Land and People

TANA TORAJA

ii A Social History of an Indonesian People

Land and People iii KONINKLIJK INSTITUUT VOOR TAAL-, LAND- EN VOLKENKUNDE

TERANCE W. BIGALKE

TANA TORAJA
A social history of an Indonesian people

KITLV Press Leiden 2005

iv A Social History of an Indonesian People

First published in Singapore by: NUS Publishing Singapore University Press Pte Ltd AS3-01-02. 3, Arts Link, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117569 Published in Europe by: KITLV Press Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies) P.O. Box 9515 2300 RA Leiden The Netherlands website: www.kitlv.nl e-mail: kitlvpress@kitlv.nl

KITLV is an institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW)

ISBN 90 6718 256 7 2005 Singapore University Press No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the copyright owner. Printed in Singapore

Land and People v

For
Sonja and Eric

vi A Social History of an Indonesian People

Land and People vii

Contents
List of Maps List of Illustrations List of Abbreviations Preface A Note on Spelling PART I: Chapter 1: Chapter 2: PART II: Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: TORAJA IN THE SOUTH SULAWESI WORLD: 18601904 Land and People Coffee, Slaves, Arms, and Power THE DUTCH IN THE TORAJAN WORLD: 190541 Resisting and Receiving the Dutch Administrative Engineering Government and Mission in Makale-Rantepao Patterns of Religious Change Education, Organization, and Ethnic Consciousness TANA TORAJA IN THE INDONESIAN WORLD: Since 1942 The Japanese Occupation Tana Toraja in the Indonesian Revolution Social Revolution, Regional Rebellion, and Religious Change Toraja After 1965 viii viii xi xvii xxv

3 18

51 64 76 109 149

PART III: Chapter 8: Chapter 9: Chapter 10: Chapter 11: Notes Glossary Bibliography Index

183 201 222 265 301 360 366 375

viii

A Social History of an Indonesian People

List of Maps
Map of Sulawesi
Tana Toraja/Division of Makale-Rantepao Coffee Trade Routes

4
12 23

List of Illustrations
First gateway to Tana Toraja in 1970: Bridge crossing the Salu Barani (Barani River) Joining a Makale tongkonan for the death feast of Puang Laso Rinding of Sangalla, December 1972 Aerial view of the Sadan River Tongkonan house with 14 rice barns in Nanggala Expansion sawah accumulated by puang in Sangalla, Tallu Lembanga Steeper terracing of hillside sawah is characteristic of northern and western Sadan, such as this view from Bittuang Coffee beans riping on trees in northern Sadan highlands xviii

xix

5 10 14

15

20

List Land of Illustrations and People ix

Coffee growing in northern belt near Kurra Toraja slaves intended for sale at the port city of Palopo
in 1885

22 28 39 45

View of Rantetayo high plateau Expanse of sawah in Pong Marambas center of power at Kalambe, Tikala Buntu Batu fortress at Baruppu, a center of resistance in late 1906, as drawn by a Dutch lieutenant who participated in the siege Latter-day idealized image of Pong Tiku Painting depicting Pong Tikus death near Makale Jail while in detention, Scene from Pong Tiku Monument in Makale Undated photo portrait of Pong Maramba

53

57 62

97

August 1917 photo of men implicated in the death of A. A. van 106 de Loosdrecht, with Ne Mattandung standing in the center with walking stick, and probably Pong Massangka at far left, who wielded the fatal spear. Others are not identified Statue of Pong Massangka, at Pangli Rock graves carved into limestone hillsides in Pana Sampe Pandin, pictured 25 years later, was one of the modern educated leaders who sided with Masyumi in 1953 and felt he could not return to live in Toraja after that Tau-tau at Suaya, cliff burial site for the Sangalla puang Papa Mawiring (Banti Pempe): School teacher born in Sadan, at home in Rantepao on a chilly evening, August 2004 107 127 254

279 287

A Social List of Illustrations History of an Indonesian People

Gau Lembang, early activist in the revival of Aluk, in 1978 The Theological School in Rantepao Gereja Toraja (Toraja Church) in Rantepao Mosque and church side by side in Karassik, southern edge of the city of Rantepao

