FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING OF SMART

STRUCTURES


A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award
of the degree of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY

in

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by

V.S.N.MURTHY KOLLEPARA
ENTRY NO -2004CES2066










Under The Guidance of

Dr. SURESH BHALLA



DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DELHI

MAY 2006



CERTIFICATE



This is to certify that the dissertation entitled FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING
OF SMART STRUCTURES which is being submitted by
V.S.N.MURTHY.KOLLEPARA (ENTRY NO: 2004CES2066) in the partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of Master of Technology in
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING is a record of the students own work carried out
at Indian Institute of Technology Delhi under my supervision and guidance. The
matter embodied in this thesis has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of any
other degree or diploma.






Dr. SURESH BHALLA
Assistant professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute Of Technology Delhi


New Delhi
May 2006















ACKNOWLEDGMENT


I have great pleasures and privilege to express my deep sense of gratitude and
thankfulness towards my supervisor, Dr. SURESH BHALLA, for his invaluable
guidance, constant supervision and continuous encouragement and support throughout
this work. Timely guidance and valuable suggestions have steered me in clearing out
difficulties at every juncture.
I am thankful to all staff members of Computation Laboratory, Computer Service
Centre for their co-operation while carrying out the analysis work. I am equally grateful
to all my classmates, friends and family for their encouragement, support and help.






(V.S.N.MURTHY.KOLLEPARA)
New Delhi,
May, 2006. 2004CES 2066














ABSTRACT

Structural health monitoring is gaining importance day by day. Failure of any
infrastructure causes severe loss of life and economy. Therefore, critical structures should
be monitored at frequent intervals. Even though visual inspection is the most common
appropriate at the present, it is very tedious, and needs experienced people. Over the last
two decades, many researchers have tried to find the alternative solution for visual
inspection.
This study concentrated on high frequency because of the limitations of
low frequency techniques, in locating incipient damages. Unique properties of direct and
converse piezoelectric effects enable piezo electrio-ceramic (pzt) patch to act both as an
actuator and as a sensor simultaneously. Making use of the sensing capability the of PZT
patch, conductance signature of the structure can be obtained against which health
monitoring of the structure can be done. Signature of the structure in healthy state is
called the base line signature. It is compared with signature obtained after a time lapse,
which is called secondary state conductance signature. The characteristic feature of the
EMI technique is that it activates higher frequency modes of the structure.
The present study was performed on a lab sized RC model frame.
Numerical simulation of the frame was carried out using finite element approach with
ANSYS 9 software. Results were compared the experimental data obtained by Bhalla
and Soh ( 2004 ). So far, researchers developed numerical solution at frequency of less
than 25 kHz. In this case, numerical simulation was done in a frequency range of 100 to
150 kHz. Conductance signatures of experimental and simulation method compare
reasonably well. Peak conductance found in two curves at identical frequencies.
Magnitude wise, these signatures are better correlated compared to those of other
researchers. Conductance signatures for the damaged frame were also obtained by
simulating different type of damages numerically. Cracks were simulated by reducing
the Youngs modulus of elements at the location of damage. Numerically obtained
conductance signatures followed the same trend as that of experimental signatures for
these damages. Influence of cracks on the conductance signature was clearly identified.
Percentage of variation of the numerical results with respect to the experimental results
are very less compared to Giurgiutiu and Zagari (2002), Tseng and Wang(2004) results.
These results will be helpful for further research in smart structures area. Purpose of this
research is to minimize the necessity of tedious experimental work and to save the
economic resources. The successful numerical modelling will enabled researchers to
carry out further work in the area of smart structures. Challenging tasks like modeling of
piezo electric coupling in shell or plate structures can be performed in this manner.
Fracture analysis in the presence of coupled behavior is another critical aspect to be
studied with help of numerical modeling.
























TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENT PAGE
CERTIFICATE i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii
ABSTRACT iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF TABLES viii


CHAPTER1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Need for health monitoring 2
1.3 Objective and scope of study 3
1.4 Organisation of thesis 3
CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING 4
2.1 Structural health monitoring : An over view 4
2.1.1 Passive sensing diagnostics 5
2.1.2 Active sensing diagnostics 5
2.1.3 Self healing-self repairing 6
2.2 Techniques of health monitoring 7
2.2.1 Conventional techniques for structural health monitoring 7
2.3 Techniques using smart materials and smart structure concepts 11
2.3.1 Smart structure 12
2.3.2 Components of smart structures 12
2.3.3 Potential applications of smart materials in Civil Engineering 14
2.3.4 Research needed in smart structures 15
2.3.5 Necessity of Modelling 15
2.4 Summary 15


CHAPTER3: STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING WITH
PIEZO ELECTRIC ACTUATOR/SENSOR PATCHES. 16

3.1 Piezoelectricity and piezo electric materials 16
3.2 Fundamental piezoelectric relations 17
3.3 Principle and method of application 18
3.3.1 Description of EMI technique 18
3.3.2 Damage quantification 20
3.3.3 Improvements in EMI technique in recent years. 20
3.4 Advatages of EMI technique 21
3.5 Limitations of EMI technique 22
3.6 Conclusions 22
CHAPTER4 :FINITE ELEMENT MODELING OF SMART STRUCTURE
4.1 Importance of Numerical simulation 23
4.2 Finite element modeling of Rc frame 27
4.3 Results 30
4.4 Comparative study 32
4.5 Conductance signature with flexural damage 33
4.6 Study of conductance signature pattern by inducing different
damages to the numerical model 33
4.6.1 Determination of damping constants 34
4.7. Study of effect of damage on conductance signature of numerical
model RC frame 35
4.7.1. Study of effect of flexural crack 35
4.7.2. study of effect of shear crack 37
4.7.3. Effect of both flexural and shear crack 39
4.8comparison of experimental and simulated results 42
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions 44
5.2 Recommendations 45
5.3 Remarks 45
5.4 Advantages of numerical modeling 46
5.5 Limitations 46
REFERENCES 47


LIST OF FIGURES:

Fig 3.1 (a) a PZT bonded to the structure 17
(b) Interaction model of one half pzt and host structure 17
Fig 4.1.a Pristine conductance signature on specimen 1 (Tseng and Wang) 24
Fig 4.1.b Pristine conductance signature on specimen 2 (Tseng and Wang) 24
Fig 4.2 Experimental and calculated Impedance Vs Frequency 25
Fig 4.3 Details of the test frame 28
Fig 4.4 Finite element model of lab sized frame. 29
Fig 4.5 Conductance signature using 10mm, 5mm, 3mm size of the elements 30
Fig 4.6 Numerical conductance signature of the pristine frame model 31
Fig 4.7 Experimental conductance signature of the pristine frame model 32
Fig 4.8 Simulated conductance signature of frame for healthy & damaged state 33
Fig 4.9 conductance signature with different damping constants 34
Fig 4.10 Numerical conductance signature with modified damping constants 35
Fig 4.11 simulated RC frame with Flexural cracks. 36

Fig 4.12 Effect of flexural crack on conductance signature 37

Fig 4.13 RC frame with shear crack near PZT location 38

Fig 4.14 Effect of shear crack on conductance signature of numerical model 39

Fig 4.15. Simulated frame with both flexural and shear cracks 40
Fig 4.16 Effect of different types of damages on conductance signature of
numerical model frame 40
Fig 4.17 Effect of PZT distance from the damage location. 41
Fig 4.18 Experimental results 42

Fig 4.19 Results obtained from Numerical model 43





LIST OF TABLES:

Table 4.1 Material properties of concrete 27
Table 4.2 Mechanical and electrical properties of PZT 28







- 1 -
CHAPTER1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL
Health monitoring is the continuous measurement of the loading environment
and the critical responses of a system or its components. Health monitoring is typically
used to track and evaluate performance, symptoms of operational incidents, anomalies
due to deterioration and damage as well as health during and after an extreme event
(Aktan et al, 2000). Health monitoring has gained considerable attention in civil
engineering over the last two decades. Although health monitoring is a maturing concept
in the manufacturing, automotive and aerospace industries, there are a number of
challenges for effective applications on civil infrastructure systems. While successful
real-life studies on a new or an existing structure are critical for transforming health
monitoring from research to practice, laboratory benchmark studies are also essential for
addressing issues related to the main needs and challenges of structural health
monitoring. Health monitoring offers great promise for civil infrastructure
implementations. Although it is still mainly a research area in civil infrastructure
application, it would be possible to develop successful real-life health monitoring systems
if all components of a complete health monitoring design are recognized and integrated.
A successful health monitor design requires the recognition and integration of
several components. Identification of health and performance metric is the first
Component which is a fundamental knowledge need and should dictate the technology
involved. Current status and future trends to determine health and performance in the
context of damage prognosis are reported by Farrar et al. in a recent study (2003).
New advances in wireless communications, data acquisition systems and
sensor technologies offer possibilities for health monitoring design and implementations
(Lynch et al, 2001, Spencer, 2003). Development, evaluation and use of the new
technologies are important but they have to be considered along with our health and
performance expectations of the structure. Yao (1985) defined the term damage as a
deficiency or deterioration in the strength of the structure, caused by external loading or
environmental conditions or human errors. So far visual inspection has been the most
- 2 -
common tool to identify the external signs of damage in buildings, bridges and industrial
structures. These inspections are made by trained personnel. Once gross assessment of
the damage location is made, localized techniques such as acoustic, ultrasonic,
radiography, eddy currents, thermal, or magnetic field can be used for a more refined
assessment of the damage location and severity. If necessary, test samples may extract
from the structure and examined in the laboratory. One essential requirement of this
approach is the accessibility of the location to be inspected. In many cases critical parts of
the structure may not be accessible or may need removal of finishes. This procedure of
health monitoring can therefore be very tedious and expensive. Also, the reliability of the
visual inspection is dependent, to large extent, on the experience of the inspector. Over
the last two decades number of studies have been reported which strive to replace the
visual inspection by some automated method, which enable more reliable and quicker
assessment of the health of the structure. Smart structures was found to be the alternative
to the visual inspection methods from last two decades, because of their inherent
smartness, the smart materials exhibit high sensitivity to any changes in environment.

