unbalanced. The does notappearto systematicalimbalance, however, thecorrelations. Social coherence is the lyinfluence most imbalanced ofonly onepositive scale, consisting item; theanomie scale,forexample, consists ofthree a balitems. Social actualization, negatively phrased than ancedscale,correlates morestrongly, however, with socialcoherence thescaleofanomie. Recall, too, that theconfirmatory artifact model(negtwo-factor ativeand positive) in explaining thereladid poorly with theseries theitems, between tionship compared ofsocialwell-being. oftheoretical models

and oftheindicators The descriptive statistics of thetheothescalesalso revealthequality ofthecorreretical model.Onlyone estimate withits standardized lationof the indicator fails (i.e.,validity coefficient) latent construct (see Appendix to satisfy the.40ruleofthumb analyses factor B). Whereas theconfirmatory of fivedistinct latent supported the theory factors,the descriptive statisticsfor the observedscales displayedin Table 3 show that all scales intercorrelate positively. all scales, eventhereducedMoreover, nearly high relatively itemscalesin Study2, exhibit The scale ofsocialcoherinternal consistency. in ence exhibitslower internalreliability in higherreliability Study1 but relatively 2. On theother thescaleofsocial hand, Study in Study was internally consistent acceptance 1 buttheset of itemsdid not coherewellin consistencies Study2. These lower internal variation maybe lowerbecause of sampling and becauseI added a new itemto thescale in Study 2 to achievebalofsocialacceptance andpositive items negative ancebetween Validation: Correlations of the Table 4 displaysthe correlations I use thezvalidition criteria. newscaleswith a particular to assesswhether scale of statistic morestrongly, correlates as socialwell-being with a validation criterion. hypothesized, When I employ the average sample size in Study1 (Mn = 360), acrossall correlations the deviation is .075;therefore the standard twoz-transformed coeffibetween difference in Study 1 must be at least.15to be stacients In at the.05 alpha level.4 tistically significant ofthez-statisdeviation Study 2,thestandard meetor ticis .026;thez-ratio therefore must at exceed .052 to be statistically significant the .05 alpha level. In the discussion of thehypotheI focusonlyon whether results, are confirmed. sizedvalidation correlations
4 Sample ofcomsize varies forthecorrelations actionwiththe scales of social wellness. munity is thecorrelation of recent interesting Particularly inwhich whowere involved adults community action, intheir thepastmonth communities (N = 128) during withadultswho have neverbeen are contrasted thestandard deviainvolved (N = 167).As a result, must tionof thez-statistic is .082,and thez-ratio at significant equal or exceed.164to be statistically the.05alphalevel.

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

SOCIAL WELL-BEING
Table3. Descriptive 1 inUpperDiagonal, Statistics (Study Study 2 inLowerDiagonal) 1 1.SocialCoherence 2. SocialActualization 3. SocialIntegration 4. SocialContribution 5.SocialAcceptance Study 1: Dane County Sample M SD Number ofItems AlphaReliability 2: National Study Sample M SD Items Numberof AlphaReliability Note: Forallrs, p < .01(two-tailed) 2 .45 .33 .31 .48 32.1 5.7 7 .69 11.8 4.3 3 .64 3 .25 .41 .42 .35 33.0 6.2 7 .81 14.0 4.4 3 .73
-