293 295 296 299

Land and People xi

List of Abbreviations
Abbreviation BAKOPPREV Meaning Badan Kontakt Pemuda Progresif dan Revolusioner Sambobu Tokubetsuhan Badan Koordinasi Keluarga Berencana Nasional Badan Keamanan Umun Barisan Komando Rakyat Barisan Tani Indonesia Consentrasi Gerakan Mahasiswa Indonesia Darul Islam/Tentara Islam Indonesia Dewan Pemerintah Darurat Dewan Pimpinan Parandangan Ada English Translation Contact Agency for Progressive and Revolutionary Youth Japanese Army Intelligence Agency National Family Planning Coordinating Agency

Beppan

BKKBN

BKO

Agency for Public Tranquility

BKR

Peoples Front Command

BTI CGMI

Indonesian Peasant Front Indonesian Students Movement Center House of Islam/Indonesian Army of Islam Emergency Government Council Adat Council of Leaders

DI/TII

DPD

DPPA

xii

A Social List of Abbreviations History of an Indonesian People

Abbreviation DPR-D

Meaning Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat-Daerah Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat-Daerah (Gotong Royong) Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat-Daerah Sementara Europeesche Lagere School Gerakan Tiga Puluh September Gerakan Wanita Indonesia Gereformeerde Zendingsbond Hollandsch-Inlandsche School

English Translation Peoples Regional Representative Council Mutual Cooperation Peoples Regional Representative Council Provisional Peoples Regional Representative Council

DPR-D(GR)

DPR-DS

ELS

European Primary School

G30S

September 30 Movement

GERWANI

Indonesian Womens Movement Calvinist Mission Alliance

GZB

HIS

Dutch Native School

INCO INDOSAT INPRES IPKI Instruksi President Ikatan Pembelaan Kemerdekaan Indonesia

International Nickel Company Indonesian Satellite Incorporated Presidential Decree League of the Upholders of Indonesian Freedom International Rice Research Institute Jamiyah Islamiyah Muslim Community

IRRI

JI

List Land of Abbreviations and People xiii

Abbreviation KAMI

Meaning Kesatuan Aksi Mahasiswa Indonesia Kesatuan Aksi Pemuda Pelajar Indonesia

English Translation The Action Union of Indonesian University Students The Action Union of Indonesian Secondary School Students South Sulawesi Guerrilla Union

KAPPI

KGSS

Kesatuan Gerilya Sulawesi Selatan Kristoy Ko Rengokai Koninklijk Leger Komite Nasional Indonesia Koninklijk Nederlandsch Indisch Leger Komando Daerah Militer Komando Distrik Militer Lembaga Kebudayaan Rakyat Meer Uitgebreid Lager Onderwijs

KKR KL KNI

Celebes Christian Federation (Netherlands) Royal Army Indonesian National Committee Royal Netherlands Indies Army Regional Military Command

KNIL

KODAM

KODIM

District Military Command

LEKRA

Peoples Culture Institute

MULO

School for More Extended Lower Education Netherlands Indies Civil Administration

NICA

NIT

Negara Indonesia Timur Nusa Tenggara Timur Nahdatul Ulama

State of East Indonesia

NTT NU

Eastern Lesser Sunda Islands Rise of the Islamic Scholars

xiv List A Social of Abbreviations History of an Indonesian People

Abbreviation O. and E.

Meaning Onderwijs en Eredienst

English Translation Ministry of Education and Religion Village Defense Units

OPD

Organisasi Pertahanan Desa Opleidings School voor Inlandsche Ambtenaren Partai Indonesia Rakyat Partai Kristen Indonesia Partai Muslimin Indonesia Partai Indonesia Perhimpoenan Boenga Lalan Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Persatuan Dagang Kecil Sukarela Tentara Pembela Tanah Persatuan Guru Republik Indonesia Partai Komunis Indonesia Partai Kedaulatan Rakyat Partai Nasional Indonesia

OSVIA

Training School for Native Officials Peoples Indonesian Party Indonesian Christian Party Indonesian Islamic Party Indonesian Party Boenga Lalan Association Indonesian Democratic Party Union of Small Traders Volunteer Army of Defenders of the Homeland Republic of Indonesia Union of Teachers Indonesian Communist Party Peoples Sovereignty Party Indonesian National Party