1.2 NEEDS FOR HEALTH MONITERING
Appropriate maintenance prolongs the life span of a structure and can be used to
prevent catastrophic failure. Higher operational loads, greater complexity of design and
longer life time periods imposed to civil structures, make it increasingly important to
monitor the health of these structures. Economy of a country depends on the
transportation infrastructures like bridges, rails, roads etc., Any structural failure of
buildings, bridges and roads causes severe damage to the life and economy of the nation.
The U.S. economy is supported by a net work of transportation infrastructures like
highways, railways, bridges etc., amounting to about US$ 2.5 trillion worth (Wang et al.,
1998). Every government is spending many crore of rupees every year for the
rehabilitation and maintenance of large civil engineering structures. Failure of civil
infrastructure to perform may effect the gross domestic production of the country.
These facts underline the importance of an automated health monitoring system,
which cannot only prevent an incipient damage included collapse, but can also make an
assessment of structural health, as and desired, at a short notice. These automated systems
- 3 -
hold the promise for improving the performance of the structure with an excellent
benefit/cost ratio, keeping in view the long term benefits.

1.3 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF PROJECT

The objective of this project was to develop methodologies for finite element
analysis of smart structures. In specific, the project attempted to compare experimental
results obtained for health monitoring of lab sized Reinforced concrete (RC) frame with
of numerical simulations, using finite element analysis. The study made use of high
frequency dynamic response technique employing smart piezoceramic (PZT) actuators
and sensors. They can excite the structure to vibrate at high frequencies, thus activating
the local modes, which have higher sensitivity to incipient damage (Giurgiutiu and
Rogers, 1997). Numerical results matched reasonably well with the experimental
signatures, especially the peak frequencies. As second part of the project, appropriate
damping constants were found by trial and error. Different damages were simulated into
the numerical model and the effects of those damages on the conductance signature were
studied and compared with the experimental results. Purpose of Numerical simulation
was to avoid tedious experimental work of subjecting the structure to numerous fractures
in future research, thereby and saving time and money in future research.

1.4 ORGANISATION OF REPORT

This report consists of total of five chapters including this introductory chapter.
Chapter 2 presents detailed review of research in the area of health monitoring of
structures. In Chapter 3, the fundamental relations of the piezoelectric patches and
structural health monitoring using PZT patches and the recent developments in EMI
technique are discussed. Chapter 4 presents procedure of the numerical simulation of RC
model frame. Results are described and discussions are made. Chapter 5 presents the
conclusions and scope of the work.



- 4 -
.CHAPTER 2
STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING

2.1 STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING (SHM): AN OVER VIEW

Increase in population necessitated the more civil infrastructural facilities in
every country. Wealth of the nation can be represented by well conditioned infrastructure.
Civil engineering structures under go damage and deterioration with age and due to
natural calamities. Nearly all in-service structures require some form of maintenance for
monitoring their integrity and health condition. Collapse of civil engineering structures
leads to immense loss of life and property. Appropriate maintenance prolongs the
lifespan of a structure and can be used to prevent catastrophic failure. Current schedule-
driven inspection and maintenance techniques can be time consuming, labor-intensive,
and expensive. SHM, on the other hand, involves autonomous in-service inspection of the
structures. The first instances of SHM date back to the late 1970s and early 1980s. The
concept of SHM originally applied to aerospace and mechanical systems is now being
extended to civil structures.
Objectives of health monitoring are as follows.
a) To ascertain that damage has occurred or to identify damage
b) To locate the damage
c) To determine the severity of damage.
d) To determine the remaining useful life of the structure.
SHM consists of both passive and active sensing and monitoring. Passive sensing and
monitoring is used to identify the location and forcetimehistory of external sources,
such as impacts or acoustic emissions. Active sensing and monitoring is used to localize
and determine the magnitude of existing damages. An extensive literature review of
damage identification and health monitoring of structural and mechanical systems from
changes in their vibration characteristics is given by Doebling et al. (1996).



- 5 -
2.1.1 PASSIVE SENSING DIAGNOSTICS
For a passive sensing system, only sensors are installed on a structure. Sensor
measurements are constantly taken in real time while the structure is in service, and this
data is compared with a set of reference (healthy) data. The sensor-based system
estimates the condition of a structure based on the data comparison. The system requires
either a data base, which has a history of prestored data, or a structural simulator which
could generate the required reference data.
Passive sensing diagnostics are primarily used to determine unknown inputs from
changes in sensor measurements. Choi and Chang (1996) suggested an impact load
identification technique using piezoelectric sensors. They used a structural model and a
response comparator for solving the inverse problem. The structural model characterised
the relation between the input load and the sensor output. The response comparator
compared the measured sensor signals with the predicted model.

2.1.2 ACTIVE SENSING DIAGNOSTICS

Active sensing techniques are based on the localized interrogation of the
structures. They are used to localize and determine the magnitude of an existing
damages. Local or wave propagation-based SHM is therefore advantageous since much
smaller defects can be detected. Chang (2000) concentrates his research on wave-
propagation-based SHM. He developed Lamb-wave-based techniques for impact
localization /quantification and damage detection. Wilcox et al. (2000) examined the
potential of specific Lamb modes for detection of discontinuities. They considered large,
thick plate structures (e.g. oil tanks) and thin plate structures (e.g. aircraft skins). They
showed that the most suitable Lamb mode is strongly dependent on what the plate is in
contact with. Bhalla and Soh (2005) presented the technique using wave propagation
approach for NDE using surface bonded piezoceramics. They utilized simple, economical
and commercially available hardware and sensors, which can be easily employed for real
time and online monitoring of critical structures, such as machine parts and aircraft
components. Lemistre and Balageas(2001) presented a robust technique for damage
detection based on diffracted Lamb wave analysis by a multire solution wavelet
transform. Berger et al. (2004) employed fibre optic sensors in order to measure Lamb
- 6 -
waves. Benz et al. (2003) and Hurlebaus et al.(2002) developed an automated, non-
contact method for detecting discontinuities in plates. Laser ultrasonic techniques were
used to generate and detect Lamb waves in a perfect plate and in a plate that contains a
discontinuity. The measured signals were first transformed from the timefrequency
domain using a short-time Fourier transform (STFT) and subsequently into the group
velocityfrequency domain. The discontinuity is then located through the use of a
zzcorrelation in the groupvelocityfrequency domain. The smart layer presented by Lin
and Chang (1998) makes use of a PZT-sensing element, whereas the smart layer
presented by Hurlebaus et al.(2004) uses PVDF-sensing elements. Finally, in the study by
Lin and Chang (2002) PZT transducers were placed at a few discrete points on the smart
layer; and in the study by Hurlebaus et al. (2004), the PVDF polymer covers the entire
surface of the smart layer.

