Leisure Business

Business is Busyness, or the Work Ethic Author(s): Alexander Welsh Source: Social Research, Vol. 72, No.
2, BUSYNESS (SUMMER 2005), pp. 471-500 Published by: The New School Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971774 . Accessed: 16/05/2013 09:46
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AlexanderWelsh Business is Busyness, or the Work Ethic

a manas he ther nas,"we read of one of chaucer's "nowherso bisy The logicof "And yethe semedbisierthanhe was."Andyet? pilgrims; couldthere mischievous. Nowhere theselinesseemsmorethana little thanhe a manas busyas this, andyetthismanseemedbusier be found most men are notas If are both of these statements was. true, strictly a matter ofshow. is largely seem,and diligence busyas they in ofthelaw,as introduced Thisparticular is theSerjeant pilgrim havebeen targets to The Tales. thegeneral prologue Canterbury Lawyers ofsatireforquitea fewcenturies now,and some irony unmistakably and reverabout Chaucer's "Discreet he was of greet plays description: - /He semedswich, ence his wordswerenso wise";and,"Offeesand robes hadde he manyoon." Serjeants-at-law were seniorbarristers, as this description would suggest,and fromthe thirteenth to the nineteenth in Englandthe titlewas bestowedby the crown. century Until1845 one had to be a Serjeant in orderto practice in the Court - thatis, forcivil,notcriminal - although ofCommonPleas cases the couldbe assisted Thus,in one ofthemost serjeant bylesserbarristers. famous trials ofthatcentury, Bardell vs. Pickwick forbreachofpromMrs. Bardell was Buzfuz and Mr.Pickwick ise, represented bySerjeant and again,it maybe thatthelawyers in thecase Snubbin; bySerjeant wereneither so busynorso diligent as theyseemed.The bestaccount ofthistrialcan be found in chapters 31 and 34 ofThe Posthumous Papers the Pickwick as set down Charles Dickens between 1836 and Club, of by 1837.
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is novel can attest,Mr.Pickwick As readersof Dickens'sfirst tohislandlady, loveorproposing ofmaking innocent marriage entirely of an unfortunate Mrs.Bardell.Through conjunction circumstances his intention she mistakes and thewidow'shyperactive imagination, to her; fora proposalofmarriage to hireSam Welleras a manservant for their known Dodsonand Fogg, thesolicitors bring "sharp practice," costto theirclientunlesstheycan without thedefendant suitagainst is an inspired Mr. a jury toawarddamages. Pickwick, however, persuade whowilldefend thatthebarrister insists herowho perversely quixotic stillanother himin courtis assuredofhis innocence. precAbridging Inn to take himto Lincoln's Perker, edent,he asks his own attorney, is there, Theserjeant Snubbin. himto Serjeant and introduce according absurd." be "too him would to disturb but"very tohisclerk, Only busy"; like is the and the about fees and the clerk Perker after jokes prods rulesand ofall his established upon,in violation serjeant "prevailed "thedefento his client, to admitthem"and be introduced customs, am in that, I?' said the "'I am retained dantin Bardelland Pickwick." Pickwick Perker speaksof explainsthepurposeofthevisit, Serjeant." and impaand Snubbin bored, hisinnocence, appearsat onceskeptical, barrister. overto hisassisting hisvisitors Itis timeto turn tient. "Who'swithme in thiscase?" theattorney. "Mr. Snubbin," replied Serjeant Phunky, said the Serjeant;"I neverheard the "Phunky-Phunky," man." He mustbe a very namebefore. young "Hewas theattorney. he is a very man," "Yes, replied young Letme see oh,he hasn'tbeenat day. onlycalledtheother theBareight yet." years name:in the Mr.Phunky's Other catching peoplehavedifficulty writehim downas thejudge in the case will mistakenly courtroom, the flunkey he was an infant barrister," But"although "Mr.Monkey."
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and, once again,his purposeof proves very handyto Dickens'sirony from thebusiness ofthelaw. distinguishing busyness "You are with me in this case, I understand?" said the Serjeant. IfMr. hadbeena richman,he wouldhaveinstantly Phunky sentfor hisClerk to remind him;ifhe hadbeena wiseone, he wouldhaveappliedhis fore-finger to his forehead, and endeavoured to recollect whether in themultiplicity ofhis he had undertaken this or one, not:but as engagements he was neither richnorwise (inthissenseat all events) he turned red,and bowed. "Have you read the papers,Mr.Phunky?" inquiredthe Serjeant. Here again Mr. Phunkyshould have professed to have all about the merits of the case; but as he had forgotten readsuchpapersas had been laidbefore himin thecourse ofthe action, and had thought ofnothing else,wakingor thetwomonths whichhe had sleeping, throughout during beenretained as Mr.Serjeant Snubbin's he turned a junior, deeperred,and bowedagain. s name,Dickens'ssatireofthe assistant for ExceptforPhunky' thedefense is rather TheSerjeant himself comesoff wellenough gentle. in thetrial:at leasthe proves to havea senseofhumor. EvenSerjeant Buzfuzforthe plaintiff, whose outrageous and notionsof arguments evidence makehimbeyond the hit of the trial scene,is more question hilarious thanwicked. Thetruerascalsare Dodsonand Fogg, who have persuadedMrs.Bardellto sue in the first place; and the ordinarily Mr. to of law-abiding Pickwick, his abidingfame("Allmenare victims and I thegreatest"), defies themand goes to jail rather circumstance, thanpaythe costsand damagesunjustly awardedby thejuryto the
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Butevenrascalsareintothegameofseeming andherlawyers. plaintiff in chapter are: earlier thanthey busier 20,whentheherocallson them andMr. Dodsonain'tathome, tothewrit, he istoldthat"Mr. inresponse nevertheoccasionPickwick On thisfirst engaged." Fogg'sparticularly title "Showing HowDodson lessgetstospeaktoboth;andthechapter routine. theentire . ." anticipates WereMenofBusiness. and Fogg of satire. the favorites are not of Among only Lawyers, course, the clericscome off on average, Chaucer'spilgrims, worse;and from learned as thethird Overtime, Dante'shellnotevenpopesare spared. is knocked downforlaughs. medicine becomesorganized, profession and Ben Bob Sawyer medicalstudents, Thereare a coupleofdelightful is made withthe redmischief but more spiteful Allen,in Pickwick; forwhomthe BrickLane Branchofthe Mr.Stiggins, nosed reverend is nothing Association EbenezerTemperance UnitedGrand Junction and as is mixedup withStiggins, SamWeller's buta front. stepmother for "She'sgotholdo' someinwention grownWeller senior complains, - thenewbirth, calls I thinks born they again,Sammy up peoplebeing The in haction, muchliketo see thatsystem it.I shouldwery Sammy." to religiousavowreferred afterall, originally verywordprofession, to the to believe.According thatone professed als, the sacredtruths ones of learned the law,and 0. E. D., theprofessions, divinity, notably havebeen calledsuchat leastsincethe butalso themilitary, medicine, to claimthemforsatireprecisely sixteenth yetit is tempting century, because of this originalmeaningof the word.Insteadof hardwork moreshowthan couldbe unreal, theprofessions withtangible results, morethan for count and words where substance, appearances pursuits ofthemediI justrealized, The sameis undoubtedly should. true, they ofprofessor. evalcalling
1