131
4 .42 .40 .57 5 .45 .53 .42 .20

.45 .23 .35 .23 25.0 4.1 5 .57 8.9 3.3 2 .64

.23 30.3 5.2 6 .75 15.5 3.8 3 .66

28.3 6.4 7 .77 13.0 3.5 3 .41

The scales of social well-being correlate, Validation: Social Structural Sources but do not appear to overlap,with-extant Table 5 presents the regressions of each measuresreflecting psychological concepscale of social well-being on age and educationsof mentalhealth. The social well-being a quadratic (and scales correlate positively and modestly with tion.Each model estimates linear) parameter for age to investigate the the indicatorsof life satisfactionand life possibleacceleration or deceleration in the happiness in Study1. increaseof social well-being with In Study 2,thesescalesexhibit consistent- predicted age. (Only the statistically significant effects ly modestand positive withthe correlations however.) All modelsalso adjustfor scaleofdysphoria. Because ofthesamplesize shown, gender, race, and marital status, whichcould andstatistical efficiency ofStudy 2,socialinteeducational and possibly outcomes gration correlates slightly stronger withdys- structure The remaining background phoria than does any otherscale of social social well-being. variables (e.g., income) either follow from well-being. On theother hand,although dyseducation or explain the hypothesized age difphoria correlatesrelativelystrongly with ferences, and therefore are omitted from all scales of socialwell-being physical health, represents the displaysmall but positivecorrelations with these models.The intercept predicted level of social well-being for the theindicator ofsubjective physical health. The (Study1) or 25-year-old newscalesofsocialwellness therefore appear average18-year-old (Study 2).7 to measureaspectsof mentalhealthand life related quality from, depressive to,butdistinct smallcorrelations with thesocial well-being scales andphysical feelings health. may reflect, in part, the mode of administration as None of thesocial well-being scales cor- wellas theeffect of thetimelag between thetelerelatesverystrongly withthe perception of phoneinterview and theself-administered questiononeself as optimistic (rangeofr = .17 to .23). naire. 7 In Study2, I showthe multivariate Thisfinding suggests analyses thatappraisals ofsocial databecause theresults arethe well-being are not unduly influencedby basedon unweighted regardless of sampleweighting. The compooptimism or possiblythe tendency to exag- same nents ofthesample weights in Study 2 are notfuncgerate positive qualities.6 tions oftheoutcomes in thisstudy. Therefore multi6 Because physicalhealthand optimism are ascertained during the initial telephone interview,the

variate models basedon theunweighted datashould therefore be unbiasedand efficient ifthemodelis specified correctly (see Winship andRadbil1994).

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

132

SOCIALPSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
1 2 3 4 5 6

Table4. Product-Moment Correlations ofSocialWell-Being Scaleswith Validation Criteria

1:Dane County Study Sample Anomie Scale Recent Community Action (Never=0) inPast(Never=0) Community Action GlobalLifeSatisfaction 5. GlobalHappiness with Life 6. SocialActualization 7. SocialAcceptance 8. SocialIntegration 9. SocialContribution 10. SocialCoherence
SD

1. 2. 3. 4.

-.21

-.04ns 0.0

-.18 .27 .04ns .26 .21 .32 .27 .20 3.4

.74

-.16 .08ns -.06ns .46 .16 .14 .31 .20 .16 3.5
.67

-.55

-.49 -.33 -.28 -.28 1.2

1.1

.20 .1Sa .41 .46 .24 .43

.50

.OSns .05ns .14a .22 .02ns

.47

.32

2:National Study Sample 1. Generativity Scale 2. Health ofNeighborhood Scale 3. Perceived Constraints Scale 4. Dysphoria Symptoms Scale 6. Self-Described Optimistic 7. SocialActualization 8. SocialAcceptance 9. SocialIntegration 10. SocialContribution 11. SocialCoherence M SD
5. SubjectivePhysicalHealth

.14

-.23 -.21

.17 -.24 .49

.10 .16 -.28 -.40 .16 .13 .19 .15 .15 3.5 1.0

.24 .14 -.30 -.30

.15

.17 .12 .28 .49 .18 17.0 3.8

.21 .24 .39 .16 .13 13.6 2.2

-.32 -.22 -.26 -.36 -.41 18.7 8.0

-.25 -.22 -.33 -.22 -.28 24.9 7.1

.18 .17 .23 .16 .21 3.3 .77

Notes:Forall rs, noted. One-hundred andtwenty-eight unless p < .01(two-tailed) respondents engaged incommunity incommunity inthepast, recently 78 engaged action incommuaction, and167never engaged action. nity at alpha= .05. ap < .05; ns= notsignificant