2.1.3. SELFHEALING & SELFREPAIRING

Peairs et al. (2004) presented a method for the self-healing of bolted joints based
on piezo electric &.shape memory alloys . The loosening of a bolted joint connection is a
common structural failure mode. They reported a real-time condition monitoring and
active control methodology for bolted joints in civil structures and components. They
used an impedance-based health-monitoring technique which utilizes the
electromechanical coupling property of piezoelectric materials to identify and detect bolt
connection damage. When damage occured, temporary adjustments of the bolt tension
could be achieved actively and remotely using shape memory alloy actuators.
Specifically, when a bolt connection became loose, the bolted members can moved
relative to each other. The heat produced by this motion caused a Nitinol washer to
expand axially, thereby leading to a tighter, self-healed bolt connection.
Hagood and von Flotow(1991) established the analytical foundation for general
systems with shunted piezoelectrics. Their work characterised the electromechanical
interactions between a structure and the attached piezo network, and offers some
experimental verification. Davis and Lesieutre(1995) extended previous studies by using
the modal strain energy approach to predict the structural damping produced by a
- 7 -
network of resistively shunted piezoceramic elements. Using this approach, the amount
of added damping per mode caused by an individual ceramic element can be computed.
It was also demonstrated that increased damping could be achieved in several modes
simultaneously via proper placement of the piezoceramics. demonstrates the effectiveness
of shunted piezoelectricity for three different resistance values. A structural vibration
control concept using piezoelectric materials shunted with real-time adaptable electrical
networks has also been investigated by Wang et al. (1994). Instead of using variable
resistance only, they implemented variable resistance and inductance in an external RL
circuit as control inputs. They created an energy-based parametric control scheme to
reduce the total system energy while minimising the energy flowing into the main
structure. Furthermore, they proved stability of the closed-loop system and examined the
performance of the control method on an instrumented beam. Hagood and von Flotow
presented a passive damping mechanism for structural systems in which piezoelectric
materials are bonded to the structure of interest.
In previous days health monitoring concept was limited to electrical and
mechanical systems. In present days, it is extended to large civil structures also. Civil
engineering structures are huge, heavy, expensive and more complex than electrical and
mechanical systems. The need for quick assessment of state of health of civil structures
has necessitated research for the development of real time damage monitoring and
diagnostic systems.

2.2 TECHNIQUES OF HEALTH MONITORING
2.2.1 Conventional Techniques for Structural Health Monitoring

(a) Static response based techniques
This technique was formulated by Banan et. al. (1994). In this method
static forces applied on structure and corresponding displacements are measured. It is not
necessary to select the entire set of forces and displacements. Any subset could be
selected, but a number of load cases may be necessary in order to obtain sufficient
information for computation. Computational method based on least scale error function
between model and actual measurement is used. The resulting equations are to be solved
to arrive at a set of structural parameters. Any change in the parameters from the base
- 8 -
line healthy structure is an indicator of damage. The short comings of this technique are
measurement of displacements is not an easy task. It requires establishment of frame of
reference. Employing a member of load cases can be very time consuming. Besides, the
computational effort required by the method is enormous.
Sanayei and Saletnik (1996) proposed a technique based on static strain method.
The advantage of this technique is strain measurement can be made accurately compared
to displace measurement. Although the method has some advantages over the static
displacement method, its application on real life structures remains tedious.
(b) Dynamic response based techniques
In this method structure is subjected to low frequency vibrations, and dynamic
response of the structure are measured and analysed. By this analysis a suitable set of
parameters such as modal frequencies, and modal damping, and mode shapes associated
with each modal frequency. changes also occur In structural parameters namely the
stiffness matrix and damping matrix. In this method structure is exited by appropriated
means and the response data processed to obtain a quantitative index or a set of indices
representative of the condition of the structures.
These techniques have advantageous over static response since they are
comparatively easier to implement. Few methods using low frequency dynamic technique
are described below.
Casas and aparcio (1994) presented a method of localizing and quantifying
cracks in bridges based on the first few natural frequencies and mode shapes extracted
from the dynamic response measurements.
Zimmerman and kaouk (1994) developed this damage detection method based
on changes in the stiffness matrix. The stiffness matrix is determined from mode shapes
and modal frequencies derived from the measured dynamic response of the structure.
The stiffness matrix matrix [K] may be expressed in terms of mode shape matrix [ ],
the mass matrix [M], and the modal stiffness matrix [ ].
[K] = [M][ ][ ]
T
[M] (2.1)



- 9 -
Change in flexibility method.
This method of damage detection and localization in beams was proposed by
Pandey and Biswas (1994). The basic principle used in this approach is that damage in a
structure alters its flexibility matrix which can be used to identify damage. Secondly,
damage at a particular loation alters the respective elements differently. The relative
amount by which different elements are altered is used to localize the damage. Like
change in stiffness method, mode shape vectors and resonant frequencies obtained from
the dynamic response data (collected before damage and after damage) are used to obtain
the flexibility matrix [F], which may be expressed as

| | | || |
| |
| |
1
F

= (2.2)
As can be seen from Eq. (2.2) [F] is proportional to the square of the inverse of the modal
frequencies. Therefore it converges rapidly with increasing frequencies. Hence only few
lower modes are sufficient for an accurate estimation of [F].
The technique is an improvement over the change in stiffness method but the
researchers did not investigate the case of multiple damage locations.
This method is based on low frequency dynamic response of structure
involving only the first few low frequency modes of vibration. Therefore only a limited
number of modal frequencies and corresponding mode shape vectors can be extracted.
This limited number of modal vectors may not provide sufficient information to detect
damage at all possible locations. These techniques rely on the global properties to
identify local changes. Global parameters do not change significantly when a small order
local damage occurs. At local frequencies, small cracks cannot significantly affect the
global parameters to permit effective damage detection.. Therefore, the low frequency
techniques are not dependable for the detection of relatively small cracks.

Techniques using neural networks
Recently neural networks are entered the domain of structural health
monitoring after their success in other areas of research. In many areas of application,
neural networks have to be robust, especially when a clear mathematical relation ship is
not easily discernible among various parameters. These advantages made their presence
in structural health monitoring.
- 10 -
Marsi et al (1996) presented a time domain method of damage detection in
structure unknown single degree of freedom systems using neural network approach.
Vibration measurement from a healthy structure is used to train a neural network. The
input consists of system displacement and velocity at suitable intervals in the time
domain. The output is the restoring force calculated. at a later time, when the health of a
structure is required to be assessed, the network is fed with vibration measurements from
the structures. The deviation between the actual output of the system and output from the
trained neural network provides a measure of changes in the physical system relative to
its healthy condition.
Neural network based techniques has the following advantages over the
conventional methods of health monitoring.
1. Neural networks have the ability to develop generalized solutions to a problem from a
set of examples, to continue the development , and to adapt to changes. This enables them
to be used for problems other than the training set. This also makes them fault tolerant
and capable of working with incomplete and noisy data (Flood and karantm, 1994a)
2. They do not require prior information concerning phenomenological nature of the
structure ( Marsi et al., 1996). They can tackle linear as well as non-linear problems.

The limitations of neural networks are lack of precision, limited ability to rationalize
solutions, and most importantly lack of a rigorous theory to assist their design.
(d)Local SHM techniques
These techniques rely on the localized structural interrogation for
detecting damages. Ultrasonic techniques, acoustic emission, eddy currents, impact echo
testing, magnetic field analysis, penetrant dye testing, and x-ray analysis.
The ultrasonic methods are based on elastic wave propagation and reflection within the
material for non-destructive strength characterization and identifying for field
inhomogeneities caused by damages. These techniques require experienced persons and
need to interpret the data.
Acoustic emission methods make use of waves generated by plastic deformations,
moving dislocations and disbonds in detection of damages. The main draw back of this
method is the existence of multiple travel paths from the source to sensors.
- 11 -
The eddy currents perform a steady state harmonic interrogation of structures for
detecting surface cracks. A coil is employed to induce eddy current in the main coil and
and this induction current undergoes variations on the development of damages, which
serves as indication of damage. This method can employed only for conductive materials.
In impact echo testing, a stress pulse is introduced into the interrogated
component using an impact source. As a result wave propagates through the structure, it
is reflected by cracks and disbonds. This method can not detect small sized cracks.
In magnetic field methods, a liquid containing iron powder is applied on
the object to be interrogated, subjected to magnetic field, and then observed under ultra
violet light. Cracks are detected by presence of magnetic fields lines along their positions.
This method can be used only for magnetic materials. And component must be
dismounted and inspected inside a special cabin.
Penetration dye test involves, a coloured liquid is brushed on the surface of
the component under inspection, allowed to penetrate into the cracks, and then washed
off the surface. There after a quick drying chalk is applied which act as a developer and
causes coloured lines to appear along the cracks.
X-ray method involves, the object structure is exposed to X-rays, which
are then observed on film, where the cracks are depicted as black lines. Even though
moderate sized cracks can be detected ,very small cracks are difficult to captured.

2.3 TECHNIQUES USING SMART MATERIALS AND SMART STRUCTURES
CONCEPT

Smart materials: smart materials are materials which have ability to change their
physical properties such as shape, stiffness, viscosity, etc. in a specific manner according
to certain specific type of stimulus input. Smart materials are one of components of
smart structures .Examples of smart materials are Electrostrictive materials,
magnetostrictive materials, shape memory alloys, magneto- or electrorheological fluids,
polymer gels, and piezoelectric materials, optical fibers .These are explained in detailed
manner later.