theworker as thatwordis usedto distinguish It seemsthat professional, ofthenineteenth was indeeda creation mereamateurs, from century; Revolution and thereare a hostofreasons notleast,theIndustrial aboutworkto thatera. fortracing manyof our modernconvictions
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Victorian As a student prophbythe proseofthe so-called captivated that their I to conclude and their followers,began Ruskin, ets,Carlyle, the Biblewas this:"Whatsoever mostfrequently quotedpassagefrom nor thereis no work, for to do, do itwiththymight; thyhandfindeth whither thougoest" in thegrave, norwisdom, norknowledge, device, fromthe albeit (Ecclesiastes9:10). The most memorableinstance, character Professor mouthofthatstrange Teufelsdrockh, suppliesthe
Resartus: climax to Sartor
Were Produce! . . . Produce! I too couldnow sayto myself a fraction of infinitesimal it but the pitifullest Product, thou hast in in name! Tis the utmost God's produceit, thee:outwithit,then.Up,Up!Whatsoever thyhandfindWorkwhile it is eth to do, do it withthywhole might. whereinno man can called Today;forthe Night cometh, work(Carlyle, 1937[1833-34]: 197). of workcould be heard The same conviction about the importance in the nineteenth in storied like whether century, myth, everywhere in orthelastact ofGoethe's thisfirst workofCarlyle, Faust, completed in and novels for readers of all wisdom literature for the poems ages, in manufacturing classes Samuel or treatises like Smiles, working by thoseofFrederick W. Taylor. In theory, the industrial economy and beliefin progress dependedon maximizing work.Unlessmostofus mostofthe timemaximizeour efforts, the invisible hand will point nowhere and thefree market spinaimlessly. In truth, muchpreachment ofhardworktendsto affectation, if notdownright self-contradiction. Earnestness was the highVictorian and it was preachedall the time.Talentwas not supposedto virtue, countas muchas application. In one ofthosenovelsthatstillcan be at anyage,DavidCopperfield enjoyed goes out ofhiswayto assureus atgreat ofhisearnestness. He writes rather as if length self-consciously, he knewthatwe knowthatin reallifeCharles Dickensis writing this. A little, Talented? "I Yet do not hold one natural I dare perhaps. gift, say,
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I havetried whatever thatI havenotabused.Mymeaning is,that simply I withall myheartto do well;thatwhatever I havetried to do in life, to completely; have devoted that,in to,I have devotedmyself myself in earnest greataimsand in small,I havealwaysbeen thoroughly and sincereearnestforthoroughgoing, thereis no substitute ardent, novelist is actually ofbeinga successful whattheexperience thereader ofa lunaticnamedMr.Dick, a brilliant take-off it offers like.Instead, theFirst and sendsreamsof aboutKingCharles who has an obsession as a kite. aloft Memorial hisunfinished to discoverhow Dickens I was initially In studying surprised in novels. The one convincing the featured littleworkwas actually man in Dickensmaybe that middle-class of a hard-working portrait butnotthenovel's in Little Dorrit ofDaniel Doyce,the skilledinventor the between The puzzlingdisconnect 1986 [1971]:73-85). hero(Welsh, actionsofthenovelsbaffled ofworkand therepresented preachment thatDickens"has no conclude to was who tempted GeorgeOrwell, afterall. It was the routineendingof livinghappily ideal of work" in which thatapparently everafter piqued Orwell."Thatis the spirit mostofDickens'sbooks end-asortofradiantidleness.. . . Home life and dreamoftheeighteenththe strange is alwaysenough empty idleItwas a dreamofcomplete middlebourgeoisie. nineteenth-century dreamofthe twentiAndnotthebourgeois ness" (1954 [1939]:88-96). from haveenoughdistance We obviously centuries? ethortwenty-first themas fictions. timesto recognize ofearlier conventions theliterary to the sointroduced remembers no one stillliving being Probably whichsold in HoratioAlgerstories, dreamthrough calledAmerican moral- hardworkforboysin a similar bycelebrating greatnumbers withgreat each protagonist walksoflife- byrewarding thehumblest 1963: efforts own his to related 14-17); (Tebbel, scarcely good fortune from work but thatdoes not mean thatthe dreamor the disconnect has goneaway. in thesensethatitlackscontent whether Ifthedreamis empty, aboutthepersistent wonders thenone oris onlya dream, accompanynever gets round to telling ness." A Personal History ofDavid Copperfield
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In hiscompendious ofideas,The Victorian history ingmoral:Keepbusy. concluded a chapter on earnestness, Walter E. Houghton Frame Mind, of and others, thatsome and Ruskin whichfeatured byobserving Carlyle determined to fend modernwriters on this subjectseemed chiefly off or even to be contending uncertainty, againstdespair(1957: 242a sense of or even forreligious doubt, 62). Whether purposelessness, - work workwas the recommended the loss of a girlfriend, therapy in short, workforthevictims ofcircumstance. Near as a distraction, the close of Tennyson's Hall,"forexample,we findthese "Locksley couplets: Notinvainthedistance beacons.Forward, forward letus range, Let the greatworld spin forever down the ringinggrooves ofchange. the shadowof the globe we sweep into the younger Through day: Better ofEuropethana cycleofCathay. fifty years mineI knewnot)helpme as whenlifebegun: (for Mother-Age Rift thehills,and rollthewaters, flash thelightnings, weighthe Sun. Houghton arguedthatthiswas notso mucha visionofprogress forthe machineage as Tennyson's ofa mood of personal"resolution butwhywoulditnotbe both? The association ofprogress depression," withEuroperather thantheOrient, as wellas a goodmany other lines inthispoemof1842,stamps all thisfrenzied with the activity imprimaturofempire. in thesameyear, Published thepoem"Ulysses" we know to have been written a decade earlierwhen Tennyson was grieving forthe loss ofhis friend Arthur Hallam.Thatwell-known monologue "thatwhichwe are,we are; /One equal temperofheroic concludes, but strong in will/To strive, hearts, to /Madeweak bytimeand fate, and notto yield." The strenuous workwouldagainseem seek,to find, to be therapeutic rather thanforitsown sake and also empty, as the
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linesfrom Ecclesiastes 9, itmaybe becausethepreacher spokeofwhat- no ever the handfinds ofmortality to do and witha stark conviction ThatbookoftheBiblebegins, work wherewe are all going. remember, all is vanity." ofvanities, saiththe Preacher, ofvanities; vanity "Vanity after all. It is not satire thattreats Business be only might just busyness oftoomuchcommending ofthe theirony ofworkand thedeviousness same. didactic mode Real-life was SamuelSmiles'principal biography His livesofthe success storiesforboth the haves and the have-nots. in a work as five-volume accumulated by1874; themid-twenEngineers outa sampling ofthese to bring theMITPressstillsaw fit tieth century mosttranslated lives(1966).Smiles'best-selling, book,Self-Help (1958 like Withchapters also retailed dozensofcapsulebiographies. [1859]), ItsUse and Abuse," "MenofBusiness," and Courage," "Money: "Energy literabothwisdom itcomprises TheTrueGentleman," and "Character: middle book forthe aspiring class and courtesy turefortheworking all concerned. for consciousness class,witha modest imperial in is the rootofall genuinegrowth ofself-help The spirit itconstiinthelivesofmany, theindividual; and,exhibited and strength. tutesthetruesourceofnational Help vigour but help in its effects, from withoutis oftenenfeebling is donefor Whatever from withininvariably invigorates. extent takesawaythestimulus to a certain menor classes, and wheremenare ofdoingfor and necessity themselves; theinevand over-government, to over-guidance subjected themcomparatively is to render itabletendency helpless. hearitso often. itis becausewe still has a familiar Ifthisargument ring, to "overis tantamount forsocial improvement Sharedresponsibility orprivate Notevenwell-meaning andover-government." public guidance whois the can individual, Smiles continues, effectively institutions, help