The replication of age and educational in social well-being differences strongly suggests that social well-beingis shaped by prominentsocial forces.For the average adult, acquisition of education evidently paves the way forsuccessfulresponsesto social challengesof life.Withmore education,each dimensionof social well-being increases. Thus social weliness, like all other aspects of health (N. Adler et al. 1994), is gradedbyprocesses ofsocialstratification. Each dimension ofsocialwell-being also is distributed by age. Four dimensions howevincreasewithage. Social coherence, er, decreases with age, perhaps in part of the world in because the intelligibility is skewedtoward theceleAmerican society culture. brationof youthful Comparedwith

older adults,youngeradults may findthe world coherent because they can view a worldthattendsto reflect their ownpopular culture. Insofar as age has a nonlinear relationshipto social well-being, the evidence favors the "deceleration viewpoint": Although social actualization and contributionincreasewithage,the increasedecelerates witheach added year of life in both Study1 and Study2. In otherwords, social well-being is heterogeneous acrossages.This finding is consistent withstudies showing the diversityof psychological well-being For example, acrossage groups. olderadults report moreenvironmental mastery butless purpose in life than youngeradults (Ryff and Keyes 1995).

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

SOCIAL WELL-BEING
DISCUSSION

133

link,but do not overlap,withextantmeasuresof mentalhealth, whichtendto reflect Life is purportedly dividedinto private a psychologicalconception of well-being. and public sides, each making its own Each scale of social well-being, even social demands and producing its own conse- actualization,which emphasizes society's quences.Althoughwe recognizethe public potential and progress, correlates onlyminidemandson individuals, social psychologists In short, mallywithself-defined optimism. have not alwaystranslated social challenges thisstudy suggests thatlifeincludesnumerintocriteria thatindividuals use to evaluate ous social challenges;therefore well-being ofsocial their well-being. We have conceived includes social dimensionssuch as coherhealthless as thepresenceof positivecriteence,integration, actualization, contribution, ria than as the absence of negativecondiand acceptance. tions such as anomie and alienation. Society, too, is a source of variationin the emphasison social structure Moreover, social wellness. Social structural corprofiles toward thepublicside of mayskewattention roborate thetheory thatsocialwellness is an lifeas a sourceof variation in social health accomplishment. Social well-being increases rather thaninspiring us to explorethesocial with education and, in general, with age. of health. natureof themeaning Ultimately, current research relies on and possibly Like othermeasuresof mentalhealth and it is graded by socioeconomic a bias towardpsychological reflects concep- well-being, It remainsto be seen, however, standing. either tionsof well-being. Researchers focus whether the same processes(e.g., self-conon clinicalsymptomatology such as depresand dimensions (e.g., agency) ception) sion or use global measuresof lifesatisfachow each explain aspect of social structure tionand happiness. modMultidimensional each of affects mentalhealthand welltype els (Ryff 1989) emergefrom classicpersonbeing. alitytheories thatconceiveof theselfas priThe relatively strong association of marily private. The studiesreportedhere presentevi- prosocial communityinvolvement with also supports the dence givingcredibility to the theorythat aspectsofsocialwell-being achievement of a well-lived life. posited well-being includes social dimensions. I operationalizedand validated fivedimen- Individualsinvolvedin theircommunities but not people sionsof socialwell-being in classic duringthe past 12 months, grounded and current social psy- involvedmore than 12 monthspreviously, sociologicaltheory chological Data from perspectives. twostud- reportedfeelingmore socially integrated than people who ies involving of adultsand uti- and sociallycontributive cross-sections had never been involved. lizing different modes of administration of measuresof social Despite the unity (telephoneand self-administration) provide of the wellness,it is also clear that social wellstrongevidenceforthe replicability like psychological is relatwell-being, latentstructure of the new scales and the being, social structural profilesof dimensionsof ed to age in diverseways.Some aspects of social well-beingdecrease linearly;others socialwell-being. increase stillothersincrease, linearly; but at factor analysis showed Confirmatory a The rate. therefore decelerating results thatthe hypothesized five-factor model of thattheresources, and experiskills, social wellness fitsthe data best in both suggest studies. The findings suggestthatputative ence gained through education and its agingprocesses, social challengesare manifold and distinct. sequelae,as well as through to negotiatingthe chalThe new scales in Study1 correlate conver- are instrumental withanomieand community gently involve- lengesofsociallife. ment.In Study2, the new scales correlate Accordingto Nisbet (1953:15), and as withgenerativity, quoted by Seeman (1959), the varioussynconvergently neighborhood health,and perceived constraints. In onymsforalienationtestify to the imporbothstudies, thesescales correlate with glob- tance of the constructof alienation. The al indicators of lifesatisfaction, happiness, social scientific conceptionof a well-lived and dysphoria. Thus the new scales clearly lifealso relieson the image of the isolated