- 12 -
2.3.1 Smart Structures

The terms smart structures, intelligent structures, adaptive structures, active
structures, adaptronics, and structronics all belong to the same field of study. All these
terms refer to the integration of actuators, sensors in structural components, and the usage
of some kind of control unit or enhanced signal processing with a material or structural
component. The goal of this integration is the creation of a material system having
enhanced structural performance, but without adding too much mass or consuming too
much power.
Smart structures/materials are generally created through synthesis, by not only
combining sensors, processing, and actuators but also through their integration with
conventional structural materials such as steel, concrete, or composites.
According to Ahmad (1988), A system is termed as smart if it is capable of
recognizing an external stimulus and responding to it with in a given time in
predetermined manner. In addition it is supposed to have the capability of identifying its
status and may optimally adapt its function to external stimuli or may give appropriate
signal to the user. Smart structures that can moniter their own condition, detect
impending failure, control, or heal damage and adapt to changing environment. Because
of their inherent capability of detecting the any change in structure, smart materials,
systems and structures are being used for SHM and NDE from past two decades.

Research on smart civil structural system is focused on two areas. They are
1. Control of structural response to external loading, such as wind and earth quake.
2. Detection of damage and flaw in the system, and its severity.

2.3.2 Components Of Smart System

Sensors: A smart system must have embedded intrinsic sensors to recognize And
measure the intensity of stimulus (stress or strain) or its effect on the structure
Actuators: A smart system may additionally have embedded or bonded actuators,
Which respond to stimulus in predetermined manner.
- 13 -
Control mechanism: A smart system must have a mechanism for integrating and
Controlling the actions of the sensors and actuators.

Some of smart materials are described as follows.

(a)Piezoelectric materials: Piezoelectric materials are the material that generates a
surface charge in response to an applied mechanical stress. Conversely they under go a
material deformation in response to an applied electric field. This unique capability
enables the material to be used both as a sensor and as an actuator. Smart system
applications of these material range from developing a skin like sensor to robotic
applications.
(b)Shape memory alloys (SMA): A shape memory (SMA) alloys have the ability to
remember a specified memorized shape. Below a specific temperature called transition
temperature. SMA can be plastically deformed from its memorized shapes. when it is
heated above transition temperature, the SMA will return to its memorized shape if not
constrained from doing so. SMAs can generate force through changing the temperature
across a transition state. eg.Nitinol (an Alloy of Nickel and titanium) is a commercial
SMA

(c)ElectroRheological (ER) fluids: ER fluids are typically the suspensions of micron
sized particles in suitable hydrophobic carrier liquids. They have an inherent ability to
undergo an abrupt and reversible change in viscosity when subjected to electrostatic
potential. vibration control using ER fluids has been demonstrated using hollow graphite
epoxy cantilever beams filled with various ER fluids
(d)Optical fibres: These are made up of glass and silica and utilize fibre properties to
provide optoelectric signals, which are indicative of external parameters to be measured.
They have a wide range of applications including measurements of temperature, pressure,
strain, displacement, and chemical composition.



- 14 -
2.3.3 Potential Applications Of Smart Materials In Civil Engineering

One idea is to place capsules or hollow fibers filled with crack-sealing material
into concrete which if cracked would break the fiber releasing the sealant.
Optical fibers which change in light transmission due to stress are useful sensors.
They can be embedded in concrete or attached to existing structures.Brown University
and the University of Rhode Island investigated the fundamentals and dynamics of
embedded optical fibers in concrete.
Japanese researchers recently developed glass and carbon fiber reinforced concrete which
provides the stress data by measuring the changes in electrical resistance in carbon fibers.

Semi-active vibration absorbers
A smart micro-controller coupled With hydraulic systems reduces large
vibration amplitudes over 50% produced by heavy trucks passing through a highway
bridge, adding 15% more load capacity and extending bridge life over 20 years.

Fibre optic sensors in bridges
Fiber-optic cables are etched by laser with 5-mm-long internal gauges, spaced
about 2 m apart. These cables, strung under the bridge with epoxy, will be able to detect
the stresses by sending light beams down the cable at regular intervals and by measuring
the bending of the light beams. These gauges can also be used to monitor general traffic
patterns. The sensors serve as a data collector as well as a wireless transmitter.
Bhalla and Soh (2004) obtained high frequency piezoelectric signatures for diagnosis of
seismic induced structural damages. Bhalla , Soh and Liu (2005) presented wave
propagation approach for NDE using surface bonded piezoceramics, can be employed for
real time and online monitoring of critical structures,such as machine parts and aircraft
components. Tseng and Wang (2003) used smart piezoelectric transducers for in situ
health monitoring of concrete. They quantified the damage using root mean square
deviation index. The experimental results are confirmed with numerical simulation.


- 15 -
2.3.4 RESEARCH NEEDED IN SMART STRUCTURES
The research needed in smart structures is as follows.
Among the topics requiring study are innovative energy sources for wireless
sensors, energy absorbing and variable-damping structural properties as well as
those having a stiffness that varies with changes in stress, temperature or
acceleration.
reliable accelerated tests for long-term durability behavior
improved computers, microprocessors and information technology
More accurate/complete modeling of lifetime predictions
New sensors and control systems; Non Destructive Technology ; new materials
Innovative, lightweight and reliable energy sources
Electrorheological fluids, shape memory alloys, etc.
Understanding corrosion better at the detail level

2.3.4 NECESSITY OF MODELLING

The integration of smart (active) materials with the traditional (passive) ones is a
key aspect in the behavior of the structures and their modelling. Modelling should be
such that stiffness and inertial mass of the structure not effected by transducers or
sensors. The above considerations give an idea of the motivations that drive the research
effort in modelling smart structures, and the reason why this is a very challenging and
open research field. The modeling of full material nonlinearities and the modelling of full
coupling between smart structures and fluids might be mentioned as possible examples
for future research.

2.4 SUMMARY

This chapter has described the concepts of structural health monitoring in recent
years. Various SHM techniques and their advantages and disadvantages have been
discussed. Latest research done in SHM and research needed in future also discussed. In
this particular project , conductance &susceptance signatures are obtained using finite
element modeling.
- 16 -
CHAPTER3

STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING WITH PIEZO ELECTRIC
ACTUATOR/SENSOR PATCHES

3.1 PIEZOELECTRICITY AND PIEZO ELECTRIC MATERIALS

The unique property of piezoelectric materials to play the dual roles of
actuators and sensors is utilized in this particular application.
Piezo electricity is the effect of interaction between electrical and mechanical
systems. it occurs in certain type of anisotropic crystals, in which electrical dipoles are
generated upon applying mechanical deformations. The same crystals also exhibit the
converse effect, that is, they under go mechanical deformations when subjected to electric
fields. This phenomena was discovered by Pierre and Paul-Jacques Curie in 1880.
Present research is FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING OF SMART
STRUCTURES. Particularly working of structure with piezo electric patch was studied.
Thats why these things were discussed in detailed manner as follows.

The prinicipal commercially available piezoelectric materials are
1. Piezoceramics, such as Lead Zirconate Titanate(PZT).
2. Piezopolymers, such as Polyvinvylidene Fluoride(PVDF).










- 17 -
3.2 FUNDAMENTAL PIEZOELECTRIC RELATIONS


Fig 3.1 (a) A PZT bonded to the structure (b) Interaction model of one half of
PZT and host structure. (Bhalla and Soh (2002)).
Consider a piezoceramic actuator bonded to host structure as shown in fig 3.1
by means of high strength epoxy adhesive and electrically excited by means of
impedance analyzer .It is assumed that the patch expands and contracts in direction 1
only when the electric field is applied in direction 3. h
a
, l
a
and w
a
are the thickness,
length, and width respectively of the PZT patch. T is stress applied in direction 1, and E
3

is the electric field applied in direction 3.
Fundamental relationships of the PZT patch may be expressed as (Ikeda, 1990)

S
1
=
1
31
11
E
T
d E
Y
+ (3.1)

3 33 3 31 1
T
D E d T = + (3.2)
where
S
1
= strain
D
3
= electric charge density over PZT

11
E
Y = Y
11
E
(1+j) is the Youngs modulus of the PZT patch at zero electric field.
= mechanical loss factor
T
33


=
T
33
(1-j) is the complex permittivity of the PZT material at zero stress
= dielectric loss factor
- 18 -
for d
31
first subscript signifies the direction of electric field and second subscript signifies
the direction of the resulting stress or strain.

3.3 PRINCIPLE AND METHOD OF APPLICATION

As suggested by Sun et al(1995) by inducing an alternating current source, pzt
patch Imposes a dynamic force on the structure it is bonded to. The structural response in
turn modulates the current flowing through the PZT i.e. affects the electrical Admittance.
The electrical admittance is therefore is a unique function of the mechanical impedance
of the structure at the point of attachment. Any variation in mechanical impedance will
alter the electrical admittance, which can be used as an indicator of damage. A frequency
range is selected for extracting conductance as a function of frequency. This is called
conductance signature. This frequency is kept typically high, in the order of kHz using an
impedance analyzer. The conductance signature is recorded for the healthy structure as
a bench mark. At any subsequent state, when structure health is required to be assessed,
the procedure is repeated. If any change in signatures is found, it is an indication of
damage.
The surface bonded piezoelectric patches, because of their inherent direct and
converse mechatronic coupling, can be effectively utilized as mechatronic impedance
transducers(MITs) for SHM. The MlT based technique has evolved during the last 8
years and is commonly called the electro mechanical impedance (EMI) technique in the
literature.