an objectsuggest. transitive verbs without Tostrive, toseek,tofind, and - what?IfI was right abouttheVictorians' for the nottoyield fondness
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himself" "free todevelop bestleft vision, 35).Forthis please (1958[1859]: with hard work. is associated not freedom note, slavery driven The gospelofworkas preached bysales ofhis bySmiles, becamemoreand ecumenical booksand no doubtgenuine intentions, 1880 [1875]one ofthe sequels to eclectic.In Thrift, moreconfusingly a paragraph likethis: we find Self-Help, an honour, Labouris at once a burden,a chastisement, will you choose?]It maybe idenand a pleasure.[Which but thereis also gloryin it. It bears withpoverty, tified to ournatural wantsand to our at thesametime, witness, manifold needs. What were man, what were life,what Allthatis greatin man labour? werecivilization, without in literature, in science. in art, comesoflabour; greatness - is we flyto heaven" Knowledge "thewingwherewith of labour. Geniusis buta capability through onlyacquired it is the powerof makinggreatand labouring intensely: Labour sustained efforts. positionexactly.] [Copperfield's one. It but it is indeeda glorious maybe a chastisement, forthosewho is worship, duty, praise,and immortality, labourwiththehighest and for the aims, purest purposes. Smiles'stwo passingreferences to laboras chastisement, alongwith his admission aboutpoverty and inclusion of "natural wantsand . . . needs" suchas hunger, in thereadwarmth? might shelter, trigger er'smindsomething likeslavelabor, or moregenerally, thetaskwork ofmostpeople forsubsistence; but another idea required competing here is thatof honorand even "glory," whichseems in thiscontext to place a halo abouta Romanand aris("heaven," "purest purposes") ideal.Andjust as Smilesincongruously tocratic concludedhis earlier bookwitha chapter on manners a gentleman, he also appeals befitting to a morearistocratic tradition ofvaluesin Thrift: ofall kinds "Labour is dignifying and honourable; it is the idler,above all others, who is and dishonourable" Smiles undignified (1880 [1875]:6, 55-56). simply
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reachesback in timeand co-opts thesefinesentiments without ever to think what or the ancient stopping eighteenth-century gentlemen wouldmakeoftheseprecepts. authorities As the idea ofthe gentleman was stretched to includelaborers at least),poorAristotle and his followers must laborers, (well-behaved in theirgravesthroughout have rotated the longnineteenth century In 1962: his Aristotle associated leisure with Ethics, (de Grazia, 11-25). ifthehighest anda great deal ofleisure ofcontemplavirtue, happiness In thePolitics, tionwas to be pursued. he excludedthosewho worked forwages or in vulgarcrafts from because theycould be citizenship moreindependent thanslaves.Thuswhenhe writes ofeducascarcely hetakesa position tioninthePolitics, different from Smiles's. completely - the children - maybe Children ofthe company Aristotle addresses someuseful butnotall,for shouldnotbe subjected taught things they to mechanicalwork."We call those artsmechanicalwhichtend to deform thebody, and likewiseall paid employments, fortheyabsorb artsquiteproper for and degrade themind. Therearealso someliberal and ifhe attends to a freeman to acquire, butonlyin a certain degree, in order in them, thesameharmthemtoo closely, to attain perfection ofthissortwerewhat fuleffects will follow" Sentiments (1337b4-17). in and their families from folk once distinguished working gentlemen in the ethicalwritings refrain a constant the West.Dignitas provided withleisure, not butdignity was theretoo associated ofCicero, otium, leisure In theclassicallanguages, work(O'Loughlin, 1978:xiv,passim). becauseworkis denoted wouldseemto be thedesideratum, by simply andwork, leisure is schole Thusin Greek ofthesameword. thenegation - busiitsopposite and negotium, In Latinthewordsare otium ascholia. a the nexttimeyou are negotiating Thinkofnegotium ness,in short. better. timemuch be occupying deal butmight your One has the feelingthat the ancientsmay have got it right, thatworkis something people do not do iftheydo not have to, and Smiles's don'thaveto. One can understand do ifthey shouldn't maybe more tasks more and made Revolution sincethe Industrial dilemma, tendedto renderall crafts mechanical.Mass production vulgar.His
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a Ruskinand WilliamMorris brilliantly fought contemporaries John but morethana actionagainstthesesame developments, rearguard wontoo fewpeople thatthey makeitevident ofhistory hundred years believers tomixwith for Smiles andtrue side.Atthesametime, totheir or moralcodeso diametrically their opposedtowork, gospelan ancient workers were and farm that to pretend miners, laborers, factory gentlein more contradictions. work ethic involved the men, Clearlythey from wantedto have it bothways,and Victorians manywalksoflife ofa the quality on thistheme(Gilmour, wentsoft 1981).Increasingly, rather thanbysocialclass,andthat was defined bymanners gentleman was also associated Yetto be a gentleman is evenmorethecase today. - an income, that no matter howsmall, "an independence" withhaving ofan theambiguities from work ofone'sown.Compare wasnot derived muchbruited aboutthesedays. society," "ownership 2 readsthevery first sentence "Heaven whohelpthemselves," helpsthose to make a theologicalpoint; of Self-Help. Smileswas not presuming and beginshis bestlike Dickens,he was basicallya secularthinker to some vague equivalent ofancientfate sellingbook witha gesture - usually That venerable however or Christian providence. proverb, - goes back at least spoken"God helps thosewho help themselves"
to the sixteenth Even ifwe positthatpeople helpingthemcentury. thosewhohelpthemselves selvesdoesnotinclude at thetillorto more dessert at thedinner there is a problem hereas old as theproverb table, and older. We do not know much aboutthe waysof God, itself, very and for thereligious to think amongus itis all themorepresumptuous we do. Allwe knowis thatwe are not fully in control or victims of as Mr.Pickwick circumstances, protests. "Work whileit is calledToday," 9:10. Carlyle glossesEcclesiastes Takeas muchcontrol as youcan now,sincethisis the onlylifeyou'll to act,however, be extended to Playwhile get.Thatmotive mayreadily Forthesamepreacher in theBible, a mortal youstillhavetimeto play. have "no better under the than to and to and sun, eat, drink, may thing