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

134

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY

Study1 Study2

Table 5. OLS Regressionsof Social Well-BeingScales on Age and Education

Dane CountySample b Social Actualization Age Age2 Up to 12 yearseducation 13 to 15 yearseducation 16 or more yearseducation Alpha Social Acceptance Age Age2 Up to 12 yearseducation 13 to 15 yearseducation 16 or more yearseducation Alpha Social Integration Age Up to 12 yearseducation 13 to 15 yearseducation 16 or more yearseducation Alpha Social Contribution Age Age2 Up to 12 yearseducation 13 to 15 yearseducation 16 or moreyearseducation Alpha Social Coherence Age Up to 12 yearseducation 13 to 15 yearseducation 16 or more yearseducation Alpha

(N = 368)

National (Unweighted)Sample b

(N = 2,977)

.17* -.003** 2.2** 3.1** 29.0 .21* -.003* 2.2* 2.5** 24.9 .07** 2.3** 3.2** 30.7 .14* -.003* 1.8** 3.4** 27.6 -.03* 1.3** 2.5** 24.7

.49 -.58 .18 .27 .52 -.43 .16 .19 .19 .17 .25 .49 -.49 .16 .32

.06** -.001** .73** 1.7** 10.5 .04** .00 .50** 1.2** 12.0 .06** .26 1.3** 12.9 .05* -.002**

.19 -.18 .08 .19 .16 .00 .07 .15 .17 .03 .14 .17 -.26 .14 .35

1.1** 2.9** 14.3 -.03** .90** 1.9** 8.0

-.13 .15 .30

-.09 .13 .26

Note:Age = Age - lowerage bound (age 18 in Study1; age 25 in Study2). All estimatesadjustedbygender, race,and maritalstatus. * p < .05; ** p < .01 (two-tailed).

That is,theparagonsof thegood individual. with lifeare happyand satisfied their private lives, and theypossess personal qualities indicativeof psychologicalwell-being. We are left to wonder, however, aboutthequalityof suchindividuals' livesas livedwithand forotherpeople and forsociety. By operain tionalizing well-being through satisfaction domains of life such as familyand work, sociologistshave implicitly questionedthe as a disconnectconception of theindividual ed social entity, but have not transformed theclassicconcepEven anomie, thisnotion. tion of the absence of social health,covers

of social wellonlythe conceptualterritory and beingthatmeasuressociety's trajectory potential (social actualization) and thecharacter of societythrough people's character lifeis a (social acceptance). As Nisbetstates, The quest forthegood life, quest to belong. however, has many meanings, some ofwhich in the proposedfive-factor are represented modelofsocialwell-being. In addition to exploringlife formore social dimensions of well-being, future researchers on positivementalhealth and An immedifacenumerous tasks. well-being the relationships ate task is to investigate