3.3.1 Description of EMI Technique

The PZT patch is assumed to be infinitesimally small and possessing negligible
mass and stiffness as compared to host structure. When an alternating electric field is
applied to PZT patch it expands and contracts dynamically in the direction 1. As shown
in fig 3.1 (b) Hence two end points of the patch can be assumed to encounter equal
mechanical impedance Z from the host structure.

- 19 -
Liang et al.(1994) solved the governing equilibrium equation for the system
shown in fig3.1(b), using impedance approach. Using Liangs derivation following
equation can be written for the complex electro mechanical admittance Y (inverse of
electrical impedance), of the coupled system shown in figure 3.1.


2 2
33 31 11 31 11
tan
2
T E E a a a
a a
w l kl Za
Y j d Y d Y
h Z Za kl

(
| |
| |
= +
( | |
+
\ . (
\ .

(3.3)
31
d = piezoelectric strain coefficient,
11
E
Y =complex Youngs modulus of the PZT patch at constant electric field.
33
T
=complex electric permittivity of the PZT material at constant stress.
Z =mechanical impedance of the structural system
a
Z =mechanical impedance of the PZT patch
= angular frequency
k =wave number.

Equation (3.3) is used in the damage detection in the EMI technique .The
mechanical impedance Z in the equation is a function of structural parameters i.e. the
stiffness, the damping and mass. Any damage to the structure will cause these
parameters to change, and hence changes the mechanical impedance Z. consequently,
electro mechanical admittance Y ,will under go change, and serves as an indicator of state
of health of the structure. Z cannot be measured easily but Y can be measured easily by
using an electrical impedance analyzer. The measured admittance is a complex quantity
consists of real and imaginary parts, the conductance(G ) and the suceptance (B ),
respectively. The real part actively interacts with the structure and is therefore preferred
in SHM applications. A plot of G over frequency serves as a diagnostic signature of the
structure and is called the conductance signature.



- 20 -
3.3.2 Damage quantification

Health of the structure can be known by visualizing the healthy signature and
signature obtained after some period when health monitoring is needed. But to quantify
changes in signature due to damage, there are few techniques such as wave form chain
code (WCC) technique, the signature assurance criteria (SAC), adaptive template
matching (ATM), equivalent level of degradation system, root mean square deviation
technique (RMSD) etc.
R.M.S.deviation of the signature was defined by Giurgiutu and Roger (1998a )
RMSD(%)=
( )
2
1
2
1
100
i n
i i
i
i n
i
i
w u
u
=
=
=
=

( 3.4)
where,
u
i
i-1,2,3,.,N is a base line signature and

w
i
i=1, 2,3,.,N is the signature obtained after a period of time.

3.3.3 Improvements of EMI technique in recent years

Major developments and contributions made by various researchers in the field of EMI
technique during last ten years are summarized as follows. (Park et al., 2003b)
(1) Application of EMI technique for SHM on a lab sized truss structure was first
developed by Sun et al.(1995). This study was then extended to a large scale
prototype truss joints by Aryes et al.(1998).
(2) Lopes et al. (1999) trained neural networks using statistical damage quantifiers
(Area under the conductance curve, root mean square (RMS)of the curve, rooy
mean square deviation (RMSD) between damaged and undamaged curves and
correlation coefficients ) using experimental data from a bolted joint structure.
(3) Park et al.(2000a) reported significant proof of concept applications of EMI
technique on civil structural components such as composites reinforced
- 21 -
massonary walls, steel bridge joints and pipe joints. The technique was found to
be very tolerant to mechanical noise and also to small temperature fluctuations.
(4) Park et al. (2000a) extended the EMI technique to high temperature applications
(typically>500
0
c), such as steam pipes and boilers in power plants. Besides he
also developed practical statistical cross section correlation based methodology
for temperature compensation.
(5) Soh et al. (2000) established the damage detection and localization ability of
piezo impedance transducers on real life RC structures by successfully
monitoring a 5m span RC bridge during its destructive load testing.
(6) Park et al.(2000b) were integrated the EMI technique with wave propagation
modeling for thin beams (1Dstructures) under free-free bopundary conditions,
by utilizing axial modes. The conventional statistical indices of the EMI
technique were used for locating damage in the frequency range 70-90 KHz.
(7) After the year 2000, numerous papers appeared in the literature demonstrating
successful extension of the technique on sophisticated structural components such
as restrengthened concrete members and jet engine components under high
temperature conditios (Winston et al., 2001).
(8) Inman et al. (2001)proposed a Novel technique to utilize a single PZT patch for
health monitoring as well as for vibration control.
(9) Abe et al.(2002) developed a new stress monitoring technique for thin structural
elements (such as springs, bars and plates) by applying wave propagation theory
to the EMI measurement data in the moderate frequency range (1-10KHz).
(10) Giurgiutu et al.(2002) combined the EMI technique with wave propagation
approach for crack detection in aircraft components. While EMI technique was
employed for near field damage detection, the guided ultrasonic wave
propagation technique (pulse echo) was used for far field damage detection.

3.4 ADVANTAGES OF EMI TECHNIQUE

(1) EMI technique shows greater damage sensitivity than the global SHM techniques.
It does not need expansive hard wares like the ultrasonic techniques.
- 22 -
(2) The PZT patches possess negligible weight can be bonded non-intrusively on the
structure. No need to dismantle the structure.
(3) As PZT can be used both as actuator and sensor, reduces the number of
transducers and eliminates complicated wiring .
(4) The PZT patches are available at very low costs, hence can be used at any
number of locations.
(5) This technique does not need to interfere the functioning of structures.
(6) The method can be implemented at any time in the life of a structure.
(7) Since PZT patches are commercially available and portable, there are used in
wide range of applications.
3.5 LIMITATIONS OF EMI TECHNIQUE
1. since the sensing zone PZT patch is limited to 0.4 to 2m only, thousands of PZT
patches are required for real life monitoring of civil engineering structures like
bridges and multi storied buildings.
2. This technique does not give the over all stability of structure. Since civil
engineering structures are of indeterminate in nature, occurrence of cracks at
some places may not affect the overall stability of structure.

3.6 CONCLUSION

In this chapter fundamental piezoelectric relations, structural health monitoring
using piezoelectric actuator or sensor patches, recent developments in EMI technique and
advantages and limitations of EMI technique were briefly discussed.









- 23 -
CHAPTER4
FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING OF SMART STRUCTURES

4.1 IMPORTANCE OF NUMERICAL SIMULATION

Since the last two decades, the use of smart structures in area of structural
monitoring has been increased tremendously. Research in area of smart structures need to
be developed to meet the future requirements in civil engineering field. In research it is
not preferable to built the structures to under go damages to study the behaviour of smart
structures. This necessitates finite element modelling of smart structures. Numerical
modeling of structures eliminates the tedious and time consuming laboratory work. It is
necessary to determine the conductance signatures by numerical simulation at high
frequencies in addition to experimental methods. In addition to develop robust pattern
recognition algorithms that can classify situations other than those in the laboratory,
numerical simulation at high frequency are needed to study the signatures associated with
additional type of damage. As the experimental work are tedious and expansive,
numerical simulations can significantly reduce R&D cost.
Tseng and Wang (2004) conducted numerical study on a concrete beam with a
progressive damage on its surface. They investigated signature in a frequency range of
20-25 kHz, considering only one dimensional vibration. They are concluded that PZT
patch are not capable of detecting damage, when damage is located 500 mm from the
damage. Results of Tseng and Wang are shown in fig 4.1. From the figures 4.1(a) and
4.1(b) it could be observed that peak conductance was not obtained at the same frequency
in experimental and simulation cases.
- 24 -

(a)



(b)
Fig 4.1(a) Pristine conductance signatures on specimen 1. (Tseng and Wang 2004).
(b) Pristine conductance signatures on specimen 2 (Tseng and Wang 2004).


Giurgiutiu and Zagari (2002) numerically studied a beam structure with PZT
patch on its surface. They made an attempt to study the effect of PZT patches in
comparison with conventional sensors. Numerical study was conducted on four types of
beams narrow thin, narrow thick, wide thin , wide thick. Results obtained for double
thickness beams were found to be less precise due to in homogeneity introduced by the
layer of glue between single thickness beams. This inhomogeneity altered the electro
- 25 -
mechanical impedance response of a beam. They conducted the study at ultrasonic
frequency range. The results of their study are reproduced in fig 4.2.

Fig 4.2 Experimental and calculated impedance vs frequency(Giurgiutiu and Zagari
2002).
From fig 4.2 it is observed that the calculated impedance (or conductance) values
are deviated more than 100 times from the experimental impedance (or conductance).
The reason was given as nonhomogeneity introduced by the material.