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the seemsto be rebuking to be merry" 8:15).Indeed, (Ecclesiastes Jesus richman (Luke latter bitofwisdomin his crispparableofthe foolish in a who lifeafter and for those do believe And death, 12:19). yet yet to the end can seem to be evenmoreprobthe duty to keep working embracethe workethichave who mostfervently lematic. Christians and to to salvation notworks, been committed byfaith, traditionally for Calvinists for thefew atthat. salvation Strictly speaking, predestined since it is but not the proof, be a signof salvation hardworkmight "Good to believeone can be savedbyone's ownmerits. presumptuous ofsalvation rather thanthe cause ofit"; was the result socialconduct ineffectual to procure . . . however salvation, nevertheless, "goodworks 1966: itw the faith that did of couldbe evidence 3-4). procure (Morgan, the best becomes seems that it almost keeping up appearances Again, reasontowork. was Max Weber of thisconundrum The redoubtable expositor andthe Ethic in The Protestant years (1958)."Better fifty Spirit of Capitalism in avowed the of than a ofEurope speaker Tennyson's cycle Cathay" of theroots Weber to uncover in value-ridden less terms, sought poem: oftheOccident." ofthesocialstructure in "thepeculiarities capitalism and forgranted, tookthe social structure His book mostly however, a modern it: thatseemedto support mind-set delvedintothereligious Britain. from branchof Christianity and Western chiefly emanating whoselonglifecameto an endaboutthetimeof TheVictorian Smiles, does notmakehis wayintothebook anymore Weber'sfirst writing, withwhichSelf-Help thanTennyson does,butthe same proverb began ethic Protestant the how for useful toWeber summarizing might proves of a means as be works "useless how of thrive, might good regardless salvation": attaining thismeansthatGodhelpsthosewhohelpthemInpractice as it is sometimes selves.Thusthe Calvinist, put,himself the hisownsalvation, creates or,as wouldbe morecorrect, as in Catholicism, ofit.Butthiscreation conviction cannot, individual of accumulation in a gradual consist goodworks
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toone'scredit, butrather ina systematic self-control which at every moment stands before theinexorable alternative, chosenordamned(1958[1920]: 25, 115). I stressthe British character of the mind-set Weberexplores becausehis longfifth features thewritings ofRichard Baxter, chapter whose seventeenth-century Christian he calls "the most Directory ofPuritan ethics"(1958 [1920]:156). Baxter's completecompendium book dates from1673; the second editionin 1678 consistsof four volumes ofclosely double-columned printed, pagesdevoted respectively toEthicks, CEconomicks of and Ecclesiasticks, (management thefamily), Politicks. TheDirectory is literally a seriesofnumbered thoudirections, sandsofthemassorted in different for the delectation and categories, oftheChristian withnearly as many suchas reader; guidance questions thereader tothesame,also numbered. might pose,alongwithanswers Baxter also citeschapter and verseofthe Bibleevery chancehe gets, and so assiduously thata reader comesawayfeeling thatall oftheBible has been sweptup intothosefour volumes.1 he repeats some Actually a greatdeal; his favorite on workwouldseemto passagesofscripture be this, from Paulto theThessalonians: "evenwhenwe werewithyou, thiswe commanded that if would notwork,neither should you, any he eat. Forwe hearthatthereare somewhichwalkamongyoudisornotat all, butare busybodies. Nowthemthatare such derly, working we command and exhort thatwithquietness Christ, byourLord Jesus and eat their ownbread"(2 Thessalonians work, Itis hard they 3:10-12). to saywhattheological Baxter extracts from Paul's command, grounds but amongotherthings it supplieshimwitha tidydefinition ofidleness "Idleness is a disorderly in the walking"and he glossesbusybodies modernsense as "medlers withmatters thatconcernthemnot,and twatlers and tale-carriers." In truth thisChristian is so compenDirectory diousthatit can easilyaccommodate morethanone motive to work. Baxteroften from sheermortality, as "Live appeals to the argument in constant ofdeath.. . . Thereis greatpowerin Deathto expectation rouseup a drousie when itis takento be near"(1678:1:381,387). soul,
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thisidea ofone's callhas hisor hercalling. ForBaxter Everyone and the founded society upon it is essentially ing is veryimportant, in life so a calling ofanother, to try to takethecalling static. It'swrong with.The mostgeneralcallingofall is moreor less whatyou started ofthe publicgood, ofGod. Butthereis also the matter is the service Atthetop are magistrates a hierarchy ofcallings. and in thatrespect, and husbandmen, and churchleaders,teachers, lawyers, physicians, in turncan be somewhatbelow these. Merchants with merchants of lifeand those dividedbetweenthosewho providethe necessities somecallings-beinga jester Atthevery whoprovide thefrills. bottom, On thewhole,humblecallfor instance are forbidden. or stageactor, is morethanonce Baxter arguesthathardexercise ingsare thesafest: theprincipal pages Pointedly, goodforhealthofmindas wellas body. sin of idledevotedto callingsand the corresponding oftheDirectory the for "Directions entitled 10 ofthefirst nesscomein chapter volume, back hands or Thosewho laborwiththeir oftheBody." Government on heaven evendiscourse butperhaps and legs- cannotonlymeditate intomoreand who plungethemselves whereas"many as theywork, a havescarceroomfor menofricher . . . many business Callings greater case orwordofGodorHeavenall day"(1678:1:378).In neither thought him undemfind I do not own sake. its workfor is Baxter urging exactly evenifhis to all classes, toworkin a calling theduty he assigns ocratic: He quotesat length domestic. is mainly ofwomen'scalling conception that concludesthe of the virtuoushousewife fromthe description and chidesany"Ladiesand Gentlewomen, bookofProverbs (31: 13-21) thatit was not to remember belowthem, to be take this that pattern "thatgavethiscounselas "-Solomon himselfbuta King a Plowman ButI do findthesecontentions his Mother." from received unargued rhetoric In one or twoplaces,Baxter's is concerned. as faras salvation "DothGod makesoutGodto be somesortofmagnanimous employer. and support and keepyou,and protect and clothe, you,and dailyfeed, thatforwhichhe Is Idleness teach and warnyou,and all fornothing? to God,but forservice hiredyou?"(1678:1:381,380)A nice metaphor is the contract one thatdoes not explainhow the employer profits:
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the employer's not spelledout,and exceptfor"warnyou,"possibly, to thislifetime, thisworld. in kindall pertain payments but his more believedin the nextworldis certain, ThatBaxter in thisworld humanbehavior therelation between case for persuasive This ofgoodworks. in thenextrests on theperformance and salvation survived the restoration the man and his is not surprising: ministry was in after whichhis Christian ofthe Stuart 1660, Directory monarchy than Baxter was a farmoreecumenical and published. spirit composed in the on good worksmaybe consulted Webershows.His directions fourth volume,on Politicks, chapter30, whichbeginswiththe quesinthesewords areright as ifthereader hadtyped Andtheresults there, in orderof answersfollow, in a Googlesearch:12 numbered roughly form arethefirst seven:1) "That their Herein abbreviated importance.
