Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A. Literature Review
containing three things which are necessary, they are: experience, discrimination,
and association (Madsen, 1970: 8). Usman (1992: 16) defines teaching as the
skill by study, experience, or obstruction (Brown, 1987: 6). Webster (1979: 1032)
Gagne in Rustiyah (1994: 39) states that the teaching and learning
learning process. Kemp (1977: 39-40) proposes different category of teaching and
are goals, topic and general purposes, learner characteristics, learning objectives,
1) Learner
Breen and Candlin in Richards (1985: 22-23) explain about the learner’s
“The role of learner as negotiator-the self, the learning process, and the
object of learning-emerges from and interacts with the role of joint
negotiator within the group and within the classroom procedures and
activities which the group undertakes. The implication for the learners is
that he should contribute as much as he gains, and thereby learn in an
independent way”.
Johnson and Paulston in Richards (1985: 23) state about the learner’s role in
(a) the learner is the planner of his own learning program and thus ultimately
assumes responsibility for what he or she does in the class room;
(b) the learner is the monitor and evaluator of his/her own progress;
(c) the learner is a member of a group and learns by interacting with others;
(d) the learner is a tutor of other learners;
(e) the learner learns from the teacher, from other students, and from other
teaching sources.
2) Teacher
knowledge; others see the teacher as the catalyst, consultant, diagnostician, guide,
and model for learning. In the classical audio-lingual method, the teacher is
conductor of the orchestra, whose prime goal is to keep the players in tune and
time, and without whom no music could be performed (Richards, 1985: 23-24).
investigate the student potentials and personality, and motivate students for their
future life (Samana, 1994; 29). Usman (1994: 7-10) states that the teachers’ roles
materials to be taught to their students, and always improve their skill related to
manage the classroom because the classroom is the learning environment and the
have enough knowledge about educational media because sometimes they have to
use and create the media to support the teaching and learning process. It is
teaching and learning process more effective. So, they will help the students to
understand the materials easily. As evaluators, the teachers should be able to
evaluate the process and the result of the teaching and learning process. It is
because evaluation will inform them about the students’ progress and the
Breen and Candlin in Richards (1985: 24) propose about the teacher’s role
“The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate
communication process between all participants in the classroom, and
between these participants and the various activities and text. The second
role is to act as an independent participant within the learning and teaching
group. The later role is closely related to the objectives of the first role and
arises from it. This role implies a set of secondary roles for the teacher;
first, as an organizer of resources and as a resource himself, second as a
guide within the classroom procedures and activities… A third role for the
teacher is that if researcher and learner, with much to contribute in terms
of appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual and observed experience of
the nature of learning and organizational capacities”.
Kemp (1977: 45-47) states that the content of the syllabus must closely
related to the objective and students’ needs. Objectives are what the teachers’
want the content to do. For many teachers, the subject content is the traditional
strategy point for teaching. In the planning, teachers are developing the syllabus,
and developing the materials from the textbook which consider as the source of
the subject content. Kemp (1977: 49) also states that the subject content
comprises the selection and organizes the specific knowledge (fact and
What is specified with respect to the content (the syllabus) and to the
learner as well as teacher roles suggest the function for materials (Richards, 1985:
as the study of the practice and procedures used in teaching, and the principles
standardized set of procedures or principles for teaching a language that are based
upon a given set of theoretical premises about the nature of language and
language learning (Richards, 1985: 32). Roestiyah (1994: 65) states that a method
present information.
learning. Within one approach, there can be more than one method, while a
technique is implementation. An approach is simply defined as a theoretical
classroom activities.
5) Media
materials that serve instructional functions in education. (Burden & Byrd, 1999:
137). Sugeng (1997: 46) states that media are important factors to facilitate the
teaching and learning process. In the teaching and learning process the teacher has
to choose the media selectively, it is because the media that is used must be
Kemp and Smellie in Burden and Byrd (1999: 13) mention some benefits
of media as follows:
(1) The content of topic can be more carefully selected and organized.
(2) The delivery of instruction can be more standardized.
(3) The instruction can be more interesting.
(4) Learning becomes more interactive when applying accepted learning theory.
(5) The length of time required for instruction can be reduced.
(6) The quality of learning can be improved.
(7) The instruction can be provided when and where desired or necessary.
(8) The positive attitude of individuals towards what they are learning and to the
learning process itself can be enhanced.
(9) The role of instructor or teacher can be enhanced.
technological aids in language teaching into two namely language laboratory and
visual media. The visual media consist of pictures, whiteboard, marker, charts,
slide and slide projectors, film strips, opaque projectors, overhead projectors,
motion pictures, and television.
Burden and Byrd (1999: 144-159) also have a similar idea. They state that
a wide variety of media and resources are available for instructional purposes
including audio visual materials, books and duplicates materials, and other
display boards, flip charts, etc.), projected visual (overhead projector and
system, etc), film and video, electronic distribution system (radio, television, etc.),
and workbooks. Other resources are free and inexpensive materials (brochures,