In the present study, for understanding the conductance signature of the RC
frame, a numerical simulation study was carried out, using the finite element method. The
frequency range was kept as 100 to 150 kHz, since the experimental study by Bhalla and
soh (2004) confined to this range only.
Liangs impedance equation (Liang et al.) is used to determine electrical
admittance spectrum measured at the terminals of the PZT patches. From the literature it
is know that closed form solutions are available for structural impedance at low
frequency techniques only. In this study it is intended to compare experimental results
with numerical solutions at high frequencies typically in kHz.
When PZT patch is bonded on a structure and harmonic voltage used to
activate, dynamic force of the PZT patch on the host structure is represented as pair of
self -equilibrating harmonic forces of constant amplitude is given by

- 26 -
( )
i t
F t Fe

= (4.1)

Where,
F = Amplitude of the harmonic exciting force,

= exciting angular frequency

t = time

The structural impedance Z at the location of the PZT patch is defined as the force
acting on the driving point divided by the response velocity of the transducer v(t)


( )
( )
F t
Z
v t
= (4.2)
In response to harmonic excitation the displacement of PZT patch is given by

X=
i t
Xe

(4.3)

where,
X is the amplitude of the response displacement of PZT at the exciting frequency .
The response velocity of the transducer can be written as

v =
dX
dt
=
iwt
i Xe (4.4)
The structural impedance at the location of the PZT patch at the exciting frequency
can thus be expressed as
Z =
F
i X
(4.5)
- 27 -
After getting structural displacement response from the finite element method,
structural impedance can be obtained from the equation (4.5), and the electrical
admittance for the PZT patch can be obtained using Liangs equation (3.3).


4.2 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING OF RC FRAME

In the present work numerical investigations were conducted on a lab sized RC
frame using finite element for which experimental study was done by Bhalla. and Soh
(2004).
Part-1 of the major project, preliminarily conductance signature of the numerical
RC lab sized frame was obtained. In part -2, further refinement of the model has been
carried out and various types of damages have been simulated.
The properties of the concrete are listed in the table 4.1. Properties of the PZT patch is
shown in Table 4.2



Table 4.1 Material properties of concrete




Table 4.2 Mechanical and electrical properties of PZT.




Physical parameter value
Youngs modulus (MPa)
Density (kg/m
3
)
Poisons ratio
Mass damping factor
Stiffness damping factor

2.74 104
2400
0.3
0.001
1.5 10
8

- 28 -
Physical parameters value
Density (kg/m
3
)
Dielectric constant,
33
T

Piezoelectric constant, d
31
(m V
1
)
Youngs modulus, Y
E
11
(MPa)
Dielectric loss factor,
Mechanical loss factor,
7800
33 2.124 10
8
2.1 10
10

6.667 10
10

0.015
0.001


The RC frame on which experimental study was carried out is shown in fig4.3


Fig 4.3 Details of the test frame (All dimensions are in mm) (Bhalla and Soh 2004).

As part of the project finite element model of the frame was developed using
plane solid 42 element of 10 mm size using Ansys 9 soft ware. A pair of self
equilibrium harmonic forces of 100 kN are applied at the Location of PZT patch 2 to
- 29 -
simulate the piezoceramic load on the frame. For simplicity PZT patch was located at
the centre of the beam. Boundary conditions are simulated as it is on the experimental
frame. Fig.4.4 shows the 2D finite element model of the symmetric left half of the
experimental frame.



. Fig 4.4 Finite element model of lab sized RC frame.

Harmonic analysis of the frame was carried out by applying self equilibrating
constant axial harmonic forces at the PZT patch in the frequency range of 100 to 150
KHz. Translational displacements in x-direction at the location of PZT patch were
obtained at frequency interval of 1 kHz in between 100 to 150 kHz.
Structural impedance and electrical admittance were calculated at 1 kHz frequency
interval using the equations 4.5 and 3.3 respectively.The process was initially carried
- 30 -
with 10mm element size. The entire procedure was repeated with 5mm, 4mm, 3mm
element sizes. It was observed that convergence of the conductance signature attainedat
an element size of 3mm. Therefore conductance signature with 3mm element size is
considered as healthy signature of the numerical study. Figure 4.5 the conductance
signature corresponding to these three sizes.
Now a flexural damage in the form of vertical crack was introduced at PZT
location and again Harmonic analysis is carried out for the numerical model to obtain
conductance signature at the damaged state. It is assumed that vertical crack occurred at
the PZT location. For introducing damage Youngs modulus of the elements at the
location of damage is reduced to 210
5
N/M
2
. Deviation of this signature with healthy
signature indicated the presence of damage. Numerical analysis results are compared with
experimental results. The RMSD index with respect to the pristine state signature can
determined by equation (3.4)

4.3 RESULTS

The following results were obtained from numerical Analysis of Finite element
model of RC Lab sized frame as part-1 of the project.

Fig.4.5 shows the results of the numerical process when approached with 10mm, 5mm
and 3 mm. sizes of the elements.
- 31 -
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
100000 110000 120000 130000 140000 150000 160000
Frequency (Hz)
C
o
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e

(
S
)
3mm
5mm
10mm

Fig 4.5 Conductance signatures using 10mm, 5mm and 3mm size of the elements.

From the figure 4.5 it is observed that pristine signature using 3mm elements converged
with pristine signature corresponding to the 5mm elements. This is justified by the fact
that most of the curve patterns are similar for these mesh sizes. Hence conductance
signature obtained using 3mm element is considered as conductance signature of the RC
model frame .This can be compared with theexperimental signature shown in Fig
4.7(Bhalla& Soh, 2004)
- 32 -
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
100000 110000 120000 130000 140000 150000 160000
Frequency (Hz)
c
o
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e

(
s
)

Fig 4.6 Numerical conductance signature of the pristine frame model.

Experimental Healthy conductance signature

Signature obtained by Bhalla (2003) is shown in fig. 4.7.

Fig 4.7 Experimental conductance signature of the pristine frame model.(Bhalla and Soh
2003).


4.4 COMPARATIVE STUDY
- 33 -
Discussions:
It is observed from the Fig 4.6& 4.7 that simulated and experimental
signatures are more are less similar in nature. Peak conductance in the both signatures
occurs at quite close at same frequencies (117 and 127kHz). Although the magnitudes are
different, the results show much improvement than Tseng(2004) and Giurgiutiu & Zagrai
(2002) results. In case of Tseng (2004), peak conductance in experimental and simulation
curves did not coincide at same frequency. In the case of Giurgiutiu & Zagrai(2002), the
conductance varied by nearly 100 times. But in the present study, conductance varied by
65 times only. The variation is due to high frequency effects which could not be included
in the analysis and variation of damping of concrete. From dynamic analysis point of
view, the damping of concrete might varied from 2% to 6%.
4.5 DEVIATION IN CONDUCTANCE SIGNATURE WITH FLEXURAL
DAMAGE
Healthy conductance signature has been compared with signature obtained by
introducing small vertical flexural crack at PZT location. This is shown in Fig 4.8. From
it can be observed that the conductance signature corresponding to damaged state shifted
vertically and laterally from the healthy conductance signature. In this way structural
health monitoring can be done using piezoceramic actuator/sensor patches.
- 34 -
Fig 4.8 simulated conductance signature of healthy and damaged state.

4.6 STUDY OF CONDUCTANCE SIGNATURE PATTERN BY INDUCING
DIFFERENT DAMAGES TO THE NUMERICAL MODEL.
As a second part of the project various damages at various locations were
induced for the numerical model, and the resulting conductance signature was studied.



4.6.1Determination of damping constants:
Before simulating damaged model an attempt was made to further refine the
model developed during part-1 by determine the appropriate damping constants. For this
purpose, the conductance signatures were obtained for different combinations of the
damping constants & . Results are as shown in Fig 4.9
And results are as follows.
- 35 -

Fig 4.9 conductance signatures with different damping constants.
From this figure it can be observed that conductance
signature with =0, =1e-09 leads to much better comparable results with experimental
results. The validity of damping constants can be justified as follows.
Mass damping constant () = 0, Stiffness damping constant () = 1e-09, We have ,
Damping ratio () = / 2, = mean frequency= 12510
3
2 rad/sec.
From the above Damping ratio () = 6.125%.From the dynamic analysis point of view
damping ratio recommended for reinforced concrete is 3% to 6 %.( A.k.Chopra). hence
the values of , used presently are reasonable & hence used in all future work.
.
Heallthy conductance signature (simulated )
0
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.01
100000 110000 120000 130000 140000 150000 160000
Frequency (Hz)
c
o
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e

(
s
)
Series1

Fig 4.10 Numerical conductance signatures with modified damping constants.
In part-1, numerically obtained results varied by 60 times with the experimental one.
Now it came down to the 15 to 20 times. These results thus show better improvement
compared to Giurgiutiu& Zagrai (2002) work.