uslikest toGod."2) "It is an honourable employment.. doing gooddothmake works?" and reasonsand motives to charitable tion, "Whatare thegrounds
is therefore becauseitis an ability todogood"3) . . Greatness honourable, us pleasing and amiableto God."4) "Goodworks "Doinggoodmaketh to men. . . . Our brethren are the betterforthem."5) are profitable "In doinggood to others we do good to ourselves: because we ... by Loveand Communion feeltheir joys,as well as pains."6) "Thereis in a in doinggood... to see ourhonest nature singular delight every good laboursprosper and many to be thebetter for is thepleasantest them, lifethatmancan hopefor." are a comfortable evidence 7) "Goodworks thatfaith is sincere, and thattheheartdissembleth notwithGod."It is thatBaxter articulates answer, then, onlywiththisseventh something likethe Protestant workethicas Weberand others have taught us to understand it: salvation is bygrace;workis the evidence offaith and, it maybe, ofbelonging to the elect.Baxter's first two reasonssweepChristian and classiingly encompassthe modernWest'straditional cal valueswithan assurance thatmakesSmiles'sgestures toward the honorcode seemtimid. His lasttworeasons, 11 and 12, put numbers it squarely to consult their Bibles.Elevencounselsto up to his readers "consider howabundantly arecommended in thewordof [good works] ofthis, thelongest ofhis answers, he presents God,"and forexamples
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in salvation Baxter ofbelief thana nakedstatement byworks. wrapsup 25. He need noteven witha blanket his argument appeal to Matthew find his readers will that there parableofthewise and Jesus's specify and ofthedayofjudgment. hisparableofthetalents, foolish virgins, Still,good worksare not quite the same thingas work.Evenif does thatcharity is a duty, I am persuadedby Baxter'soutpourings I in until wear I work it followthat must myself away? mycalling from a to be charitable a work ethic to derive duty Strictly speaking, or that is called for: an additional namely, all ofmyprofitsargument wages overand abovewhatit coststo keep me alive be givenaway. on as that,although such a conclusion articulates Baxter neverfully with the of means to share Christians he calls on manyoccasions in these All the same,workwould seem to be a dutyin itself needy. Whatis itthatthework giventhatidlenessis an anathema. writings, ethicis so afraid of,ifnottheworkitself? Whyis idlenesstempting, to unlessworkcan be so muchless pleasing? Whyam I nottempted a If there is certain in order to be even harder work disparity good? feelabouttheir thewaypeopleboastand thewaythey between work, to seem busierthan thatmayexplainwhyso manyofus are content are. we really those who writeabout work sometimesexpress Notoriously, when it comes to the question of public more frankly themselves his ambitious Baxter Abouta hundred welfare. published yearsafter - "Bya another Christian anonymously published clergyman Directory, - a modest on ADissertation entitled to Mankind" Well-Wisher pamphlet It was one ofthosetimeswhen 1971 [1786]). Laws(Townsend, Poor the was in theair,and thenas nowsome reform whatwe nowcallwelfare worsebecauseittookaway to thepoormadethings thatrelief believed workethichere:peoplework No obliqueor subtle towork. themotive bread "where Townsend's and inJoseph words, to keepfrom starving,
ofPaul.Twelve thatGod sevenexcerpts from theepistles says"consider last to our us at the willin a specialmanner works, dayaccording judge This last reason ourworks ofCharity" and especially (1678:4:258-59). is hedging with"ina specialmanner" is nothing less unlessthewriter
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can be obtained without care or labour, it leads through idlenessand viceto poverty." Hereis thenotorious passage: In generalit is onlyhunger whichcan spurand goad [the shallnever poor]on to labour; yetourlawshavesaid,they have likewise hunger.The laws, it must be confessed, said thattheyshallbe compelledto work.Butthenlegal constraint is attended withtoomuchtrouble, and violence, ill creates and can never be of noise; will, productive good and acceptable service: whereas is notonlya peacehunger able, silent,unremitted but,as the mostnatupressure, ral motiveto industry and labour,it calls forth the most and whensatisfied exertions; powerful bythefree bounty ofanother, a and sure foundation for lays lasting goodwill and gratitude. The slave mustbe compelledto work;but thefreeman should be left to hisownjudgment and discrein thefullenjoyment ofhisown, tion;shouldbe protected be it much or little;and punishedwhen he invadeshis neighbour's (1971[1786]: property 23-24).2 In thislastsentence it is as ifTownsend catcheshimself about writing the slaves,when it is onlythe poor who are in question:no matter, freecan choosewhether to workor to starve. Thisis grimstuff, and thereis quite a bit moreof it fora 99-pagepamphlet. Butit is arguabout the experience ofworkformostpeople than ablymorefrank theworkethicpermits Baxter to be. Thepoorest the paidworkis often mostunpleasant ofall. Morethanonce the apostlePaul reminds the congregations he addresses thatthosewho do notworkshall not eat. WhatTownsend is doing, however,is clearly separatingoffthe lowest class- or - of societyand focusing subclass his attention there.Parishrelief is a class matter, and hungerdrivesthe poor.It goes withoutsaying thatquite a fewmembersof societydo not strictly have to worka fullday in orderto eat. How different it is forBaxter, and also in a
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Answer: one thatis able, richor poor,mustlive in some prof"Every itablecourseof pains or labour."Thus Baxterdependably illustrates nextquesworkethic.The very whatWebermeantbythe Protestant to concerns the rich. "Is ita duty tionin theChristian Directory explicitly andgrow rich when desire andendeavour toget, andprosper, Labours, byour Prov. 23.4"(1678,4:225).Needlessto Labour not toberich? Solomon saith, can explicate Solomon whenhe has to;therichshouldhelp Baxter say, it is so on. Yet thissecondquestion, whether for the and poor, provide and growrich, is always thecruxofthe forsometo prosper nota duty and support for matter whenit comesto theworkethic'sinspiration capitalism. 3 ofmorethana thousand Baxter's Christian closely consisting Directory, one's for answers to be searched that could folio readily pages printed Whetheror not the century. belongsto the seventeenth questions, that ofas a Puritan, be thought shouldstrictly author book'ssuccessful America ofNorth ofthe colonization same era saw thebeginnings by hard and worked who a remnant theEnglish-notably prayed by saving ofthework character becausetheywerehardpressed.So the British Yetby on to thiscountry. was transported willagree, ethic, early many were heard ofthe laments intheseUnited thetwentieth States, century aboutthe from thepulpit laments notmerely ethic: ofthework passing aboutthe supposed theacademy butfrom ofparishioners backsliding whichwas boundto in theworkforce declineofmotivation generally, evera Wasthere here? at issue was What slowdownproductivity. really morelikenecessity or conditions workethic, businesslike broad-based Whenitcomesto therest? for for mostpeopleand a showofbusyness feltall overtheworldand in too the crunch-and the crunchis still, of endorsement Townsend's and fieldsofthiscountrymanystreets he eventhough to workrings motive as theundeniable truer, hunger
the New Testament.Question: Is every oneboundto labourin a Calling?"
sensemoredemocratic. to somegenuine Pageafter pageofhistestifies linkbetweenthe spirit ofProtestantism and the demoticleaningsof
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identified himself withtheownership as we say, rather hastily society, thanwithslaves. As forthe diffusion of surplus wealthin the modernindustrial Veblenin 1899 ridiculedits motivesas archaic Thorstein economy, and a showofconspicuous waste."Thearchaictheoretical distinction betweenthe base and the honourable in the mannerof a man's life retainsverymuchof its ancientforceeven to-day. So much so that there arefewofthebetter classwhoare notpossessed ofan instinctive for thevulgar forms oflabour." Veblen out"governrepugnance singled and devout observances" as thefavored ment, war,sports, professions, towhichsatirists likeChaucer and Dickens wouldundoubtedly add the law. "Atthisas at anyothercultural and war are, stage,government at leastin part, carried on forthepecuniary of those who gain engage in them," Veblenconceded;"but it is gain obtainedby the honourable methodof seizureand conversion" (1934 [1899]:37, 40). Armed take and thedevout thedoubters, gentleman may things, mayconvert butgentlemen as suchdo notwork.I couldquotetheentire book;The the Leisure Class intended as suchor not,is one ofthe , whether Theory of satires ofall time. great the flattened Bythe mid-twentieth century, lapels on businessmen'ssuitsand moreflamboyantly wastein female dress conspicuous thatVeblencataloguedhad become the tail finson GeneralMotors' cars,which increasedin lengthand heightwitheverymodel year. Sociologistsworriedthat the Americanwork ethic mightnow be beenenveloped ofstatus. dysfunctional, having bysuchfoolish displays The book from thisperiodthatI wouldsingleout had nothing to say about tail but was conscious of fins, (directly) obviously throughout theweaknessand dubiousness, in otherpartsoftheworld, especially ofappealingto Weber'sProtestant workethicto explainthe driving force and potential ofcapitalism-capitalism, thatis, underthe guise of"economic In W. W. Rostow's The Economic Growth growth." Stages of (1960),Calvinis mentioned perhapsonce, Weberand Baxternot at itself all, and the wordcapitalism somewhat muted.The idea behind this shortbook- not so shortas to excludea fewgraphsand statis-
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- was thathistory of"traditional" tics is on ourside.Thetransformation economiesthatpossessa "dynamic" societiesintomodernindustrial thatof the United to transcend even the presentsystem (implicitly "the fortake-off," States)proceedsby stages:certain"preconditions "theage ofhighmass-consumption," takeoff," "thedrive to maturity," in a footnote Rostow tendered Forwhatmight comenext, and beyond. ofthe thethird from ThomasMann'strilogy: thisthought generation turn to music. Buddenbrooks family butare by ofindustrialization thehistory Rostow's stagesreflect thatwouldbe theMarxist no meanssaid to be determined byhistory: and the provocative subtitleof this book is A Nontake on history, thatthe is at particular The author Communist painsto stress Manifesto. humanchoices. stagescome about,when theycome about,through choices." thesemayindeedbe "strategic ofhistory, Givena knowledge down "the or at least to Rostow seeks deny Butjustas persistently, play allowedto existin "conjuncThatmotive is sometimes motive." profit andespecially suchas family, motives with other tion" adventure, pride, American was meantnotonlyto position The manifesto nationalism. worldat the time.With and policybut to applyto the third practice nations third world to make the choices, strategic right encouragement couldadvanceto the next at variousstagesofdevelopment presently itwill in terms ofeconomic thatuntil, growth, stageand thenextafter this forcomprehending muchlikeus. Mygrounds be one worldvery M.I.T. the left WaltRostow is thatbefore British export plotas another House adviser as a White administration the to Kennedy faculty join he was well knownas an (theyearthathe publishedhis manifesto), economic British on modern history. authority worldto make Rostowdid not look to the massesof the third choicesbutto "a newlite-a new leadership," theright byno means workethic (an unlikely drivenby a Protestant possibilnecessarily some end they judge to be "serving ity) yetbenton a modernization like Withcircumlocutions advantageous." ethically good or otherwise ofwhatmotives he leavesopenthequestion "otherwise advantageous" To anywho would insistBusinessis busidrivethe decisionmakers.
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- to a thisnew elitemust ness,he givesonlya shrug."Sociologically in socialand political the old land-based authority degree supersede levelsofconsumption elite,whosegraspon incomeabove minimum that income itproves todivert where must be broken simply impossible If the first to break the into the modern sector." graspofthe smoothly - is no child'splay, seemsto imply, what as Rostow's rentiers language to whereit will mustit taketo divert theirincome"smoothly" tricks One cannot forthe take-off ofeconomicgrowth? conditions generate withhisrepeated observation thata widerangeofmotives may quarrel a at the same time it seems that influence thenecessary leadership, yet - greed? - mustbe eschewed. motive there is a business certain Ideally, ethicthatis nota business ethic. Undersome human motivation or other,a group must cometo perceive itto be bothpossibleand goodto undertake acts of capitalinvestment . . . We cannotquite say thatit is necessary forthemto act as iftheyweretrying to maximize for thecriteria forprivate-profit maxiprofit; mization do notnecessarily withthe criteria for converge an optimum rateand pattern ofgrowth in varioussectors. . . . Leavingaside here the questionof ultimatehuman and assuming thatthe majoroverhead items motivation, are generated, ifnecessary, of Stateinitiaby some form tive(including we can as a first subsidy), say approximation thatsomegroupmustsuccessfully whichbehaves emerge as ifitweremoved in a dynamic econmotive, bytheprofit functions" omywithchanging production (myemphasis) (1960:26, 50-51). After thisworking ofwhatis necessary or not necessary for through we suddenly mustmakedo withan "as if"to keep thewhole growth, on track. For Rostowit is onlyMarxists who take the profit process motive as just that.But"nothing in Marx'sanalysiscan explainhow and whythe landedinterests in the end acceptedthe Reform Bill of
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- "orwhythecapitalists - we are back in Britain 1832" accepted again incometax, or the welfarestate;forit is absolutely the progressive and die" thatmen fight thatit is overproperty essentialto Marxism handsclean,itis as if- as if- a To keepnon-Communist (1960:150-51). before willhaveto be invented ifthere wereno suchthing, workethic, take-off. countries has been achieved, industrial Oncea mature economy to "military is expansion, choice.The first facea three-way byrecourse own.Thesecondis toplowback intolandsnottheir andforeign policy," state." "wecancallthewelfare intosomething success And, theeconomic ofmaturity direction "thethird openedup bytheachievement possible and basic levels of shelter, food, beyond [is]theexpansion consumption butintotherange andclothing notonly tobetter shelter, food, clothing, which consumers' ofdurable ofmassconsumption goodsand services, Which can provide." the matureeconomiesofthe twentieth century not he does to Rostow, Tobe fair choice? wouldyousupposeis theright it seemsthat to us; but inevitably the answers dictate (depressingly?) accumulation ofsomeofthatsurplus thesharing thethird alternative, withmoreand moreconsumers, to fund so necessary ofriches growth it, willacquiresomesurplus household winsout.Every goodsto define the extra to mouths willbe moreand moremiddle-class there perform willbe selfeconomies world's of the more and more and consumption, areat last nationhood ormodern "whenindependence Still, sustaining. ofthe to a dominance switch thereis no simple,automatic attained, is there Onthecontrary andsocialprogress. andeconomic motive profit that choice. . ." (1960:73-74, a searching 152).One needsto remember was aboutto warmup the ColdWar administration thenew Kennedy of was one ofthecrewwho hiton theexperiment at thistime.Rostow thegovernment's andgiven warinVietnam, limited so-called appalling Non-Communist his the of ofthat world, provided Manifesto part ignorance domino the than war for the rationale a more theory. playful respectable since for consumer world societies, Byall meansclearspacesinthethird massof in theage high to wither is likely "in itsessenceCommunism (1960:133). consumption"
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And so it has withered, perhapsbecause ofthe thoughmainly and high consumptionof information availability unprecedented and language the breadth, aroundthe globe.Moreover, intelligence, forthe roundabout even afterdiscounting of Rostow'smanifesto, thus with anything contrastmarkedly of profit-taking, treatment farpublished by the innercircleofthe secondBushadministration. oftheWhiteHouse todayhas from the precincts The rhetoric arising its denotato understand as to defy becomeso generalized attempts and in theUnited is ourmostprizedpossession tions.Freedom States, waragainst and longest-surviving reasonfor freedom thevaguest Iraq. beliefs are nowone,"accord"America's vitalinterests and ourdeepest An inaugural in address. W. Bush his second to inaugural ing George butthisone assumesthesame is notan occasionforspecifics, address war and undertaking connection betweeneconomicgrowth putative a half-century from armchairs ofthe oppositepoliticalparty emitted in offreedom ago. "Thebesthopefor peace ourworldis theexpansion inall theworld," Bushaffirmed. Butnote:"Thegreat ofending objective is the concentrated workofgenerations. The difficulty ofthe tyranny taskis no excuseforavoiding it."The president speaksthe language ofthe workethic,not of military forsacrifice. dutyor preparedness "America has need of idealism and Furthermore, couragebecausewe have essential workat home,the unfinished workofAmerican freeYork 21Jan. dom"(New Times, 2005). An opinionpiece byOrlandoPatterson the following published outthesegeneralities. Tobe sure, Patterson dayintheTimes helpedsort first in theBushadministration's enumerated somefallacies equation of terrorism withtyranny, reminded readersthatU.S. governments havequietly backedtyrannies for ourownpurposes, and observed that terrorists canandwillfind incountries shelter where freedom is "sadly" under law. Most in terrorist acts this none protected country though - havebeen carried as devastating as the9/11 attack outbyAmericans. Abroad we are "imposing at the pointofa gun."Therefore democracy someresponses to 9/11, theIraqWar, are opento thecharge especially ofbottomless and that is one to be seen hypocrisy; waytheycontinue
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Patterson by citizensof othercountries. givesBush and his advisers benefit of the doubt:theyare no morehypocritical, say,than other The problem is that"freedom" meansdifferent To politicians. things. America's and for a tradition in ourcourts stillfollowed critics, foreign andtaught in schools, he believes, this"liberal version civil emphasizes and social liberties, political participation, justice." in quitedifferButmostordinary Americans viewfreedom ent terms.In theirminds,freedomhas been radically Itsmoststriking feature is whatis left out:poliprivatized. civic and the celebration of traditional tics, participation Freedom is largely a personalmatter for rights, instance. withothers and successin the to do withrelations having in thisconception, meansdoingwhatone world. Freedom, one's way.It is measuredin termsof wantsand getting on the one hand,and one's independence and autonomy, It is experienced and poweron the other. one's influence in mobility both socioeconomicand most powerfully 2005). (Patterson, geographic Patterson judges that Bush "easily empathizeswith the ordinary whenthe presiviewoffreedom." American's Accordingly, privatized at home abouttheworkoffreedom so expansively dentpropagandizes forworldly thisvulgarworkethic:striving and abroad,he embraces and one's success, way. mobility, getting upward faceon the sweatthatit as a sloganputsa cheerful "Freedom" ofthebloodthatit in thisworld, to saynothing takesto laborgainfully is basithusunderstood costsshouldothers opposethetask.Freedom which,as Samuel Smileswroteyearsago, is "thetrue callyself-help, Because"whatever Andwhy? and strength." sourceofnational vigour is doneformen or classes,to a certainextenttakesawaythe stimuSmilesis no The Victorian ofdoingforthemselves." lus and necessity hence Bushoftoday, thanthe governing doubtmoreclass-conscious ratherthan that "necessity," silentacknowledgement the former's