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

SOCIAL WELL-BEING
and wellofmental health between measures reflect distinct conbeingthatpurportedly For example, are measures ofpsychostructs. logical well-being truly distinct frommeasures of social well-being? At stake is the hypothesis thatthe challenges and labor of adulthood originate in thefundamental divisionofpublicand private life. If life,in both its publicand its private details,is the source of the dimensionsof wellness, to whatextentare the social and bound by culture? psychological challenges in turn, are themediators and thevarWhat, ious structural sourcesof each typeof wellbeing? I repeatThoits's(1995) call forthe in studies outcomemeasures use of multiple of healthand well-being. Progress depends, however,on the developmentand use of thatmeasurethearray modelsof well-being of humanfunctions, not onlyfrom ranging negativeto positivebut also frompsychologicalto social.
REFERENCES Adier, Alfred 1979. Superiority and Social NewYork:Norton. Interest. Adler, Nancy E., Thomas Boyce, MargaretA. Sheldon Cohen,Susan Folkman, Chesney, RobertL. Kahn,and S. LeonardSyme. 1994. "Socioeconomic Status and Health." American Psychologist 49(1):15-24. Andrews, FrankM. and StephenB. Withey. 1976. Social Indicators of Well-Being: Americans' Perceptions of Life Quality. New York: Plenum. Antonovsky, Aaron. 1994. "The Sense of Coherence: An Historical and Future Perspective." Pp. 3-40in Senseof Coherence and Resiliency: Stress, Coping,and Health, edited by H.I. McCubbin, E.A. Thompson, A.I. Thompson, and J.E.Fromer. Madison: ofWisconsin University Press. Bandura,Albert.1977."Self-Efficacy: Towarda Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change." Psychological Review 84(2):191-215. Biddle,Bruce J.1986."Recent Developments in Role Theory." Annual Reviewof Sociology 12:67-92. Bollen, KennethA. 1989. Structural Equations with Latent Variables. NewYork: Wiley. Bradburn,Norman M. 1969. The Structure of Psychological Well-Being. Chicago: Aldine. Browne, Michael W. 1984. "Asymptotic Free Methods in Analysisof Distribution Covariance Structures." British Journal of Mathematicaland StatisticalPsychology

135

37:62-83. Laura L. 1995."Evidencefora LifeCarstensen, of Socioemotional Span Theory Selectivity." Current Directions in Psychological Science 4:151-56. Campbell, Angus.1981. The Sense of Well-Being New inAmerica: Recent Patterns and Trends. York:McGraw-Hill. A. Converse, and Willard Campbell, Angus, Philip L. Rodgers.1976. The Qualityof American Life.NewYork:Sage. Costa, Paul T. and Robert R. McCrea. 1980. "Influence ofExtraversion and Neuroticism on Subjective Well-Being: Happy and Unhappy People." Journalof Personality and Social Psychology 38:668-78. A. and TomW.Smith. 1994.General Davis,James Social Surveys, 1972-1994: Cumulative Codebook. Chicago: National Opinion ofChicago. ResearchCenter, University Diener, Ed. 1984. "Subjective Well-Being." Psychological Bulletin 95(3):542-75. Durkheim, Emile. 1951.Suicide.New York:Free Press. 1972.A Duval, Shelleyand RobertA. Wicklund. Theoryof ObjectiveSelf-Awareness. New York:AcademicPress. Erikson,Erik H. 1950. Childhood and Society. NewYork:Norton. Fenigstein, Allen,MichaelF Scheier, and Arnold H. Buss. 1975. "Public and Private SelfConsciousness:Assessmentand Theory." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 43:522-27. Fey,W.F. 1955. "Acceptance of Others and Its Relationto Acceptanceof Self and Other: A Reevaluation." Journal and ofAbnormal Social Psychology 50(2):274-76. of Gecas, Viktor.1989. "The Social Psychology AnnualReviewof Sociology Self-Efficacy." 15:291-316. Greenwald, Anthony G. and Anthony R. Pratkanis.1984. "The Self." Pp. 129-78 in Vol.3, edited HandbookofSocial Cognition by R.S. Wyerand T.K. Srull.Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum. 1959.ThePresentation Goffman, Erving. ofSelfin Everyday Life.NewYork:Doubleday. Groves,Robert.1989.SurveyErrorsand Survey Costs. NewYork: Wiley. and Sheila Feld., Gurin,Gerald, JosephVeroff, 1960.Americans ViewTheirMentalHealth. NewYork:Basic Books. Heidrich, Susan M. and Carol D. Ryff. 1996."The Self in Later Years of Life."Pp. 73-102in Aging in the Twenty-First Century:A edited by L. Developmental Perspective, and H. Prosen. NewYork:Garland. Sperry 1981."Social Roles." Pp. 94-129in Heiss,Jerold. Social Psychology: SociologicalPerspectives,