- 36 -
4.7 STUDY OF EFFECT OF DAMAGE ON CONDUCTANCE SIGNATURE OF
NUMERICAL MODEL RC FRAME.

4.7.1 Effect of Flexural Crack
A flexural crack at the location of maximum bending moment on the top beam of the
frame was induced by reducing the youngs modulus of the elements at that location from
2.74E 10 to 1E-06. Frame model with flexural crack was shown in Fig 4.11.
Deformations at the location of PZT patch at predetermined frequency range was
obtained and Conductance signature of the damaged numerical frame was obtained
shown in Fig 4.12.


Fig 4.11 simulated RC frame with Flexural cracks.

- 37 -
Fig 4.12 Effect of flexural crack on conductance signature.

From the figure 4.11 it can be observed that conductance signature of numerical model
with flexural damage was shifted laterally right and vertically up. Peak conductance also
changed for a considerable amount. Root mean square deviation was found to be 16.82%



4.7.2 Effect Of Shear Crack

Now a shear crack at an angle of 45
0
was introduced near PZT patchs location
of the top beam, by reducing youngs modulus of elements at that location. RC frame
with shear crack was in Fig. 4.13. Conductance signature changed as shown in Fig 4.14.


Effect of flexural cracks
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
100000 110000 120000 130000 140000 150000 160000
Frequency ( Hz)
c
o
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e
healthy
with flexural cracks
- 38 -


Fig 4.13 RC frame with shear crack near PZT location.

Resulting conducting signature was shown below.

- 39 -
Effect of shear cracks
0.005
0.0055
0.006
0.0065
0.007
0.0075
0.008
0.0085
0.009
0.0095
100000 110000 120000 130000 140000 150000 160000
Frequency (Hz)
c
o
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e
healthy
with shear crackks

Fig 4.14 Effect of shear crack on conductance signature

From fig 4.14, it can be observed that because of presence of shear crack signature
moved vertically downward. So presence of such a change in signature indicates us that
structure undergone shear damage.Root mean square index for this case was found to be
15.74%

4.7.3 Effect Of Both Flexural And Shear Cracks
Now both flexural and shear cracks were induced together and the change in signature is
observed. Frame with both flexural and shear cracks are shown in Fig 4.15. Resulting
conductance signature was shown in Fig 4.16






- 40 -
Effect of different damages on conductance signature
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.01
0.011
100000 110000 120000 130000 140000 150000 160000
frequency (KHz)
c
o
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e
n

(
s
)
Healthy
with flexural cracks
with shear cracks
shear+ Flexural cracks

Fig 4.15. Simulated frame with both flexural and shear cracks.
Fig 4.16 Effect of different types of damages on conductance signature of numerical
model frame.
- 41 -

From fig 4.16 it can be observed that conductance signature with both flexural and shear
cracks is between signatures with effect of flexural crack and shear cracks
individually.Root mean square index for this case was found to be 10.42%

4.7.4 Effect Of Distance Of PZT From The Damage Location:

The Fig 4.17 shows the change in conductance signature with increase in distance of
PZT from damage location.

effect of distance of PZT from damage location
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
100000 110000 120000 130000 140000 150000 160000
Frequency (KHz)
c
o
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e

(
s
)
Healthy
PZT at damage location
Damage at 200mm away from
PZT

Fig 4.17 Effect of PZT distance from the damage location.

From figure 4.17 it was observed that when the damage occurs at the
location of the PZT patch, clear change in the conductance signature occurs. When the
PZT patch is at 150 mm away from the damage location change is observed is very
small. When the damage happened 150 mm away from PZT, it was not able to detect the
presence of damage.


- 42 -
4.8 COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL AND SIMULATED RESULTS.

Experimental conductance signatures
0.0002
0.0003
0.0004
0.0005
0.0006
0.0007
0.0008
0.0009
0.001
100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150
Frequency (kHz)
C
o
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e

(
S
)
BASELINE
STATE:1
STATE:2
STATE:3
STATE:4
STATE:5
STATE:6
STATE:7
STATE:8

Fig 4.18 Experimental results (Bhalla &Soh 2004)


Fig 4.18 shows the effect of damage experimentally observed on the
conductance signature. In the experiment, the frame was subjected to different dynamic
loads by changing frequency , velocity amplitude, acceleration amplitude, reffering ti
state 1 to state 8. From Experimental results it was observed that there was some
deviation in the signatures as compared to baseline signature, up to state 3. from state 4 to
state 6 there was a prominent and sequential vertical shift in the signature as compared to
the earlier states. At state 7 prominent crack was found around and conductance
signature prominently downwards. At state 8 crack progresses through the PZT patch
and sudden vertical shift of the conductance signature was observed clearly. it was clear
that before visual observation of the damage, change in conductance signature explains
us the presence of minute cracks.
- 43 -
Simulated results
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
100000 110000 120000 130000 140000 150000 160000
FRequency (KHz)
c
o
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e

(
s
)
HEALTHY
with Flexural cracks
Shear
Flexural+shear cracks
Away from PZT
z

Fig 4.19 Results obtained from Numerical model.


From the results obtained numerically, it was observed that conductance
signature followed the same pattern as that of experimental results .Simulated baseline
signatures varied from the experimental signatures by nearly 20 times.With the
occurrence of the flexural cracks at the location of maximum bending moment,
conductance signature shifted vertically upward and laterally right. With the occurrence
of shear cracks conductance signature shifted down wards. With both flexural and shear
cracks, the conductance signature was found to be between above two curves. The
presence of the damage up to a distance of 150 mm from the PZT location was
significantly detected by the conductance signature. However Beyond 150 mm distance,
the PZT patch unable to detect the presence of damage.









- 44 -
Chapter 5

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIOS.


5.1 CONCLUSIONS

(1) On this project, Finite element model for an RC lab sized frame was
developed using ANSYS 9 software, for which experimental results are obtained by
Bhalla and Soh (2004). Self equilibrium harmonic forces of 100 kN were applied at PZT
location and Harmonic analysis was carried out at a frequency range of 100 kHz to 150
kHz. Translational displacements were obtained at PZT patches in the direction of
applied forces at an interval of 1 kHz. Electrical admittance was obtained at each 1 kHz
interval. Conductance signature for the PZT patch was drawn and compared with
experimental signature. The patterns of both signatures was observed as same manner.
Both signatures obtained the peak conductance at the identical frequencies. But there is a
variation in magnitude. These variations are due to high frequency analysis, boundary
effects and uncertainty of concrete damping.
(2). By reducing the youngs modulus of elements in some locations the effect
of different types of cracks was introduced. And again procedure was repeated and
conductance signature of damaged state was obtained. Effect of different types of
damages was clearly demarcated by the conductance signatures. Numerically obtained
healthy and damaged signatures followed the same pattern as that of experimental
results. Both experimental and numerical conductance signatures showed the peak
conductance at identical frequencies. It is found that PZT patches can easily detect
damages as far as 150mm.The results obtained by Giurgiutiu and Zagari (2002) are
shown a variation of 100 times with the experimentals. But in the present research, the
deviation t was around 20 times only. Hence, this is the better simulation compared to
earlier researchs.
(3) This numerical simulation is useful in future researches in smart structures
concept. Using these simulations tedious experimental works can be avoided. It leads to
saving of time and economic resourcse. According to Tseng and Wang (2004) detection
of damage by a PZT patch limited to 500 mm from the PZT patch. Therefore for large
- 45 -
civil engineering structures require more number of PZT patches and impedance
analyzers are required .This difficulty can be overcome by using numerical simulation
method. Using simulation method, conductance signature for various damage patterns
can be studied with out subjecting the structure to any cracks.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Research in area of smart structures can be handled at an ease with this numerical
modelling.
2 The conductance signature patterns for various types of damages and for damages
which cannot be studied in laboratory can obtained by numerical modeling.
3. Challenging tasks like modelling of piezo electric coupling in shell or plate structures
can be performed in this manner.
4. Fracture analysis in the presence of coupled behavior is another critical aspect to be
studied with help of numerical modeling
5. The modelling of full material nonlinearities and the modelling of full coupling
between smart structures and liquids might be mentioned as possible examples for future
research.

5.3 REMARKS:

1.Numerical results indicate that location of piezo electric patch have significant
influence on efficiency of smart structure.
2. The validity and efficiency of modeling confirmed by comparing numerical results
with experimental results.
3.It is feasible to model a efficient smart structure using finite element methods.


5.4 ADVANTAGES OF NUMERICAL MODELING:
1. Actual Structure need not be subjected to many damages for research purpose.
2. Experimental and analytical results can be validated with numerical modeling.
- 46 -
3. Since influence zone of PZT patch is limited, experimental study needs thousands
of PZT patchs required for bridge like structures. It can be avoided in Numerical
modeling.