PARINDRA Parkindo; PARKI Parmusi Partindo PBL PDI PDK PETA PGRI PKI PKR PNI

List Land of Abbreviations and People xv

Abbreviation PPP

Meaning Partai Persatuan Pembangunan Pemuda Rakyat Pemuda Republik Indonesia Partai Rakyat Indonesia Partai Rakyat Indonesia-Toraja Partai Sosialis Indonesia Partai Sarekat Islam Indonesia Pasukan Sukarno Muda Perserikatan Toraja Kristen Panitia Urusan Tanah Sengketa Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun Pertama Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun Kedua Republik Indonesia Republik Indonesia Batalion 23 Republik Indonesia Serikat

English Translation United Development Party (the Islamic fusion party) Peoples Youth Youth of the Indonesian Republic Indonesian Peoples Party Indonesian Peoples PartyToraja Indonesian Socialist Party

PR PRI

PRI PRIT (PRI-Toraja) PSI

PSII

Indonesian Muslim Association Party Young Sukarno Soldiers Christian Toraja Union

PSM PTC

PUTS

Committee for the Resolution of Land Disputes First Five-Year Development Plan Second Five-Year Development Plan Republic of Indonesia Republic of Indonesia Battalion 23 (Andi Soses battalion) Federal Republic of Indonesia

REPELITA I

REPELITA II

RI RI23

RIS

xvi List A Social of Abbreviations History of an Indonesian People

Abbreviation RNG SEAC SMP

Meaning Rikugun Nakano Gakko

English Translation Army Intelligence School Southeast Asia Command

Sekolah Menengah Pertama Tentara Nasional Indonesia Tentara Republik Indonesia Yayasan Perguruan Kristen Toraja

Intermediate School

TNI

Indonesian National Army

TRI

Republic of Indonesia Army

YPKT

Torajan Christian Education Foundation

Land and People xvii

Preface
Toraja first became more than a name for me when my wife and I visited there in 1972 after having lived in West Java for several months with the support of an East-West Center fellowship. We arrived in Ujung Pandang (now Makassar), the provincial capital of South Sulawesi, after a two-day voyage on a ship packed with people returning to the eastern islands for the Christmas holidays. Gliding through the Java Sea to Christmas music piped over the loudspeaker seemed strange to us, having just come from (and going to) one of the more orthodox Islamic provinces of the Indonesian archipelago. In Ujung Pandang, a friend then told us about a spectacular death feast that was to be held in the Sadan highlands, twelve hours by bus to the north. We were told that there we would encounter a religious tradition known for its elaborate animal sacrifice, of which the upcoming feast would be the most important example for years to come. The long bus ride took us along the flat plain of South Sulawesis western coast north to the port of Pare-Pare, a town of about 75,000 inhabitants then. It marked the entry point to a broad, low plateau of the most productive wet-rice fields in the region. This broad plateau, the present day regencies of Sidenreng and Rappang, was the economic base (along with the port of Pare-Pare) for the rise of the kingdom of Sidenreng to prominence in the late nineteenth century which had important consequences, I found out some years later, for the peoples of the highlands to which we were travelling. The foothills of Enrekang rose out of the Sidenreng-Rappang shelf and led us into a world culturally and topographically linking that from which we had come to the highlands that were our destination. Houses, in the style of the lowlands, had peaked roofs and stood on timbers that raised them three meters or more, providing welcome relief from the midday sun. Small packhorses, long-legged cattle, some water buffalo and also goats, which mark the area as Islamic like the lowlands

xviii

A Social History of an Indonesian People Preface

ambled along the road or rested in the shade of trees. Men tended patches of wet-rice fields or upland crops, perhaps engaging in trading on the side, while women managed the houses, sold goods in the marketplaces, and vended fruit and snack foods along the roadside in small towns through which trucks, buses, four-wheel drive vehicles, motorcycles, and mini-buses passed to and from the highlands. (The traffic, still rather sparse in 1972, later became regular, heavy, and much faster, and by 1986 I was able to take a regularly scheduled flight later discontinued from Ujung Pandang to Rantetayo just outside Tana Torajas capital city.) The foothills of Enrekang rose more steeply as the bus headed northward, and the gorge of the Sadan River appeared to the right of the bus as we entered Duri. Little wet-rice land was visible in this dry area, where upland crops, livestock, and trade provided the means for existence in one of the poorest parts of the region. Duri was one of the first places in South Sulawesi where coffee was grown, and cloves and coffee in the 1970s offered a dream (and sometimes more) to make the area agriculturally profitable. Still, most traffic just passed through Duri, and children there said they knew there must be interesting attractions in Tana Toraja and in Ujung Pandang, for that is where everyone they met was going.