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

136

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY

Control." Social Psychology Quarterly 58:31-43. Mirowsky, Johnand Catherine E. Ross. 1989. Social Causes of Psychological Distress. NewYork:Aldine. Nisbet,Robert.1953. The Questfor Community. NewYork:Oxford University Press. O'Rourke, Diane and Johnny Blair. 1983. inTelephone "Improving RandomSelection Research Surveys."Journalof Marketing 20:428-32. R.L. Kahn and A. Foner.1994.Age Riley, Matilda, and StructuralLag: Society's Failure to ProvideMeaningful Opportunities in Work, . 1993b. LISREL 8: A Guide to the Program NewYork: Family, and Leisure. Wiley. andApplications. Chicago: SPSS, Inc. Carol D. 1989."HappinessIs Everything, or Ryff, Is It? Explorations on the Meaning of Karabel, Jeromeand A.H. Halsey. 1977. Power and Ideology in Education. New York: Psychological Well-Being." Journal of Oxford Press. University Personality and Social Psychology 57(6):1069-81. Kohn, Melvin. 1969. Class and Conformity. Homewood, IL: Dorsey. Carol D. and Corey Lee M. Keyep.1995. Ryff, of Psychological Kohn, Melvin and Carmi Schooler. 1982. "Job "The Structure Well-Being and Personality: A Longitudinal Conditions Revisited." Journal and Social of Personality Assessmentof Their Reciprocal Effects." Psychology 69(4):719-27. 87:1257-86. American Journal ofSociology Seeman, Melvin. 1959. "On the Meaning of Alienation." American SociologicalReview Lachman, Margie E. and Suzanne L. Weaver. Forthcoming. "The Sense of Control as a 24:783-91. in Moderatorof Social Class Differences .1983. "Alienation Motifs in Contemporary Health and Well-Being." Journal of Theorizing: The Hidden Continuity of the and Social Psychology 74(3): 76Personality Classic Themes." Social Psychology 73. Quarterly 46:171-84. 1991. "Alienation and Anomie." Pp. 291Larson, James S. 1992. "The Measurement of __. and Social Social Well-Being." Social Indicators 374 in Measuresof Personality Research 28:285-96. Psychological Attitudes,edited by J.P. . 1996. "The World Health Organization's Robinson, P.R. Shaver, and L.S., of Health:Social versus San Diego:AcademicPress. Definition Spiritual Wrightsman. Health."Social Indicators Research38:181- Sewell, William and Robert Hauser. 1975. 92. Education, Occupation, and Earnings: in theEarlyCareerNew York: Achievement Lefcourt,Herbert M. 1982. Locus of Control: 2nd in Theory and Research. AcademicPress. Current Trends ed. Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum. Shaw,MarvinE. and Philip R. Costanzo. 1982. 2nd ed. New Crocker.1992. "A Theories of Social Psychology. Luhtanen,Riia and Jennifer Collective Self-Esteem Scale: SelfYork:McGraw-Hill. and Certain Evaluation of One's Social Identity." Srole,Leo. 1956."Social Integration and Social Psychology Bulletin Corollaries: An Exploratory Study." Personality Review 21:709-16. American Sociological 18(3):302-18. and AbrahamH. 1968.Toward a Psychology Thoits,PeggyA. 1992. "Identity Structures Maslow, Van Nostrand. Psychological Well-Being: Gender and ofBeing.2nded. NewYork: Dan P. and Ed de St.Aubin.1992."A Marital Comparisons."Social Psychology McAdams, and Its Assessment Theoryof Generativity Quarterly 55(3):236-56. BehavioralActs,and __. 1995. "Stress, Coping, and Social Support through Self-Report, Narrative Themes in Autobiography." Processes: Where Are We? What Next?" Journal of Personality and Social Journal of Health and Social Behavior Psychology 62(6):1003-15. (extraissue):53-79. and SharonG. C. Triandis, David,Harry Mead, George H. 1934. Mind,Self,and Society: Trafimow, FromtheStandpoint Goto. 1991."Some Testsof the Distinction of a Social Behaviorist. ofChicagoPress. betweenthePrivateSelfand the Collective Chicago:University Self." Journalof Personalityand Social Merton,Robert.1949.Social Theoryand Social IL: FreePress. 60:649-55. Psychology Structure. Glencoe, John.1995. "Age and the Sense of Triandis,Harry C. 1989. "The Self and Social Mirowsky,