5.5 LIMITATIONS.

1. In numerical modelling material is assumed as elastic, linear isotropic
2. Temperature was not taken into account. But properties of the PZT patch varies with
the temperature.
3.Effect of initial cracks formed during curing and hardening may not accounted with the
damping constants used.
4. Coupled behaviour of the smart materials cause nonlinear nature. In case of piezo
electric material, the encounter inversion of material characteristics in presence of
sufficient electric field was not taken into account.

REFERENCES

Ahmad, I. (1988), Smart Structures and Materials, proceedings of U.S. Army Research
Office Workshop on Smart Materials, Structures and Mathematical Issues, edited by
C.A.Rogers, September 15-16, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University,
Technomic publishing Co., Inc, pp.13-16.

Aktan, A. E., Catbas, F. N., Grimmelsman, K. A. and Tsikos, C. J. (2000), "Issues in
Infrastructure Health Monitoring for Management", Journal of Engineering Mechanics,
ASCE, Vol. 126, No. 7, pp 711-724..

Aktan, A. E., Helmicki, A .J. and Hunt, V. J. (1998), Issues in Health Monitoring for
Intelligent Infrastructure , Journal of Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 7, No.5, pp.
674-692.

Andrei, N., Zagrai, A. N. and Giurgiutiu, V. (2002), Electro-Mechanical Impedance
Method for Crack Detection in Thin Plates, Smart Materials and Structures., Vol.37,
No.4, pp 578-589.

Ayres, J. W., Lalande, F., Chaudry, Z. And Rogers, C.A. (1998), Qualitative
Impedance-Based Health Monitoring of Civil Infrastructures, Smart Materials and
Structures, Vol.7, No. 5, pp.599-605.

Benz, R., Niethammer, M., Hurlebaus, S., Jacobs, L. (2003), Localization of notches
with Lamb waves, Journal of Acoustical Society of America , Vol.114, No. 2, pp. 677
685.

Bhalla, S., Soh, C. K. (2004), High frequency piezoelectric signatures for diagnosis of
seismic/blast induced structural damages, NDT&E International, Vol. 37, pp. 2333.

Bhalla, S., Soh, C. K. and Liu, Z. (2005), Wave propagation approach for NDE using
surface bonded piezoceramics, NDT&E International Vol.38, pp. 143150.
Casas, J. R., Aparicio, A. C. (1994), Structural damage identification from dynamic test
data, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 120, No. 8, pp.24372450.

Choi, K., Chang, F. K. (1996), Identification of impact force and location using
distributed sensors, Journal of AIAA , Vol.34, No.1, pp. 136142.

Davis, C., Lesieutre. G., (1995), A modal strain energy approach to the prediction of
resistively shunted piezoceramic damping, Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 184,
No.1, pp. 129139.

Doebling, S., Farrar, C., Prime, M., Shevitz, D. (1996), Damage identification and
health monitoring of structural and mechanical systems from changes in their vibration
characteristics, A Literature Review, Report la-13070-ms, Los Alamos National
Laboratory, Engineering Sciences and Applications Division, Engineering Analysis
Group, May.

Farrar, C. R., Sohn, H., Hemez, F. M., Anderson, M. C., Bement, M. T., Cornwell, P. J.,
Doebling, S. D., Lieven, N., Robertson, A. N., and Schultze, J. F. (2003) Damage
Prognosis: Current Status and Future Needs, Los Alamos National Laboratory Report,
LA-14051-MS.

Giurgiutiu, V., Roger, C.A., (1997), Electrochemical (E/M) Impedance Method to
Structural Health Monitoring and Non Destructive Evaluation, Proceedings of
International Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring, Stanford university , Stanford,
California, September 18-20. Technomic Publishing Co., pp. 443-44.

Giurgiutiu,V., Roger,C. A. (1998), Recent Advancements in Electro-Mechanical
Impedance Method for Structural Health Monitoring and NDE, Proceedings of the SPIE
conference on Smart structures and integrated systems, Vol. 3329, pp. 536-37.

Giurgiutiu, V., Zagrai, A. N. (2002), Embedded Self-Sensing Piezoelectric Active
Sensors for On-Line Structural Identification, Journal of Vibration and Acoustics , Vol.
124, pp 116-125.


Hagood, N., Flotow, A. V, (1991), Damping of structural vibrations with piezoelectric
materials and passive electrical networks, Journal of Sound and Vibration , Vol.146,
No.2, pp. 243268.

Hurlebaus, S.,. Gaul, L. (2004), Smart layer for damage diagnostics, Journal of
Intelligent Material Systems and Structures , Vol.15, pp. 729736.

Inman, D.J., Ahmadihan, M. and Claus, R. O. (2001), Simultaneous Active Damping
and Health Monitoring Aircrafts Panels, Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and
Structures, Vol.12, No.11, pp.775-783.

Liang, c., Sun, F. P., Rogers, C.A. (1993), Coupled electro-mechanical analysis of
adaptive material sytems- Determination of Actuator Power Consumption and System
Energy Transfer, Journal of Intelligent Material Systems ans Structures, Vol 5, pp.12-
20.
Lin, M., Chang, F. K. (1998), Development of SMART layer for built-in diagnostics
for composite structures, The 13th Annual ASC Technical Conferences on Composite
Material, American Society of Composite, Baltimore, MD, pp. 16-23.

Lopes Lynch, J. P., Law, K. H., Kiremidjian, A. S., Kenny, T. and Carryer, E., Partridge,
A. (2001), The design of a wireless sensing unit for structural health monitoring, 3rd
International Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring, Stanford, CA, pp.1041-1050.

Lemistre, M., Balageas, D. (2001), Structural Health Monitoring System Based on
Diffracted Lamb Wave Analysis by Multiresolution Processing, Smart Materials and
Structures, Vol. 10, No.3, pp. 504511.

Marsi, S. F., Nakamura, M., Chassiakos, A. G. and Caughey, T. K. (1996), Neural
Network Approach to Detection of Changes in Structural Parameters, Journal of
Engineering. Mechanics, ASCE, Vol.122, No. 4, pp. 350360.


Peairs, D., Park, G., Inman, D.(2004), Practical issues of activating self-repairing
bolted joints, Smart Materials and Structures , Vol.13, No. 6, pp. 14141423.

Pandey, A. K. and Biswas, M., (1994), Damage Detection in Structures Using Changes
in Flexibility, Journal of Sound And Vibration, Vol.169, No.1, pp. 3-17.

Park, G., Cudney, H.H. and Inman, D.J. (2000a), Impedance Based health Monitoring
of Civil Structural Components, Journal of Infrastructure Systems, ASCE, Vol.6, No. 4,
pp.153-160.

Park, G., Cudney, H.H. and Inman, D.J. (2000b), An Integrated Health Monitoring
Technique Using Structural Impedance Sensors, Journal of Intelligent Material systems
and Structures , Vol. 11, pp.448-455.


Park, G., Sohn, H., Farrar, C. R. and Inman, D .J. (2003), Overview of Piezoelectric
Impeadance Based Health Monitoring and Path Forward, The Shock Vibration Digest,
Vol. 35, No.5, PP.451-463.


Soh, C. K., Tseng. K. K. H., Bhalla, S and Gupta, A. (2000), performance of Smart
Piezoceramic patches in Health Monitoring of a RC Bridge, Smart Materials and
Structures, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp.533-542.

Spencer, B. F. (2003). Opportunities and challenges for smart sensing technology,
Structural Health Monitoring and Intelligent Infrastructure, Wu & Abe (eds), Tokyo,
Japan, pp.65-71.

Sun, F. P., Chaudby , Z., Roges ,C. A., Majmundar, M., Liang, c. (1995), Automated
real-time structural health monitoring via signature pattern recognition, Procedings of
the SPIE Conference on Smart Structures and Materials, San Diego, California, Vol.
2443, pp 236-47.

Tseng, K. K., Wang, L., (2004), Smart piezoelectric transducers for in situ health
monitoring of concrete, Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 13, 10171024

Wang, K., Kim, Y.,. Shea, D.(1994), Structural Vibration Control via
Electrorheological-Fluid-based Actuators With Adaptive Viscous and Frictional
Damping, Journal of Sound and Vibration , Vol. 177, No 2, pp. 227237.

Wang, M. L., Heo, G. and Satpathi, D., (1998), A Health Monitoring System for Large
Structural Systems, Journal of Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 7, No. 5, pp. 606-
616.

Wilcox, P.,. Dalton, R., Lowe, M., Cawley, P.(2000), Mode selection and transduction
for structural health monitoring using Lamb waves, Structural Health Monitoring,
Technomic Publishing Company Inc., Lancaster, 1999, pp. 703712.

Yao, J. T. P. (1985), Saftey and Reliability of Existing Structures, Pitman Publishing
Programme, Boston.

Zimmerman, D. C. and Kaouk, M (1994), Structural Damage Detection Using a
Minimum Rank Update Theory, Journal of Vibration and Accoustics, Vol.116, pp.222
231.