First gateway to Tana Toraja in 1970: Bridge crossing the Salu Barani (Barani River). ( batusura.de, used with permission)

Land andPreface People xix

A large, carved wooden gate marked the entry into Toraja from Duri. On top of the gate sat a Torajan-style house with an arching roof. Past the gate, however, we continued to feel as though we were still in Duri, judging from the style of houses and numerous mosques visible from the road. Only after the bus passed Mebali did we feel certain that Toraja, culturally speaking, had escaped the transformation Duri had experienced. Steep gorges turned to gentler valleys with handsome expanses of wet-rice terraces, and as we approached Makale, the capital of the regency of Tana Toraja, the road cut through large expanses of wetrice fields. It was clear that wet-rice was king in Toraja, unlike in the dry foothills. By chance, the family who owned the small Hotel Makale where we were staying was preparing to attend the great death feast which we wanted to attend and they invited us to join their extended family. As it turned out, few people could not claim at least some connection with the famous deceased Puang of Sangalla, Laso Rinding, whose life had spanned nine decades up to his death four years before. The ritual of

Joining a Makale tongkonan for the death feast of Puang Laso Rinding of Sangalla, December 1972. (Photo taken by author)

xx Preface A Social History of an Indonesian People

long lines of people accompanying the offerings of water buffalo, pigs, and chickens made to the family of the deceased swept us along. Buffalo fights, the excitement of thousands of people filling the field, and the massive sacrifice of animals and wealth convinced us that a strong tradition was alive in Toraja. As I began to probe, it became apparent that a few scholars had been attracted to study this cultural tradition. However, it seemed that amazingly little (in published form, at least) had been written about its history, despite the glimmerings of an epoch of great change revealed by stories from the lives of Toraja, such as the Puang of Sangalla. For me, this made Toraja more intriguing than the elaborate rituals we were beholding and it made me think of returning to write a history. The first chance to do this came in 1977, when I received support to conduct dissertation research in the Netherlands and Indonesia through a Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Abroad award. I set out to look at Toraja through a history of its religious change, intrigued by the mention in Eric Crystals dissertation that rapid Christianization had occurred in Tana Toraja between the late 1940s and the early 1960s.1 How to reconcile that religious change with the apparent cultural vitality of Torajan tradition and what to make of stories relating stormy nineteenth century relations between these highlanders and neighboring Muslim lowlanders were questions around which my proposal started to take shape. I did not expect to be able to find out much about the period before 1905 when the Dutch extended political control into the highlands. For this reason I resolved to begin with that date. My work in the Colonial Archives in the Netherlands soon began to reveal that there was much to be learned about the four decades before the arrival of the Dutch. A lively slave and coffee trade from the highlands to the lowlands came to life in the documents, opening the way for economic, political, and social changes that bore strongly on the more readily apparent changes of the twentieth century. Early articles from the mission journal, Alle den Volcke, shed more light on this period and provided the framework for the interviews that I conducted in Toraja. I arrived in South Sulawesi after three months of archival research in the Netherlands somewhat chastened by the realization that there was a larger story to tell than I had originally understood. I also felt relieved that my historical time-frame was now not so closely tied to the rhythm of colonialism. Only a few days after arriving in Ujung Pandang,