edited by M. Rosenbergand R.H. Turner. NewYork:Basic. Horney, Karen. 1945. Our Inner Conflicts:A New York: Constructive Theory of Neurosis. Norton. FromMarx to Israel,Joachim. 1971.Alienation: Modern Sociology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. James, William.1890. Principlesof Psychology. NewYork:Holt. Joreskog, Karl G. and Dag Sorbom. 1993a. Data PRELIS 2: A Program forMultivariate Screening and Data Summarization. IN: Scientific Software, Inc. Mooresville,

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

SOCIAL WELL-BEING

137

Behavior in Differing CulturalContexts." "Sampling Weights and Regression Psychological Review96(3):506-20. Analysis." Sociological Methods and 1978."SamplingMethodsfor Waksberg, Joseph. Research 23(2):230-57. Random Digit Dialing." Journal of the Wrightsman, Lawrence S. 1991. "Interpersonal American Statistical Association 73:40-46 Trust and Attitudes toward Human Alan S. 1993. "Two Conceptionsof Waterman, Nature." Pp. 373-412 in Measures of Happiness: Contrasts of Personal Personality and Social Psychological Expressiveness (Eudaimonia) and Hedonic Attitudes,edited by J.P.Robinson, P.R. Enjoyment."Journalof Personalityand San Diego: Shaver,and L.S., Wrightsman. Social Psychology 64:678-91. AcademicPress. and Larry Radbil. 1994. Winship, Christopher

in theDepartment and theRollins CoreyLee M. Keyesis an Assistant Professor of Sociology and HealthEducation). He is an Schoolof PublicHealth(Department ofBehavioral Sciences He also is a recent associate of theMacArthur FoundationMIDMAC researchnetwork. inducteeinto a researchnetwork on "PositivePsychology"organized and led byAPA President MartinSeligmanand MihalyiCsikszentmihalyi to build and promotea fieldof intoPositive Health.His research of social-scientific inquiry exploresthesocial psychology health and well-being and successful aging.