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freechoice or any ethic,compelsa largeportionof the population - or indeedto submitto the disciplineof an armyor navy. to work in thiscontext, of freedom moreofthe significance To comprehend first volume ofOrlandoPatterson's one shouldreviewthe argument Biblical and numerous ancienthistory Therehe arguesfrom sources, what we mean understand could not thatwe really as wellas classical, - whetherdirectly if it were not forthe history experiby freedom - ofslavery. issue To acceptthatworkis thecentral encedorperceived or the can serveas a codewordforself-help here,and how "freedom" and thatslavesare notfed, one onlyhas to reflect workethic, clothed, for for the work that is sheltered keptalive, theyperform except itis notthecase thatany Think aboutthat, andwhether their masters. It follows to theonejob he or she cando is unfree. worker constrained thata workethicappliedacrossthe boardto anyknownpopulation be surethey have willnever appealto all. The electorelitestillcannot will been chosen.The divisionof labor,in thisor anyothersociety, and pretenders to satire. to seemSomepeoplewillresort openmisfits are. ingbusierthanthey wouldGeorge Walker Bushidentify so readily withordinary Why Americans? His privileged birth bestows upon himnotonlyinherited wealthbutnotabledynastic His nevertheless, powers. record, suggests menandwomen.His cabinet thathe admires self-made choicesfor the secondterm, thisconclusion. Elizabeth Bumiller of especially, support theTimes thesecretary putthecountat sixoutofninenewappointees: ofstate, theattorney the secretaries of commerce, general, agriculture, and veterans and perhapsmostastonishingly his first choice affairs, forhomelandsecurity. of homeland in the (The institution security UnitedStatesindirectly confesses to the imperial reachof freedom.) Therewere othersuch appointments in the first term."ElaineChao believesdeeply in theAmerican dreambecauseshe has livedit,"Bush said ofone first-term nominee(Bumiller, 20 Dec. 2004).A cynic might - that ofmineventured thisopinion, reply a young colleague actually theseself-made individuals werefavored because theywereattached
Culture in theMaking on the subject, subtitledFreedom (1991). ofWestern
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to themanwho andwouldowe their to no establishment loyalty solely for the workethic, thatthe Protestant them. Yetremember promoted wantsto be believed. reasonthatit speaksto richas wellas poor, very of the and first from Connecticut senator Prescott Bush, Although a fortune from hisfather, inherited to makea careerofpolitics, family and thanhe was. The father to seem moreordinary he too preferred Prescott Bushwas already ofpresidents, shyofhis family grandfather 1997: man a and wishedto be seen as self-made (Parmet, background To thosewho alreadyhave everything theyneed,it is well to 21-22). are. thanthey seembusier and positively The workethicwarrants encouragesthe accumulationof wealth,but the shynessabout the possession of that thatifyou all that. Thereis thesuspicion for wealthis understandable hard notto be working have all you need,youare likely very already remarks Andthereare the disquieting when othersare not looking. of heaven.In a largely Jesusmade about richmen and the kingdom knowbetter cultureeven those who are not churchgoers Christian common is more it have about to boast than inherited; moneythey in Dickens'sHardTimes, to hear boasts,like thatof Mr.Bounderby man even when not whollytrue.Max Weber of being a self-made is "therealmoralobjection thatforthewell-to-do concluded Puritan, of wealth the of possession, enjoyment in the security to relaxation above oftheflesh, withtheconsequenceofidlenessand temptations Notleisure life of a righteous the pursuit from all ofdistraction ofGod." servesto increasetheglory butonlyactivity and enjoyment, demands God "What is to havea calling. consideration The overriding in a labour rational but in labour is not itself, calling"(1958 [1920]: in order It is notso clearthata callingneed be full-time 157,161-62). is to hear the callingand to dedicate Moreimportant to be rational. one's efforts accordingly. skillsfrom has turnedhis rhetorical As I write,the president In theStateoftheUnionAddress thehomeland. freeing Iraqto freeing Bush implicitly the InauguralAddress, thatfollowed acknowledged work ofa the inspiration ethic,thereare unlikethoserequiring that,
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a class of workers who will do the job just to keep themselves and families thecountry needs"an immigration that their alive;for policy fill will not workers to Americans take." permits temporary guest jobs about It is as if Bush had come acrossJosephTownsend'sthinking - a the poor.Or possibly freeAmericans slavesagain requireforeign different race of people to keep the economy Far more functioning. in the speech,however, attention was devotedto the main problem free Americans themselves: of now,a set portion confronting "Right themoney to payfor theSocial youearnis takenoutofyourpaycheck in our ownership benefits oftoday'sretirees." Security Surely society we can do better: Hereiswhy accounts area better deal.Your personal money will grow, overtime,at a greater ratethananything the current can deliver, and youraccountwillprovide system overand above the checkyou will moneyforretirement In addition, receivefrom Social Security. you'llbe able to in the that accumulates pass along money yourpersonal or grandchildren. account,ifyou wish,to yourchildren Andbestofall,themoney in theaccountis yours, and the can nevertakeit away(New 3 Feb. York Times, government 2005). The idea is an old one. Self-help as Smilesput "invariably invigorates," to over-guidance and over-government, it,"andwheremenare subject theinevitable is to render themcomparatively But tendency helpless." the tone adoptedby the president and the use ofthe secondperson seemmeantfor secondgraders; and can secondgraders trust Bushnot to be simply a first So farhe has driving wedgeintoSocial Security? notsaida word, nordoes anyoneseemto be asking, aboutwhether he would"fix" thecorporate shareofthepresent tax. The one idea wage thatstands outis thatofa modest estate for Tobuild personal everyone. thatestatecan becomeone's calling, withthe aim ofoutliving death itself-living forever as in a novelorfairytale. after, happily
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For now the presidentis touringthe country, appearing before selectedaudiences as he did in his last campaign,in orderto talk up his "idea." "I like doingthis,bytheway"he toldthe latestgroup,aI like going we have gota problem'"(NewYork aroundthecountry, Times, 'Folks, saying, 5 Mar.2005). Nowhere,as Chaucer said of his man of law,was anyone as and yetperhapshe seemed busierthan he was. busyas thispresident,
NOTES
1. Ratherthan contuse Baxters chapter,part, section numbers,etc., 1 shall citeA Christian Directory byvolume and page ofthe second edition. Like most other Puritansof the time, he quotes the so-called King JamesVersionof the Bible,thoughnot with the modernizedspelling ofthe editionI have been quoting. encounteredthe passage from 2. I cannot be the only one to have first Townsendin Karl Polanyi'sTheGreat (1957 [1944]: 113Transformation 14). But, in fact,Polanyi misquoted and tacked on to the beginning of the passage a sentence fromthe followingsection ofA Dissertation onthePoorLaws:"Hungerwill tame the fiercest animals, it will teach obedience and subjection,to the most brutish, decencyand civility, and the mostperverse." the mostobstinate,
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Business is Busyness, or the Work Ethic Author(s): Alexander Welsh Source: Social Research, Vol. 72, No.

AlexanderWelsh Business is Busyness, or the Work Ethic

Vol 72 : No 2 : Summer 2005

the New Testament.Question: Is every oneboundto labourin a Calling?"

Allen andUnwin, 1981.

FrameofMind,1830-1870. New Haven Houghton,Walter E. TheVictorian

andLondon: YaleUniversity 1957. Press,

Orlando.Freedom. Vol. I: Freedom inthe Culture. Patterson, Making ofWestern

Growth: A Non-Communist Rostow,W. W. TheStagesofEconomic Manifesto.

Horatio Tebbel,John.From and the American Dream. RagstoRiches: Mger, Jr.,

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