Land andPreface People xxi

while awaiting final government clearance to proceed to Toraja, I sought to share these ideas with a prominent Bugis (lowland majority ethnic group) social scientist. We got little further than his wry response to my introduction that I planned to write a history of the Toraja: Oh, do they have one? Taken aback, I mumbled something marginally coherent about oral traditions and withdrew to ponder the historical implications of the comment itself. Not only were the lines of ethnicity clear in South Sulawesi, but they were reinforced by those in the lowlands who viewed themselves as heirs to a venerable written historical tradition, juxtaposed to highlanders who, lacking this, were peoples without a history. How did the Toraja see themselves and their lowland neighbors? Though the time-frame for this study expanded as a result of information gathered in the archives and nine months in the field in 19778 and a month-long return in 1986, its core has remained a study of religious change and identity in what is today Tana Toraja. Much rich information from the village level was available from published sources, particularly the previously mentioned monthly, Alle den Volcke, published by the Gereformeerde Zendingsbond (Calvinist Mission Alliance). The former Hendrik Kraemer Institute in Oegstgeest contained a number of useful government publications along with mission journals and papers written by missionaries both before and after returning from their mission work. The archives of the Gereformeerde Zendingsbond, the mission organization that after 1913 worked in South Sulawesi including present day Tana Toraja, were organized in the early 1980s by Thomas Van den End, who spent several years in Indonesia as a scholar and theological teacher connected with the Gereformeerde Zendingsbond. These archival materials, which he so kindly made available to me and later helped me to renumber based upon their new home in the Netherlands National Archive, offered a perspective on religious change at the village level that was often more frank than that carried in Alle den Volcke, which was prepared for public consumption in Holland. Dr. Van den Ends sourcebook, published in 1985, made some of these documents easily accessible to scholars. It was useful to me for the wealth of information provided in the statistical summaries it included on religious conversion, which enabled me to check statistics I had painstakingly gleaned from numerous mission sources. All aspects of this study have been illuminated by interviews conducted in South Sulawesi. These interviews have been particularly

xxii Preface A Social History of an Indonesian People

important for information on political life both during and after the Dutch period. Newspaper coverage and documents to support these interviews were available but patchy for the late 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s. Much of value was destroyed during the Japanese Occupation, during the turbulent 1950s in South Sulawesi, and after 1965 when the political climate in Indonesia made an abrupt shift to the right. No doubt many interesting documents are still hidden and time and cooling passions may bring more of them to light. What follows is an effort to construct a social history of the people living in the area now known as Tana Toraja. It spans a century and attempts to highlight the major forces of historical change at work in the highlands during that period. Its topical focus shifts from chapter to chapter according to what I see to be the dominant aspect of change in that time period and issues with major consequences for subsequent history. The entire story is framed within three epochs that emphasize after John Smail an autonomous view of Toraja in history.2 In Part I (Toraja in the South Sulawesi World: 18601904), the focus is on coffee, slave, and arms trading resulting in shifts in landholding patterns and the important interaction between the highlands and lowlands that predates the Dutch arrival. Part II (The Dutch in the Torajan World: 190541) focuses on Torajan responses to the coming of Dutch rule; emplacement of an administrative apparatus and a world-view that would attempt to impose a central order on the highland peoples; mission and governmental cooperation toward creating a religious buffer in the highlands; the grinding down of resistance and slow religious change; and the penetration of modern education and birth of Torajan ethnic consciousness. Finally, Part III (Tana Toraja in the Indonesian World: Since 1942), deals with Torajan renegotiation with the world of South Sulawesi and accommodation with the Indonesian nation-state on the horizon, the tensions of which surfaced in the political vacuums that immediately preceded the arrival and departure of the Japanese; the ambivalent positions of Toraja in the Indonesian nationalist movement after the Dutch return in 1946; and coping with old wounds, local aspirations, regional conflict, and national politics after the folding of the Dutch umbrella over Toraja in December 1949. The final chapter closes the study with an overview of political, economic, and social change from 1965 to the final decade of the twentieth century, in which old patterns re-emerge under the umbrella of far-reaching authoritarian governance from Jakarta.

Land andPreface People xxiii

My having taken until now to make this research more accessible to the scholarly world has long sent students of the region scrambling to access my dissertation in hard copy or microfiche through University Microfilms International. If anything favorable might be said about having waited to publish, it is the validation of worth of the enterprise represented by how often the work has been cited in studies on Toraja over the past two decades, continuing to the present. The way it is being employed demonstrates quite clearly that this study fills a void in historical writing and analysis on Tana Toraja and continues to provide a key reference and contextual framework for recent anthropological, historical, political, and religious writing on the region. It also indicates that relatively few new primary sources of knowledge have been mined, particularly as they bear on the history of this highland region. The study by B. Plaisier on communication of the gospel in Toraja is one notable exception, employing strategic use of interviews with key figures in the Gereja Toraja (Toraja Church) to address what he termed the Bigalke hypothesis on patterns of religious change. Consulting his study enabled me to recognize and correct a few factual errors, compare and re-evaluate statistical information on religious conversions, and acknowledge exceptions he noted to the patterns of religious change I perceived to have occurred. Apart from the explanatory value which I believe remains in my analysis of religious change, the fact that it has and may continue to stimulate further study is more than a writer can ask. Dik Roths chapter From Grooter Toraja to Toraja Raya locates the search for Torajan identity within the dynamics of the wider south and central Sulawesi highland sphere, the historical and demographic relationship with Luwu, and the importance of allying with a strong national government in Jakarta. His exploration of Torajan irredentism fits comfortably within the historical framework of my study, upon which it draws, and provides especially rich insights into the predicament of an ethnic minority in South Sulawesi. The continuing nature of that predicament is further illustrated in the irony of the post-1965 need for adherents to indigenous religions to legitimize them under the umbrella of a world religion. Martin Ramstedts article on The Hinduization of Local Traditions in South Sulawesi filled gaps in my understanding of how Hindu educational and religious institutions in Bali provided sustenance to local Toraja efforts to subsume its indigenous religion, Aluk To Dolo, as a sect under Balinese Hinduism. However, it ultimately illustrated the conflicting purposes at work within these religious

xxiv

A Social List of Abbreviations History of an Indonesian People

institutional structures in Bali and Toraja, resulting in little benefit to indigenous adherents in Toraja. The Toraja generation schooled in the 1920s and 1930s has a particularly keen sense of its history. They bridged the chasm between the pre-literate and literate worlds, each of which valued the remembering of history and had special devices for doing so. It is, perhaps, with the passing of this generation that outsiders might legitimately wonder about the existence of those who still inquire about Torajan history, if only because one finds few of its youth who are preparing to write it. If this modest effort to write a Torajan history stimulates even a single Toraja to do it better, I will have been satisfied beyond measure. My debts of gratitude stretch around the world and include many people in Toraja, Makassar, Jakarta, the Netherlands, Madison, Columbus (Ohio), Honolulu, and Singapore who will go unnamed here but who contributed in significant ways to the research, writing, and production of this book. John R. W. Smail, Donald K. Emmerson, Benedict Anderson, Audrey Kahin, and Thomas Van den End provided insightful commentary on earlier drafts of this manuscript. During the time we overlapped in Toraja and after, Toby Volkman and Roxana Waterson shared their ideas and offered stimulating sounding boards for the evolution of my thinking on Torajan history. Among the many valuable interviews and discussions I had in South Sulawesi, those with Sampe Pandin, J. Sampe Pongrante, F. K. Sarungallo, Corama Makawaru, Laso Sombolinggi, Frederik Lande, and Michael Papayungan were especially formative and timely. Banti Pempe, the teacher who also managed the small guest house in which I stayed for nine months in Rantepao, treated me as part of his extended family and helped me stay healthy, comfortable, and well fed. Hetty Nooy-Palm in Amsterdam kindly offered her extensive knowledge of Torajan culture and access to important colonial reports in the Tropen Museum, and Hendrick Van der Veen inspired me with his sharp memory, physical stamina, and generous spirit at age 89. Discussions with Heather Sutherland and Anthony Reid on Indonesian and South Sulawesi history came at important times during my research process. I wish to thank the Fulbright program for funding that supported me in the Netherlands and Indonesia, in addition to NDEA Title VI and East-West Center scholarship support, which prepared me well to get there. I am appreciative of the sponsorship of the Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI) and Hasanuddin University in

A Land Note on and Foreword Spelling People xxv

Makassar that enabled me to receive permission to conduct research in Indonesia. Paul Kratoska and his colleagues at NUS Publishing have set a high standard for professionalism while also being a joy to work with in preparing this manuscript for publication. Roxana Waterson and Elizabeth Coville provided valuable review comments and support for the manuscript to be published. Last but not least, without the endless patience and encouragement of my wife, Jan, and unfailing confidence of my father and mother, Alfred and Lucille, this journey quite likely would not have been completed. To them I am especially grateful.

East-West Center Honolulu, Hawaii

A Note on Spelling
Indonesian words in this book follow the new spelling system officially adopted in 1972 by Indonesia and Malaysia in which ch was changed to kh, dj to j, nj to ny, sj to sy, and tj to c, and the letter j became y. Names may follow the old or new spelling systems, and sometimes use the Dutch vowel oe for u.

xxvi

A Social History of an Indonesian People