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

138

QUARTERLY SOCIALPSYCHOLOGY

Constructs ofSocialWell-Being A. Indicators Appendix Social Integration Study1 (-). you'd call a community 2. Y6u don't feelyou belong to anything (+). partof yourcommunity 14.You feel like you're an important would listento you (+). to say,you believe people in yourcommunity 17. If you had something (+). 27. You feelclose to otherpeople in yourcommunity as a source of comfort (+). 30. You see yourcommunity yourcommunity would take you to say,you don't think 44. If you had something seriously (-). 50. You believe otherpeople in societyvalue you as a person(+). Study2 (-). I'd call a community 2. I don't feel I belong to anything (+). 6. I feelclose to otherpeople in mycommunity (+). is a source of comfort 11. My community Social Acceptance Study1 thatotherpeople are unreliable(-). 7. You think 9. You believe thatpeople are kind(+). (-). 18.You believe thatpeople are self-centered (-). 26. You feel thatpeople are not trustworthy (-). thatpeople live onlyforthemselves 33. You think these days (-). 41. You believe thatpeople are moreand moredishonest thatpeople care about otherpeople's problems(+). 46. You think Study2: (+). in return 3. People who do a favorexpectnothing 10. People do notcare about otherpeople's problems(-). 14. I believe thatpeople are kind(+). Social Contribution Study1 (+). 4. Your behaviorhas some impacton otherpeople in yourcommunity valuable to give to theworld(+). you have something 5. You think (-). foryourcommunity worthwhile do notproduceanything 37. Your dailyactivities to yourcommunity (-). to give anything 40. You don't have the timeor energy thatyourworkprovidesan important productforsociety(+). 42. You think to society(-). to contribute important 49. You feelyou have nothing Study2 valuable to give to theworld(+). 4. I have something (-). worthwhile formycommunity do not produceanything 7. My dailyactivities to society(-). to contribute important 15. I have nothing Social Actualization Study1 6. You believe thatsocietyhas stoppedmakingprogress(-). forpeople like you (-). 8. Societyisn'timproving make yourlifebetter(-). like law and government social institutions 19.You don't think 21. You see societyas continually evolving(+). our societyis a productive place forpeople to live in (+). 25. You think as social progress(-). 38. For you there'sno such thing place foreveryone(+). the worldis becominga better 45. You think Study2 5. The worldis becominga betterplace foreveryone(+). 9. Societyhas stopped makingprogress (-). forpeople like me (-). 13. Societyisn'timproving

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

SOCIAL WELL-BEING Social Coherence Study 1 3.Theworld is toocomplex for you(-). (-). 10.Scientists aretheonly peoplewhocanunderstand howtheworld works on intheworld 13.You cannot makesenseofwhat's going (-). (-). 15.Mostcultures areso strange that youcannot understand them 20.You think it'sworthwhile to understand theworld youlivein(+). (-). 29.You find ithard topredict what willhappen next insociety Study 2 1.Theworld is toocomplex for me(-). on intheworld (-). 8. I cannot makesenseofwhat's going 12.I find what willhappen insociety iteasytopredict next (+).

139

A negative inparentheses that Notes: sign indicates theitem is reverse scored, where response from orslightly orstrongly options range strongly, moderately, disagree toslightly, moderately, totheitem numbers andtheir agree. (2) Theitem numbers correspond measurement qualities inTable2 (Appendix). In study reported 2,item 12 that indicates SocialCoherence wasomitted ofthescale. from Study 1 becauseitsuppressed theinternal reliability

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

140

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY

AppendixB. Estimatesof Parameters ofTheoreticalSocial Well-BeingMeasurementModel Dane CountySample National (Unweighted)Sample

Construct Social Actualization

Item 6 8 45 19 21 25 38 7 9 46 18 26 33 41 43a 2 27 30 14 17 44 50 5 37 49 40 42 4 3 13 15 10 20

Metric Loading fl.0 1.0 .54 .74 .75 .89 1.0 fl.0 .99 .84 .62 1.1 1.1 .80

Validity Coefficient .56 .62 .48 .46 .47 .57 .62 .56 .58 .60 .51 .68 .60 .58

Metric Loading 1.8 1.4 fl.0

Validity Coefficient .46 .78 .62

Social Acceptance

1.8 4.3

.41 .70

fl.0 fl.0 1.2 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.1 fl.0 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.2 .86 fl.0 1.2 1.3 .90 .92 .46 .66 .57 .65 .66 .64 .65 .59 .65 .74 .64 .60 .49 .43 .47 .55 .44 .46 fl.0 1.2 1.1

.18 .59 .78 .74

Social Integration

Social Contribution

fl.0 1.3 1.5

.58 .57 .80

Social Coherence

fl.0 1.3

.61 .77

of the latentconstruct. The itemnumberrefers to theorderof Notes:fl.0 = indicator is used to fixthe metric the itemin AppendixA. the itemin the 50-item pool in Study1; the itemnumberalso references aThe indicator of Social Acceptancein Study2 was not retainedin Study1, butwas used used to set themetric in Study2 in an attempt to achieve a morebalanced scale.

This content downloaded on Thu, 10 Jan 2013 05:07:07 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions