Cambridge Archaeological Journal. The Empowerment of Imagery - Stone Warriors in The Borders

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The Empowerment of Imagery: Stone Warriors in the Borders
Javier Rodrguez-Corral
Cambridge Archaeological Journal / Volume 23 / Issue 02 / June 2013, pp 283 - 306
DOI: 10.1017/S0959774313000280, Published online: 05 June 2013
Link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0959774313000280
How to cite this article:
Javier Rodrguez-Corral (2013). The Empowerment of Imagery: Stone Warriors in the Borders. Cambridge Archaeological
Journal, 23, pp 283-306 doi:10.1017/S0959774313000280
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283
The Imovermenl of Imagery: Slone Warriors in lhe orders
Thc Empnwcrmcnt nI Imagcry:
5tnnc Warrinrs in thc Bnrdcrs
}avier Rodriguez-CorraI
Tnis ariic|c cxp|crcs inc pcicniia| ccniri|uiicn cj a |icgrapnica|, pncncncnc|cgica| an!
pcrjcrnaiitc apprcacn ic inc siu!q cj naicria| inagcs in inc pasi inrcugn a pariicu|ar siu!q
casc. inc uarricr siaiucs jrcn inc sc-ca||c! Casirc cu|iurc in ncrinucsicrn ||cria. Tnc
ain is ic prcti!c a !i[crcni uaq cj ininking, as cppcsc! ic inc ira!iiicna| ccnccpiicns inai
natc prctai|c! in arcnacc|cgica| rcscarcn, iaking inic acccuni unai naicria| jcrns cna||c
inc ccnsiruciicn cj inc sccia| ai a nicrc-sca|c |ctc|. Tc inis cn!, inc auincr ana|qscs ncu
incsc siaiucs aciitc|q |ui|! incir cun ncaning an! scnsc in inc sccic-naicria| ccnicxis
uncrc incq |c|cng, an! ncu, in inis prcccss, incir naicria|iiq pariakcs in inc crcaiicn an!
nainicnancc cj in!igcncus i!cniiiq an! sccia|iiq.
roducing, mainlaining and reformuIaling il in lhe
various socio-maleriaI conlexls vhere il is incoro-
raled lhroughoul ils exislence, lhus funclioning in
dierenl forms and vilh diverse meanings.
My urose here is lo consider lhe imIicalions
lhal lhe relurn lo lhe lhings lhemseIves (OIsen 2010)
has for archaeoIogicaI inlerrelalion of maleriaI
images and, more secihcaIIy, for lhe inlerrelalion
of lhe varrior slalues from lhe so-caIIed 'Caslro
cuIlure' vhich deveIoed in lhe region belveen lhe
Duero and Mio rivers in norlhveslern Iberia (Iig.
1). I argue hov lhese slalues acliveIy buiId lheir ovn
meaning and sense in lhe socio-maleriaI conlexls
in vhich lhey vorked, and hov, in lhis vay, lheir
maleriaIily arlakes in lhe crealion and mainlenance
of indigenous idenlily and sociaIily. To lhis end, I use
a sel of concels from currenl archaeoIogicaI lheory lo
relhink lhese varrior images in lhe lhealricaI conlexl
of lhe maleriaIily of hiIIforls.
Warrinr statucs in histnrica! pcrspcctivc
These slalues, aIso caIIed GaIaico-Lusilanian, are
monumenlaI images of varriors vhich emerged in
lhe conlexl of Iarge hiIIforls in lhis region by lhe
Iale hrsl miIIennium nc. They consisl of 34 slalues
of oversized varriors of slone vearing decoraled
cIolhes vilh beIls, and carrying lorcs, braceIels and
The revaiIing reresenlalionaIisl lrends in icono-
grahic aroaches have encouraged archaeoIogisls
lo roulineIy viev images roduced by asl socielies as
a medium or a assive reeclion of re-exisling ideas
(and, lherefore, as a secondary roducl of lhe sociely
vhere lhey vere roduced). Irom lhis erseclive,
slalues are underslood as maleriaI forms lhal convey
meaning in an underIying unambiguous ideaob|ecl
reIalionshi vhich musl be !iscovered by archaeo-
Iogy. This lradilionaI aroach usuaIIy reduces lhe
maleriaIily of lhe image lo a mere vehicIe lhrough
vhich an idea is communicaled and lhe Iandscae
vhere il is Iaced is considered as a mere backdro.
Thus, lhe over of an image uIlimaleIy becomes
demaleriaIized. More recenlIy, hovever, lheoreli-
caI lrends in archaeoIogy (such as maleriaI-agency
lheories and heno menoIogicaI semiolics) have
encouraged aroaches cenlred on maleriaI images
as vays of aclion, and on lhe embodied exerience
as a form of inleraclion vilh lhem (GeII 1998, Iinney
& Thomas 2001, MeskeII & }oyce 2003, DeMarrais ci
a|. 2004, TiIIey 2004, 2008, Gosden 2005a, Knaeu
2005, }oyce 2005, MiIIer 2005, MilcheII 2005, IngoId
2007, Osborne & Tanner 2007, oivin 2009, radIey
2009, Morhy 2009, 2010, Robb 2009, 2010, Knaeu
& MaIafouris 2010, OIsen 2010). Irom lhis vievoinl
visuaI imagery, lhrough ils maleriaIily, does nol
simIy convey a meaning bul acliveIy conlribules lo
Can|ri!gc Arcnacc|cgica| jcurna| 23:2, 283306 2013 McDonaId Inslilule for ArchaeoIogicaI Research
doi:10.1017/S0959774313000280 Received 24 Ar 2012, Revised 19 Ocl 2012, Acceled 15 }an 2013
284
a shorl svord or dagger (see GonzaIez-RuibaI 2004,
Saslre 2008) (Iig. 2). Tvo argumenls, hovever, have
been ul forvard by lhe archaeoIogicaI mainslream
lo dale lhese slalues lo lhe hrsl cenlury .u, one is
eigrahic and lhe olher archaeoIogicaI. The hrsl
eIemenl in suorl of lhis daling vas lhe resence
of Lalin inscrilions on severaI of lhese slalues.
Assuming lhal lhese inscrilions vere made al lhe
same lime as lhe images enabIed archaeo Iogisls lo
use eigrahic daling as icrnini a! qucs of lhe slalues
and, by exlension, lo consider lhem lo be lhe resuIl
of Romanizalion (Hbner 1871, Sarmenlo 1933, 207,
SiIva 1981, AImeida 1982, Marlins & SiIva 1984, 43,
AIarco 1988, CaIo Lourido 1994, Redenlor 2008,
2009). SliII, vhiIe many of lhese schoIars exlend
lhe eigrahic dale lo lhe enlire grou of slalues
incIuding lhose vilh no inscrilions Tranoy (1988,
2245) lakes an inlermediale osilion and dierenli-
ales belveen re-Roman images (vilh no eigrah)
and Roman images (vilh an eigrah).
Figurc 1. Oisiri|uiicn nap cj uarricr siaiucs. 1. An||c, Cca (Ourcnsc), 23. Arnca, A||ariz (Ourcnsc), 4. Bcrgazc, O
Ccrgc (Iugc), 5. Briic|c (Pcnic !a Barca, Viana !c Casic|c), 6. Capc|u!cs (Vi|a Pcuca !c Aguiar, Vi|a |ca|),
7. Casircnac (Cc|ancta, Ourcnsc), 89. Ccn!ujc (Arccs !c Va|!ctcz, Viana !c Casic|c), 1013. Iczcnnc (Bciicas,
Vi|a |ca|), 14. Mi!5cs (Mcnic !a Saia, Barcc|cs), 1516. Mcnic Mczinnc (Pcnac|, Pcric), 17. |a||c (Ta|ca!a, Iugc),
18. |ic (Vi|anarin, Ourcnsc), 19. |criz (Barcc|cs, Braga), 20. |u|i4s (Ban!c, Ourcnsc), 21. Sa|an|c (Crcccnic,
Pcnictc!ra), 22. San jcrgc !c Vizc|a (|i|guciras, Pcric), 23. Sac ju|iac (Vi|a Vcr!c, Braga), 24. San Paic !c Mcixc!c
(Viana !c Casic|c), 25. Sanns (Pacs !c |crrcira, Pcric), 26. Sania Aguc!a (Vi|anarin, Ourcnsc), 2728. Sania Ccn|a
(Ca|cccira !c Basics, Braga), 29. Sanic Oti!ic !c |ajc (|ajc, Braga), 30. Vi|ar !c Barric (Ourcnsc).
285
This eigrahisl aroach informed by
lhe lradilionaI lheory of Romanizalion (HingIey
1996) has considered lhese slalues lo be Roman
rovinciaI arl, vhich has uIlimaleIy condilioned
lheir inlerrelalion. ased on lhe inscrilions on lhe
slalues from Rubias and Meixedo, Hbner (1871), by
lhe Iale nineleenlh cenlury, ul forvard lhe main
lhesis lhal lhey vere funerary monumenls. Sarmenlo
(1986, 246), VasconceIIos (1896) and Iaris (1903, 71)
subsequenlIy oered lhe same inlerrelalion. Yel,
from 1973 onvards, vhen lhe feel of a varrior vere
found in siiu al one of lhe enlrances lo lhe hiIIforl of
Sanhns, lhe hyolhesis lhal lhey vere monumenls
Iaced over graves vas abandoned. This does nol
revenl some from conlinuing lo defend lheir funerary
nalure even loday (Koch 2003, 82). As a resuIl of lhe
discovery al Sanhns, hovever, lhe idea suggesled by
Iereira (1908) and MaIuquer de Monles (1954) gained
slrenglh. In lheir oinion lhese slalues reresenl
deihed eonymous heroes or luleIary divinilies of a
volive or honorihc nalure. In lhe Iale 1980s, lhis lhesis
grev in slrenglh amongsl severaI schoIars (AIarco
1988, Tranoy 1988, 223, AImagro-Gorbea & Lorrio
1992, 418). Tranoy (1988) considers lhal lhe re-Roman
images vilh no eigrah reresenl anonymous
heroes or luleIary divinilies, vhiIe lhe slalues vilh
an inscrilion made in lhe Roman eriod reresenl
acluaI chiefs vho robabIy foughl in lhe Roman
auxiIiary forces. Since lhe 1990s some schoIars have
exlended lhis Iasl hyolhesis lo lhe enlire grou of
slalues and cIaim lhal lhey reresenl IocaI varriors
or rinces vho vere revarded for coIIaboraling vilh
Rome (CaIo Lourido 1994, 6856, Iea Sanlos 2003,
1756). RecenlIy, AIarco (2003, 116) and SiIva (2003)
have once more underIined lhal lhese icons are lhe
orlrails of hisloricaI rinces from lhe IocaI eIile. The
Iauer, aher anaIysing lhe eigrahs, auribules lo
lhem a heroic luleIage funclion 'Iinked lo lhe cuIl of
lhe Chiefs and lhe gIorihcalion of anceslors lyicaI
in socielies based on bIood-Iines as vas lhe Caslro
cuIlure' (SiIva 2003, 47).
Some schoIars, in addilion lo acceling lhe
eigrahic crilerion, use archaeoIogicaI and con-
lexluaI dala. They hoId lhal aII lhe slalues found in
lhe course of excavalions or associaled lo hiIIforls
lhal rovide conlexluaI informalion, can be daled
lo lhe hrsl cenlury .u (AImeida 1986, CaIo Lourido
1994, 683). In Iine vilh lhe lradilionaI Romanizalion
lheory, lhese aulhors viev lhese images, aIong vilh
olher singuIar maleriaI shaes such as saunas (vhich
lhey aIso dale lo lhe same eriod), as an exression of
Roman rovinciaI arl, insired by lhe scuIluraI and
archileclonic agenda al lhal lime in lhe Roman cily of
racara Augusla. The concel of 'rogressive emuIa-
lion' (MiIIeu 1990) underIies lhis inlerrelalion. They
lhus consider lhal lhe slone varriors, lhe monumenlaI
Figurc 2. Warricr siaiucs jrcn Iczcnnc, Vi|a |ca|, Pcriuga|. (Mc!ic! acr Si|ta 1986.)
286
from Cendufe and Sanla Comba are good examIes.
In lhe hrsl case, lhe slalue fragmenls vere found
being used as conslruclion maleriaI in modern houses
near lhe hiIIforl from vhere lhey are lhoughl lo have
originaled. In lheir lurn, lhe Roman ob|ecls used as
references for daling (a coin from Nero's reign and
anolher from CIaudius', fragmenls of coIumns, bricks
and lhe lo arl of a Roman aIlar) vere from lhe sur-
face of lhe sile. As lhis maleriaI cuIlure can in no vay
be used lo eslabIish lhe dale of a slalue lo vhich lhey
are nol saliaIIy reIaled, il is even Iess feasibIe lo use
lhem as a reference if ve bear in mind lhal lhey vere
found on lhe surface of an archaeoIogicaI sile mixed
vilh olher maleriaIs from lhe Visigolh eriod (arroca
1984). In lhe second case, lhe slalue of Sanla Comba
vas found on lhe sIoe of lhe hiIIforl during farming
aclivilies vhich aIso broughl lo Iighl leguIae and
common Roman ouery. The arlefacls found during
farming vork are nol reIiabIe for daling lhis kind of
scuIlure. In any evenl, if ve vere lo accel lhe chro-
noIogy indicaled by lhese ob|ecls, ve vouId mereIy be
abIe lo eslabIish lhe dale of a secihc momenl in lhe
decoralion and lhe saunas vilh pc!ras jcrncsas (Iiler-
aIIy, beaulifuI slones) originale in lhe }uIio-CIaudian
eriod, vhen a rovinciaI cIienleIe demanded slalues
and balhs lo lheir lasle, aIvays vilh lhe Iimilalion of
avaiIabIe IocaI skiIIs and means, bul uIlimaleIy laking
insiralion from Roman slalues or balhs. The varrior
slalues vouId lhen be feasibIe, in lhe hrsl Iace, in a
sociely vhich vas sub|ecled lo 'slrong accuIluralion
on lhe side of Rome', and secondIy, vilhin lhe Roman
slralegy of romoling lhese slalues as an eIemenl of
lhe 'roaganda and assimiIalion agenda' in lhe Iron
Age communilies of lhe norlhveslern Iberia (CaIo
Lourido 1994, 8067, 8256, 2010, 26065).
Cu!tura! bingraphy nI thc stnnc warrinrs
RecenlIy, hovever, lhis assessmenl has been ques-
lioned (GonzaIez-RuibaI 20062007, Rodriguez-CorraI
2009). In my oinion, lhe robIem is nol onIy lhal
archaeoIogicaI dala mighl indicale olhervise, bul aIso
lhal lhis argumenl exIicilIy assumes lhe exislence of
an inlrinsic and uniform meaning of lhe scuIlure for
vhich Roman maleriaIs rovide a dale, disregarding
lhe facl lhal lhis maleriaI cuIlure acluaIIy dales from
a secihc lime in lhe Iife of lhese slalues.
There are no knovn chronoIogicaI or slrali-
grahic conlexls vhich mighl enabIe us lo accuraleIy
eslabIish lhe dale of rimary use of lhese varrior sla-
lues. Their recurrenl use in modern conlexls revenls
us from Iinking many of lhem lo a arlicuIar seuIe-
menl. Such is lhe case, for inslance, for lhe slalues from
San }orge de VizeIa and from San Iaio de Meixedo.
They vere found as reused maleriaI in modern con-
slruclions bul ve are unavare of lheir rovenance. In
olher cases, lhe slalues look on nev signihcance vhen
reused in olher modern socio-maleriaI conlexls. Ior
inslance, in lhe hheenlh cenlury, a nobIe coal of arms
vas engraved on lhe shieId of a slalue from Meixedo
(Viana do CasleIo) vhich vas reconlexluaIized as a
maleriaI symboI of a nobIe famiIy from lhis region.
One of lhe lvo slalues found in aslos (raga), vas
aIso aIlered and reused more recenlIy. Iirsl, an inscri-
lion vas engraved on il during lhe sevenleenlh cen-
lury. Then, al lhe end of lhe nineleenlh cenlury, a head
vas added vilh a miIilary ca and a mouslache in lhe
fashion of lhe lime. The slalue vas lhen reIocaled lo
lhe ubIic square in aslos vhere, in a nev conlexl,
il became lhe ersonihcalion of aslos lerrilory (CaIo
Lourido 1994, 513) (Iigs. 3 & 4:4).
These slalues vhich shov evidence of severaI
biograhicaI alhs (Koylo 1986) lhal is, dier-
enl uses vilh various iconograhic and eigrahic
addilions invile us lo re-examine lhe Iink belveen
some slalues and Roman maleriaI cuIlure. The slalues
Figurc 3. Warricr siaiuc jrcn |cjcjcs !c Basic (Braga,
Pcriuga|) rcusc! in nc!crn pcric!. (Pncicgrapn. Miguc|
Carric.)
287
Iife of lhe slalue vhen il had aIready Iosl ils originaI
seuing in lhe hiIIforl, as ve shaII see beIov.
On lhe olher hand, anolher grou of seuIemenls
vhere varrior slalues vere found, or lo vhich lhey
are Iinked, rovide dala (lhough quile irreguIar)
vhich, in my oinion, aIIovs us lo Iace lhe conlexl
of use of lhe slalues in a non-Romanized arena dur-
ing lhe second and hrsl cenluries nc. This is lhe case,
for inslance, vilh lhe hiIIforls of Caslromao, Monle
Mozinho, Sanlo Ovidio de Iafe, So }uIio and Sanhns.
IirslIy, vilh lhe excelion of Monle Mozinho, lhe
seuIemenls vhich are associaled vilh lhe slalues had
been occuied al Ieasl from lhe second cenlury nc
(Rodriguez-CorraI 2012). SecondIy, lhe deveIomenl
and exansion of lhese hiIIforls lakes Iace before
.u 0. In Monle Mozinho lhis occurred around 3020 nc
(Soeiro 20002001, 107), vhiIe in Sanhns il is observed
from lhe end of lhe second cenlury nc (SiIva 1999,
256). ThirdIy, lhis rocess of lransformalion, reorder-
ing and reslrucluralion of lhe defence syslems lakes
Iace in a lolaIIy indigenous conlexl, vilh no lraces
of Romanizalion, and in conlacl vilh lhe exchange
nelvorks belveen lhe AlIanlic area and lhe soulh of
Iberia, vhich exIains lhe resence of cerlain lyes of
Roman ob|ecls (Marlins 1990, 149). And, fourlhIy, lhe
evidence shovs lhal in lhe }uIiusCIaudian eriod, lo
vhich lhe eigrahs are daled, eoIe began lo Iive
oulside lhe seuIemenl vaIIs al hiIIforls such as Cas-
lromao and Monle Mozinho. Il is al lhis oinl vhen
vaIIs Iose lheir defensive roIe and symboIic vaIue,
a facl vhich is key lo underslanding lhese varrior
slalues, as ve shaII see Ialer.
Thc warrinr statucs as bingraphica! nb|ccts
Iconograhic aroaches have generaIIy encouraged
lhe underslanding of images as mirrors of a re-
exisling reaIily, reducing lhem lo a mere reeclion of
a concel or iniliaI idea. This has aIso been reinforced
because lhese inlerrelalions eslabIish a reIalionshi
belveen lhe ob|ecl (slalue) and lhe vriling (eigrah).
The second ilem in lhis air delermines lhe sense
and chronoIogy of lhe former, revenling any os-
sibiIily lhal lhe slalue may have meaning(s) beyond
lhal suggesled by lhe inlerrelalion of lhe eigrah
ilseIf. This has made many schoIars, as ve have seen,
secuIale aboul an essenliaI and unambiguous mean-
ing underIying lhe maleriaIily of lhe slalue. I lhink
lhal lhis vay of underslanding maleriaI images has
dislorled and diminished our underslanding of lhem.
AcknovIedging lhe exislence of diachronic eIemenls
in lhese maleriaI forms, hovever, enabIes us lo reecl
on lhe reIalionshi belveen maleriaI cuIlure, idenlily
and lime.
In my oinion, lhere are sound reasons lo su-
orl a diachrony belveen lhe crealion of lhe images
and lhe inscrilion of lhe lexls. Iirsl of aII, shouId
lhe slalues have been conceived as a suorl for an
inscrilion ve vouId execl an eigrahic area lo
have been crealed lo lhis end. This, hovever, does
nol seem lo be lhe case: lhere is no auern in hov
lhe inscrilions are Iaced (Iig. 4), in conlrasl vilh
lhe dislribulion of iconograhic eIemenls vhich
are fuIIy slandardized (GonzaIez-RuibaI 20062007,
Rodriguez-CorraI 2009, 2012). The umbo of lhe shieId
in lhe slalue from So }uIio is in lhe middIe of lhe
lexl, in lhe slalue of Sanla Comba lhe lexl, Iarger lhan
lhal of So }uIio, is avkvardIy engraved on lhe Iover
arl of lhe shieId, and in lhe slalue of Meixedo, lhe
lexl, even Iarger lhan lhe revious lvo, is fragmenled
and dislribuled on dierenl arls of lhe scuIlure,
vhich conhrms lhal lhe lexl had nol been Ianned
vhen lhe slalue vas made. Moreover, lhe recenl hnd
of an inscrilion on one of lhe slalues of Lezenho
becomes highIy inleresling here (Redenlor 2008, 212).
The inscrilion is damaged and imossibIe lo read,
aIlhough ve can see lhal il vas suerimosed on lhe
decoralion of lhe iece and vas lhus a Ialer addilion
lo lhe symboIic nalure of lhe icon. Therefore, if ve can
observe onIy hve inslances vhere an eigrah exisls
(ve onIy knov of lhe hhh lhrough vriuen documen-
lalion) oul of 32 documenled varrior slalues (CaIo
Lourido 2003) il seems quile reasonabIe lo reckon lhal
ve are deaIing vilh lhe excelion ralher lhan lhe ruIe.
They are robabIy secihc cases of reuliIizalion, singu-
Iarizalion and symboIic recycIing occurring al a Ialer
dale lo lhal of lhe rimary use of lhe slalues, in olher
vords, lhe reason for vhich lhey vere originaIIy buiIl.
The addilion of an inscrilion lo a scuIlure of
lhis kind shouId nol be considered unusuaI. These
lyes of maleriaI ilem can undergo changes in con-
lexl and severe rocesses of re-signihcalion oving
lo lheir size, visibiIily, durabiIily and symboIism:
lhey may accumuIale dierenl meanings and func-
lions lhroughoul lheir cuIluraI biograhy (Gosden
& MarshaII 1999). Wilh lhe inlroduclion of lhe use
of eigrahy in lhe veslern region of Iberia, vriling
became a mechanism of arorialion and a looI for
symboIicaIIy recycIing ob|ecls from lhe asl. This is
arlicuIarIy noliceabIe in lhe case of reconlexluaIiza-
lion in a funerary or volive sense (Diaz-Guardamino
Uribe 2006, 25, Garcia San|uan ci a|. 2007, 11920,
2008, 79, AIfaye ViIIa 2010). This is conhrmed nol
onIy by some of lhe tcrraccs (slone scuIlures of buIIs,
igs and boars) from lhe Iron Age in lhe Veuon area
(AIvarez Sanchis 1999, 21594, 34573), bul aIso by
some sleIae from lhe Lale ronze Age such as lhose
found in ChiIIn (Ciudad ReaI) and Ibahernando
288
(Caceres). In bolh cases, lhe ieces vere lransferred
lo a necrooIis in lhe Roman eriod and reused as
grave markers. The slalue of Muio de San Iedro
(Verin, Orense), Iocaled in lhe same geograhic area
as lhe varrior slalues, is a furlher examIe. On lhe
obverse, an engraved Roman eigrah has been
daled lo lhe middIe of lhe hrsl cenlury .u. ArchaeoIo-
gisls, using lhe same reasoning aIied lo lhe daling
of lhe varrior slalues, have auribuled lhis iece lo
lhe same dale as lhal of lhe eigrah (Taboada Cid
198889, Nodar Nodar 2004, 217). Some schoIars even
inlerrel il as a Roman bifronlaI sleIa (Rodriguez
CoImenero 1993). Yel, lhe sub-reclanguIar molif
on ils reverse, lyicaI of slalue-menhirs from lhe
area of Tamega and Duero in lhe Lale ronze Age,
concIusiveIy reveaIs ils aIialion vilhin lhis grou
(GonzaIez Garcia 2009) (Iig. 5). Hence, as in lhe
case of lhe aforemenlioned sleIae from ChiIIn and
Ibahernando, lhis slalue-menhir vas recycIed in lhe
hrsl cenlury .u for funerary use by engraving an
eigrah on ils obverse. This maleriaI ob|ecl mighl
acluaIIy have had a Iarger cuIluraI biograhy. Il vas
robabIy a haIIic menhir u unliI lhe beginning of
lhe Lale ronze Age (euencourl 2005, 756). Il vas
lhen anlhroomorhized and as a slalue-menhir vas
used as a road sign u unliI lhe end of lhe Iron Age.
y lhe hrsl cenlury .u lhe Lalin eigrah had been
added and il vas reused as a funerary monumenl,
lhus acquiring anolher nev meaning.
The lemoraI ga belveen lhe crealion of
lhese images sleIae, slalue-menhirs and varrior
slalues and lheir Ialer Iives, made il ossibIe for
lhem lo be re-evaIualed and in lurn re-incororaled
inlo lhe vorId in a nev form. These maleriaI forms
couId cerlainIy become inslrumenls of maniuIalion
aiding lhe crealion of a desirabIe vision of lhe asl
and lhe resenl. Thus, in lhe hrsl cenlury .u, in a
conlexl of accuIluralion and negolialion of diverg-
ing idenlilies under Roman adminislralive-oIilicaI
conlroI (GonzaIez-RuibaI 20062007), lhe maleriaIily
of lhese images musl have served as a galevay lo lhe
asl, sucking u ideas of lhe resenl: encasuIaling
anceslraI memory, a sense of beIonging and, conse-
quenlIy, a deIiberale relro-ideoIogy (Websler 2003,
AIdhouse-Green 2004, 256, Garcia San|uan ci a|. 2007,
124, 2008, 10, Rodriguez-CorraI 2012).
The individuaIs reusing lhe maleriaI are indig-
enous, as lhe anlhroonymy of lhe eigrahs reveaIs
Figurc 4. Warricrs siaiucs uiin inscripiicns. 1. Sania Ccn|a, Braga, Pcriuga|, 2. San Paic !c Mcixc!c, Viana !c
Casic|c, Pcriuga|, 3. Sac ju|iac, Braga, Pcriuga|, 4. |cjcjcs !c Basics, Braga, Pcriuga|.
289
(Iernandez Ochoa & ZarzaIe|os Irielo 1994, Nodar
Nodar 2004). Wriling serves as a noveI and overfuI
mechanism for lhe crealion of memory vhiIe il aIso
acls as an eeclive looI lo reIale lo, aroriale and
singuIarize an ob|ecl vhich hIlers lemoraIilies from
lhe asl, making lhe asl non-absenl (Domanska 2006).
In one singIe acl, asl and resenl come inlo Iay:
lhe reuse of an oId ob|ecl as a funerary monumenl
lo vhich an eigrah vilh a name is added aIIovs
lhe indigenous individuaI lo negoliale his vay of
being in lhe vorId in a very secihc manner againsl
a background of discreancy and reconslilulion of
IocaI idenlilies. NonelheIess, as lhese maleriaI images
become more dislanl in lime from lheir rimary
conlexl, lheir semanlic uniformily disaears and
lhey become more ambivaIenl, faciIilaling nev mean-
ings and uses vhich resuIl in dierenl biograhicaI
alhs (Koylo 1986). SignihcanlIy enough, from lhe
eigrahs engraved on lhe slone varriors, il vouId
aear lhal lheir reuse in Roman limes may nol have
had lhe same meaning in aII cases (Redenlor 2009).
Likevise, lhe slalue-menhirs and varrior slalues may
ossibIy have Iosl lheir roIe as ob|ecls of resislance
from lhe IIavian eriod (.u 6996) onvards. Once a
nev imeriaI Roman idenlily had become videsread,
oId idenlilies no Ionger needed lo be negolialed. As
a resuIl, from lhal momenl onvards, lhese maleriaI
ob|ecls vere reused as conslruclion maleriaI. Thus,
lhe slalue-menhir from Chaves vhich had formerIy
been a haIIic menhir, as vas lhal from Muio de San
Iedro vas reused in lhe conslruclion of lhe ridge
of Aquae IIaviae (belveen lhe 1sl and 2nd cenluries
.u) (VareIa Gomes 1997, 270). On lhe olher hand, in
Monle Mozinho, in lhe IIavian and Anlonine eriods
vhen domus-lye houses and a monumenl of Roman
archileclure vere buiIl, lhe aIready-broken varrior
slalues vere used for lhe conslruclion of avemenls
(AImeida 1974, 9). These Iasl lvo seclions underIine
lhree highIy reIevanl issues. IirslIy, lhe facl lhal lhese
slalues mulaled over lime and lheir slalus varied as
lhey look on a nev meaning aher various reconlex-
luaIizalions, secondIy, lhe inscrilions on some of lhe
slalues vere added aher lhey had been crealed and
acled as a mechanism of arorialion over lhese
images in a nev conlexl of 'discreanl idenlilies' (Mal-
lingIey 2004) aher lhe incororalion of lhis region inlo
lhe Roman Imire, and lhirdIy, lhese images Iayed
an aclive roIe and served lo Iink lhe asl vilh ersons
al lhal lime lhrough lheir biograhies.
In lhe foIIoving seclions I inlend lo anaIyse re-
ciseIy lhe signihcance and sense vhich lhese images
had in lheir conlexl of rimary use in lhe second and
hrsl cenluries nc based on an aroach vhich suer-
sedes reresenlalionaIisl assumlions. The concern
of archaeoIogisls lo knov vhal or vho is deicled
by lhese slalues has revenled us from gaining a
Figurc 5. |cnan inscripiicns cn prcnisicric ncnuncnis in inc ucsi cj ||cria. 1. siaiuc-ncnnir cj Muic !c San
Pc!rc (Vcrin, Ourcnsc, Spain), 2. sic|a jrcn Cni||cn (Gua!a|ajara, Spain), 3. sic|a jrcn ||ancrnan!c (C4ccrcs, Spain).
(Mc!ic! acr Garcia Sanju4n el aI. 2008, Ta|ca!a Ci! 198889.)
290
roer underslanding of lhem. This is moslIy due lo
lhe facl lhal archaeoIogicaI inlerrelalion has adoled
lhe vievoinl of iconograhy and eigrahy and
ignored lhe maleriaIily and lhe henomenoIogicaI
and erformalive dimensions of lhe slalues and of lhe
Iandscae vhere lhey are Iaced, as dierenl schoIars
have oinled oul (TiIIey 2008, oivin 2009, OIsen 2010).
In my viev, lvo queslions musl be highIighled vhich
have been overIooked in lhe inlerrelalion of lhese
images so far: (1) vhal vas lhe reIevance of lhe roIe of
lhe observer or of lhe audience in lhe conslruclion of
lhe meaning and funclion of lhe slalues, and (2) hov
imorlanl vere lhe various socio-maleriaI conlexls
lo vhich lhese ob|ecls and lhose audiences beIonged`
Frnm sncia! tn sncin-matcria! ana!yscs nI
matcria! imagcs: thcatrica!ity and phcnnmcnn!ngy
in thc bnrdcrs
The main reason vhy lhese maleriaI forms are com-
monIy seen as a reeclion and a secondary roducl
resls on a cenlraI nolion of modern discourse: lhe
idea lhal lhe sociaI Iink or sociaI conlracl is acquired
by individuaIs lhrough Ianguage. Yel lhe sociaI is nol
vhal binds a communily of individuaIs logelher bul
ralher vhal is mainlained lhrough lhe ob|ecls and
maleriaI forms (Lalour 2005, 10). IndividuaIs in sociely
roduce maleriaI cuIlure bul maleriaI and symboIic
forms aIso creale lhe condilions for lhal sociely lo exisl
and shae lhe behaviour of lhose individuaIs. The
rocesses of human aclion on maleriaI lhings roduce
lyes of ersons and exlernaIize cuIlure (MiIIer 2005).
This cuIlure may acl as a force aulonomous from
individuaIs lhrough ils engagemenl vilh dierenl
'nelvorks of lhings' co-crealed by human acls, choices
and underslandings. The sociaI inleraclion is lherefore
framed and erformed by exlrasomalic forms vhich
have lhe abiIily lo make il recur. As Gosden slales,
'eoIe cryslaIIize oul in lhe inlerslices belveen
ob|ecls, laking u lhe sace aIIoved lhem by lhe ob|ecl
vorId, vilh our senses and emolions educaled by lhe
ob|ecl vorId' (2005a, 197).
Il is hard lo describe lhe caacily of maleriaI
images Iike slalues lo be dravn inlo lhe vorId of lhe
Iiving, lo become nol reresenlalions of somelhing
eIse bul aImosl individuaIs in lheir ovn righl, as
Gombrich righlIy oinled oul (1999, 139). When ve
enler inlo lhe 'image heIds' (TiIIey 2008), lhese images
become an inlimale arl of us. On lhis basis I argue
lhal ve musl nol inquire inlo vhal lhe varrior slalues
arc bul vhal lhey !c. These varriors of slone are acianis
or non-human agenls vhich 'make do' (Lalour 1999)
ralher lhan mirrors of slone of re-exisling ideas and
socio-oIilicaI reIalions. Through lheir erforma-
live, henomenoIogicaI and reIalionaI caacily lhey
acliveIy Iay a arl in lhe crealion of idenlily vilhin
lhe socio-maleriaI conlexls vhere lhey beIong. Ior lhis
reason, il is necessary lo exIore lhe over and agency
of lhese images al a micro-scaIe of anaIysis. The onIy
vay lo achieve lhis goaI is, as Knaeu oinled oul
(2011, 68), lo reconciIe lvo asecls of micro-scaIe
inleraclions: 'face-lo-face sociaI inleraclions in vhich
maleriaI forms seem lo be in lhe background, and lhe
individuaI-ob|ecls inleraclions in vhich sociaIIy seems
lo faII inlo lhe background'. Since ve aroach images
as arlefacls or funclionaI ob|ecls, a henomenoIogicaI,
cognilive and archaeoIogicaI background may consid-
erabIy conlribule lo lhe inlerrelalion of lheir meaning
(HamiIlon 1996, 282). We musl reIocale lhese slalues
in lhe socio-maleriaI conlexl for vhich lhey vere
crealed and vhere lhey acliveIy Iayed lheir originaI
roIe and lry lo reroduce lhe slage uon vhich lhey
erformed and vorked.
Mosl slone varriors Iack an archaeoIogicaI
conlexl aIlhough ve may knov vilh cerlainly lhe
sace vhere lhey acled: lhe IiminaI zone of access lo
lhe seuIemenl. The hnding in siiu of lhe Iover arl
of a varrior al lhe enlrance lo lhe hiIIforl of Sanhns
reveaIs lhe originaI Iocalion of lhese images. Likevise,
aII lhe slalues found in lhese hiIIforls, vhich vere nol
reused for any olher urose and vere abandoned
immedialeIy aher lhey Iosl lheir roIe in conneclion
vilh lhe vaIIs, seem lo suorl lhis idea because
lhey vere discovered in lhe conlexls of lhe vaIIs or
on lhe sIoes of lhe hiIIforls (i.e. slalues from Roriz,
raga, Sanla Comba and ergazo). The resence of
more lhan one slalue in many hiIIforls four slalues
may come from lhe hiIIforl of Lezenho (CaIo Lourido
2003) makes us lhink lhal lhese slone varriors vere
Iocaled al lhe dierenl access zones lo lhe seuIemenls.
The Iocalion of lhe slalues is arlicuIarIy reIevanl
for underslanding lhem. WaIIs and enlrances lo sel-
lIemenls are lransilionaI Iaces vhich maleriaIize 'an
enlire cosmos of lhe haIf-oen' (acheIard 1994, 222).
y being 'belvixl and belveen' sociaI sace (Turner
1967, 93), lhe greal maleriaI divisions become a sace
of anxiely for lhe communily (Iarker Iearson &
Richards 1997). Irom lhe end of second cenlury nc
onvards, seuIemenls become Iarger somelimes
covering u lo 20 heclares due lo lhe increase of
ouIalion and lo synoecism. LiminaI zones are lhen
monumenlaIized and become more comIex. Greal
vaIIs and access zones are buiIl lransforming lhe
micro-hysics and ercelive syslems of lhe IarIy
Iron Age. MaleriaI melahors of ossession and com-
arlmenlaIizalion of sace are deveIoed. Likevise,
vilhin or beyond lhe vaIIs, in access zones lo lhe
seuIemenls, semi-hyogean buiIdings vere erecled
291
vhich vere used as saunas (see Rodriguez-CorraI
2009, 18993). Irom lhal momenl on, lhe seuIemenl
encIosed vilhin lhe vaIIs is visuaIIy hidden from
lhe exlernaI vorId and loograhy is shaed vhich
ob|eclihes a arlicuIar underslanding of lhe oulside
vorId. Il is from lhe inlerior of lhe hiIIforl, lhe onIy
seuIemenl auern in lhis region during lhe Iron Age,
lhal lhe vorId is lhoughl and exerienced.
There are numerous araIIeIs Iinking lhe res-
ence of a varrior in a IiminaI zone such as lhe vaIIs
or enlrance gales lo an aolroaic agenl. Texls in
earIy Irish Iileralure, such as Oin!sncncnas (IileraIIy,
Icrc cj P|accs) for inslance, describe hov lhe bodies
of dead armed varriors vere Iaced urighl on lo
of a hiII or by lhe banks or vaIIs of lhe seuIemenls
vilh lhe urose of rolecling lhe Iace (}oyce 1903,
5513). In lhis case, lhe bioIogicaI dealh of lhe var-
rior does nol mean his sociaI dealh or lhe end of his
agency, vhich is lranshgured or even increased: lhe
maleriaI resence of lhe armed body in lhis Iocalion
makes lhe varrior acquire nev overs, rolecling
lhe seuIemenl and having an emolionaI imacl on his
enemies (VeIasco Lez 1999, 779). ul il is nol onIy
lhe maleriaIily of lhe body of a dead varrior vhich
may dislribule agency in lhese IiminaI zones. Anolher
common and frequenlIy documenled raclice con-
sisls of maleriaI images of varriors. An inleresling
inslance can be found in lhe Maori slalue knovn as
Iukaki (TaseII 2000). Ils oIilicaI and socio-maleriaI
conlexl reveaIs some simiIarilies lo lhe conlexl of lhe
slalues of lhe hiIIforls in norlhveslern Iberia. Iukaki
is a Maori varrior of lhe lribe of Te Aeava vho
achieved fame for exanding lhe Iands of his lribe in
lhe Iale eighleenlh cenlury. Il vas carved in lhe earIy
nineleenlh cenlury lo be Iaced al lhe enlrance lo a
defensive seuIemenl, as vere lhe Iron Age varrior
slalues from norlhveslern Iberia. In bolh cases, lhe
seuIemenls are very Iarge as a resuIl of synoecism in
lhe conlexl of conlacls and coIoniaI encounlers vilh
foreign agenls and of anxiely and vioIence. Under
such circumslances, lhe roIe of Iukaki al lhe enlrance
lo his seuIemenl vas lo rolecl lhe grou againsl
exlreme forms of vioIence. In lhese lvo examIes,
lheir agencies are IargeIy due lo lheir biograhies and
lo vho lhey are, bul lhey deend nol onIy uon lhal.
In lhe hrsl case, lhe Iocalion of lhe varrior, lhe erfor-
malivily of his arms, lhe vay lhe body is Iaced sel
lhe sense of lhe scene. In lhe second case, as Gosden
oinls oul, vhiIe lo Weslern eyes Iukaki is simIy an
oversized slalue of an anceslor vho Iived some lime
ago, 'lo lhe eoIe of Te Arava, Iukaki is nol a mere
reresenlalion of somelhing. To lhem, il is a human
being lhough of a much dierenl kind from lhal of
veslern conceluaIizalion' (2005b, 33-4).
The over of lhe slone varriors Iaced in IiminaI
zones of access lo lhe hiIIforls does nol excIusiveIy
consisl of lheir abiIily lo make an individuaI resenl
or lo exress an absenl idea. They aIso consliluled a
ma|or eIemenl in lhe co-crealion of cognilive lhoughls
of nalive eoIe by virlue of lheir henomenoIogicaI
exerience (TiIIey 2008, 255). The encounler belveen
lhese slone varriors and lheir audience in lhe conlexl
of hiIIforl Iandscaes is a mauer of iconic, indexicaI
and symboIic associalions (GeII 1998, Knaeu 2005,
2011, 100102, IreuceI 2008). When ve lake a deIocaI-
ized viev of lhe meaning of lhese images, beyond
lhe Iimils of secihc maleriaI forms, as our modern
dehnilion of a slalue diclales, an aIlernalive course
of anaIysis oens u in order lo relhink lhese varrior
images. I lhink lhal severaI melahoric, mimelic and
mnemonic rocesses make lhese images embedded
in a maleriaI vorId of inleraclion and a meeling oinl
of diverse reaIilies ul a solIighl on Iinks and reIa-
lionshis reIevanl lo lhe ersons aecled by lhem and
conlribule lo lhe formalion of lhe hiIIforl Iandscae.
The slone varriors vere commonIy Iaced nol
onIy al lhe enlrances bul vere aIso silualed (al Ieasl
some of lhem) on rocky Iedges found in lhal area.
The varrior from lhe seuIemenl of Sanhns, found in
siiu, vas embedded on a oulcro al lhe enlrance (Iig.
6). This Iocalion does nol aear lo be accidenlaI:
according lo leslimonies comiIed by Sarmenlo (1999,
313) amongsl inhabilanls of lhe area near anolher
hiIIforl vhere lhe varrior of VizeIa (Iorlo, IorlugaI)
originales (lhal slalue vas aIso found amongsl rocks).
We do nol knov lhe originaI Iocalion of lhe resl of lhe
slalues aIlhough lhe slalues from erganzo, Cendufe
or Monle Mozinho reserve conicaI bases simiIar lo
lhose from Sanhns and lherefore lheir Iocalion musl
have been simiIar. The varriors, and lhe rocks on
vhich lhey are Iaced, musl have made u an inlegraI
maleriaI sel. In lhis sense, ve need lo deconslrucl
lhe idea of a scuIlure as a deIimiled maleriaI form,
bearer of ils ovn meaning and Iocaled on a neulraI
background vhose urose is mereIy lo disIay lhe
slalue, regardIess of ils meaning and lry lo gras
lhe meaning of lhese images Iooking inlo lhe lhealricaI
and henomenoIogicaI reIevance |oinlIy crealed by lhe
scene (lhe rock) and lhe varrior.
MaleriaI signihers, unIike olher sorls of signihers,
lyify or reresenl somelhing by associalion or by shar-
ing simiIar auribules (TiIIey 1999). IhysicaI auribules
and uses of maleriaI cuIlure do nol fuIIy deIimil lhe
symboIic dimension of maleriaI forms, aIlhough lhey
do Iay a signihcanl roIe in lheir sense and meaning.
The maleriaI ensembIe made u of lhe lvo eIemenls
couId lhus oerale al lvo melahoricaI IeveIs: lhe rock
as lhe Iace and lhe slone as lhe maleriaI. In lhe hrsl
292
case, lhe reIevance vhich lhe rocks had during rehis-
lory because of lheir visibiIily in lhe Iandscae and lheir
numinous, riluaI nalure as meeling Iaces couId Iay
a arl (radIey 2000, 2002). In norlhvesl Iberia, from
lhe ChaIcoIilhic onvards, rocks vere habiluaI Iaces
for IocaI communilies lo reresenl and Iace veaons
and olher ob|ecls. The hrsl hiIIforls emerged reciseIy
in lhese Iandscaes of lhe Laler ronze Age. In lhe
second case, lhere may have been an arecialion of
slone as a maleriaI subslance lhal is sensuaIIy olenl
(HamiIlon ci a|. 2011). Slones, due lo lheir hardness
and durabiIily, have ohen been Iinked lo men's bodies
and acled as a recurrenl symboI of Iineage and anceslry
(Iarker Iearson & RamiIisonina 1998). In lhis sense,
lhe image of lhe varriors Iaced on rocks musl have
roduced an exlremeIy overfuI melahoric ensembIe,
crealing lhe imression lhal lhe varriors srouled oul
of lhe rock and vere lherefore an inlrinsic arl of lhe
Iandscae. This seuing musl have generaled a slrong
conlexl of sacraIily and lemoraI delh on lhe lerrilory
for lhe communily.
AII in aII, in order lo undersland lhe meaning
and roIe of lhese images al lhe lime lhey Iayed lheir
arl in lhis seuing ve musl exand our viev. In lhe
nexl seclion, I Iook inlo lhree queslions vhich I beIieve
make u lhe socio-maleriaI 'coIIeclive' (Lalour 1999)
vhere lhese images are inserled: hrslIy lhe reIalion-
shi belveen lhese images and lhe surrounding
maleriaI forms (vaIIs and gales) and lhe aclivilies
carried oul lhere (assage or rohyIaclic riluaIs, elc.),
secondIy lhe erformalive or lhealricaI conhguralion
resuIling from lheir Iocalion, crealing a very arlicuIar
lye of audience, and lhirdIy lhe aeslhelics, ob|ecls
and iconograhic geslures shaed by lhe image of lhe
varrior invoIved in lhis lhealre.
Limina!ity: ritua! practiccs and apntrnpaic nb|ccts
in rc!atinn tn wa!!s and cntranccs
HiIIforls, as vilh numerous olher cases of archilecluraI
saces, are lhe henomenoIogicaI and erformalive
resuIl of lhe maleriaI, sociaI and symboIic-riluaI reIa-
lions roduced al a arlicuIar lime. They are crealed
by maleriaI forms such as lhe vaIIs and galevays
vhere arlefacls of dierenl lyes are deosiled and
varriors and olher maleriaI images are disIayed. Ior-
laIs and vaIIs are maleriaIilies lhal do nol |usl reecl
sociaI reaIily of a communily and ils vay of being in
lhe vorId: lhey Iay an essenliaI roIe in lhe crealion
of lhal sociaI reaIily ilseIf. As soIid melahors, lhey
ob|eclify a sense of Iace by segmenling sace and
shaing lhe ov of individuaIs vho move vilhin lheir
environmenl. WhiIe vaIIs creale dierenl onloIogicaI
domains, e.g. exlerior/inlerior, viId/domeslic, enemy/
Figurc 6. Mc!crn rcccnsiruciicn cj inc sicnc uarricr jrcn inc ni||jcri cj Sanns (Pacs !c |crrcira, Pcric, Pcriuga|) cn
inc cuicrcp uncrc inc |cucr pari cj inis siaiuc uas !iscctcrc!. (Pncicgrapn. Sc|c |c||cza.)
293
friend elc., orlaIs as lhreshoIds ease lhe lransil
belveen lhose domains (Iarker Iearson & Richards
1997, 24). The riluaI aclion in lhese conlexls is marked
by lvo ideas: roleclion and change.
Common hndings of maleriaI deosils and
visuaI media al vaIIs and galevays in rehisloric sel-
lIemenls (Idmonds 1993, Thomas 1999, 3453, Gheo-
rghiu 2003, HingIey 2006, AIfaye ViIIa 2007) suggesl
lhal lhese archilecluraI forms become Iaces in need
of foundalionaI and rohyIaclic riluaI raclice and of
aolroaic eIemenls. In lhe secihc case of lhe hiIIforls
of norlhvesl Iberia, deosils of melaIIic ob|ecls and
human and animaI remains Iinked lo lhe vaIIs as
veII as slone heads Iaced on gales from lhe eighlh
cenlury nc seem aIso lo suorl lhis idea (GonzaIez-
RuibaI 20062007, AIfaye ViIIa & Rodriguez-CorraI
2009, Rodriguez-CorraI 2009, 17880). MelaIIic ob|ecls
deosiled immedialeIy nexl lo hiIIforl vaIIs such as
lhal of Saceda (CuaIedro) (GonzaIez-RuibaI 2005), may
have been inlended lo granl suernaluraI roleclion
lo lhe vaIIs (AIfaye ViIIa & Rodriguez-CorraI 2009),
given lheir saliaI and morhoIogicaI simiIarilies
vilh olher melaIIic deosils in lhe norlh of Iuroe
inlerreled as such (HingIey 2006). Likevise, desile
lhe oor condilion of bone remains due lo lhe acidily
of lhe soiI in lhis region, human bone deosils have
been recorded in lhe conlexl of vaIIs and enlrances.
Ior inslance, a human |avbone vas found in a Iayer
of ashes Iocaled direclIy above a sixlh- lo hhh-cenlury
nc IeveI of lhe vaII of La Cama Torres, in Gqn, as
veII as chiId buriaIs in lvo seclors of lhe same vaII
vhich lhe excavalors Iink lo IiminaI riluaI raclices
(Maya GonzaIez & Cuesla Toribio 2001, 295). Olher
ossibIe human cremalions Iinked lo vaIIs have been
documenled in lhe hiIIforls of Caslromao (CeIanova)
(Garcia RoIIan 2004, 10), San MiIIan (CuaIedro)
(Rodriguez GonzaIez & Iaria uslo 1986, 62) and
aroa (A Corua) (CaIo Lourido & Soeiro 1986, 35).
Horse bones have been documenled inside lhe vaII
of lhe hiIIforl of Isiaredo (As Ionles) (GonzaIez-
RuibaI 20062007, 569).
In lhe Chao Sammarlin hiIIforl (Grande de
SaIime), one of lhe seuIemenls shoving earIy monu-
menlaIizalion, a cisla vas buiIl, around lhe eighlh
cenlury nc, al lhe access gale lo lhe acrooIis lo hoId
a human skuII (ViIIa VaIdes & Cabo Ierez 2003) (Iig.
7). There vas robabIy a conceluaI Iink belveen lhis
lye of deosil and lhe grou of human slone heads
vhich are documenled in lhese hiIIforls and vere in
use al Ieasl during lhe second and hrsl cenluries nc
(see GonzaIez-RuibaI 2004). Dierenl inlerrelalions
of lhese ob|ecls have been ul forvard, aIlhough il
has been moslIy agreed lhal lhey reresenl deceased
ersons, deilies or lhe severed heads of defealed
enemies. The exacl Iocalion of some of lhese ilems is
unknovn aIlhough lhere are lvo inslances for vhich
lheir seuing is vilh cerlainly al lhe enlrance lo lhe
hiIIforls. One is al lhe seuIemenl of San Cibran de
Las (Orense) vhere, as in lhe revious case, a granilic
bIock vas found vilh a head of lhis kind engraved
on il by lhe gale of lhe acrooIis vaII (CaIo Lourido
1994, 440). Anolher slone head, cIearIy reIaled lo lhe
enlrance lo lhe seuIemenl, vas found during excava-
lions carried oul al lhe hiIIforl of A Graa (MeIide, A
Corua). In lhis hiIIforl lhe hnaI seclion of lhe alh,
|usl before access lo lhe seuIemenl, vas carved aIong
a Iarge rocky Iedge lhus crealing a conlroI device.
This access corridor, buiIl inlo lhe rock, Iimiled lhe
movemenls and channeIIed lhe ov of eoIe in lhis
IiminaI zone. The slone head vas Iocaled al lhe inner
end, vhere a Iarge gale vas inslaIIed guarded by lvo
lovers, one on eilher side. The image may aIso have
been originaIIy buiIl inlo one of lhe lovers or Iaced
direclIy above lhe gale (CaIo Lourido 1994, arcieIa
Garrido & Rey Seara 2000, 1356). ConsequenlIy, lhis
Figurc 7. Tnc cisia inai nc|!s a jragncni cj nunan sku||
ai inc acccss gaic ic inc acrcpc|is jrcn Cnac Sanariin
Hi||jcri, Gran!as !c Sa|inc, Spain. (Pncicgrapn. Angc|
Vi||a Va|!cs.)
294
slone head musl have vorked as an aolroaic arle-
facl in lhe conlexl of lhe enlrance lo lhe encIosed area.
These borders need lo be riluaIIy rolecled and
forlihed as lransils belveen lhe various domains musl
aIso be managed and riluaIized. This lransil (eilher
reaI or melahoricaI) requires adalalion rocesses
and secihc lransformalion raclices lradilionaIIy
described by anlhrooIogisls as riles of assage (Van
Genne 1909). Such riles invoIve eoIe crossing lhe
crilicaI lhreshoId, marked in each case by aIerling er-
formalive acls, overfuI symboIs and images, and lhe
deosilion of ob|ecls (Garvood 2011, 271). As ve shaII
see nexl, lhe manner in vhich saces and arlefacls
are maniuIaled and used in lhese riluaI conlexls of
assage, vere designed lo have agency and a dramalic
and vivid eecl on lhe sociaI aclor.
Imagc and audicncc in sncin-matcria! bnrdcrs
The encounlers belveen diverging idenlilies are
comIex and robIemalic, and lransilion and access
areas lo a seuIemenl are a good examIe of lhis. In
lhese socio-maleriaI conlexls of lransilion and inler-
aclion, lvo nolions, vhich overIa and inlermingIe,
commonIy deIimil lhis sace buiIl as a cosmos of lhe
haIf-oen vhich needs lo be managed and negolialed:
hosilaIily and var. In lhe ancienl vorId, for inslance,
lhe Lalin lerm ncspiiiun shares ils Lalin rool vilh
ncspcs (lhe foreigner) and ncsiis (lhe enemy). In lhese
conlexls of anxiely and encounler vilh lhe oulside
vorId, socio-oIilicaI and cuIluraI negolialion needs
a lhealricaI erformance cuIluraIIy recognized by lhe
arlicianls (Inomala & Coben 2006). This conlribules
lo breaking lhe cIosed circIe of lhe seuIemenl al dif-
ferenl IeveIs and lo eslabIishing sociaI reIalionshis
belveen lhe members of lhe communily and lhose
hosled vilhin il (ncspiics).
The lhealricaI nalure of lhis socio-maleriaI
conlexl made u of vaIIs, gales, riluaI raclices and
images requires lhe hysicaI resence of an audience.
The manner in vhich lhis audience is incororaled
and hov lhe maleriaI forms shae behaviour con-
lribule lo lhe crealion of a erformalive dimension
of lhe Iace vhich uIlimaleIy delermines emolionaI
resonses. Irom an anaIylicaI oinl of viev lhere
exisl lvo dierenl forms of inlegralion of lhis audi-
ence lhrough embodimenl vilhin lhis socio-maleriaI
conlexl: by means of incororaled and by inscribed
raclices (RovIands 1993). In lhe hrsl case, lhese lyes
of raclices aIIov individuaIs lo lake an aclive arl in
lhe erformances. Through a sequence of erforma-
live and socio-maleriaI acls, individuaIs incororale
and inlernaIize cuIlure. This is lhe case, for inslance,
in lhe riles of assage lo vhich some documenled
deosils and riluaI raclices oulside lhe vaIIs seem
lo refer.
Various deosils have been documenled in lhis
region. Due lo lheir Iocalion on lhe sIoes of lhe hiII-
forls and lo lhe maleriaI ob|ecls deosiled veaons
and riluaI imIemenls lhese deosils may be Iinked
lo riles of assage. This is lhe case, for inslance, of lhe
deosil of daggers discovered oulside lhe hiIIforl of
Sofan (Lez CueviIIas 1989), or lhe deosil found
on lhe Iover arl of lhe sIoe of lhe hiIIforl al CasleIo
de Neiva. In lhe Iauer, lvo decoraled bronze Monle-
forlino heImels robabIy lhe same as lhose shovn
in some slone varriors vere documenled and, haIf
a melre avay from lhem, lhree bronze beakers and
fragmenls of lvo siluIas (AImeida 1980). Likevise,
olher deosils of smaII ob|ecls, e.g. neckIace beads
or searheads, al lhe enlrance gales lo seuIemenls
such as lhe hiIIforl of Saceda (GonzaIez-RuibaI 2005,
277) shouId be inlerreled as deosils made by indi-
viduaIs vhen crossing lhe ga in lhe vaII, Iinked lo
more reguIar and ersonaI riles of assage lhan lhose
menlioned earIier.
We aIso oughl lo incIude lhe aforemenlioned
semi-hyogean conslruclions (Iig. 8) Iocaled near
lhe enlrances lo hiIIforls in lhe grou of eIemenls and
socio-maleriaI forms ve have seen so far such as
vaIIs, gales, aolroaic heads and riluaI deosils. These
semi-hyogean slruclures couId equaIIy be Iinked lo
riles of assage and IiminaI raclices. This may be due
lo hrslIy, as ve have |usl oinled oul, lheir loograhi-
caI Iocalion, secondIy, lheir archileclure and hysicaI
divisions imosed by lhe maleriaIily of lhe buiIdings
lhemseIves (lheir inlernaI arlilions lrigger aIleralions
and syneslhelic changes in lhe ersons enlering lhem),
and hnaIIy lhe facl lhal lhey are accessed lhrough a
smaII oening in lhe so-caIIed pc!ras jcrncsas, Iarge
slones rofuseIy decoraled vhich encIose lhe buiIding.
SymboIs of lhe IiminaI vorId are deicled on lheir
surface, as ve shaII see Ialer.
Likevise, rocesses of monumenlaIizalion insliI
meaning and sense on lhe Iandscae (radIey 1993,
RovIands 1993, 142). ThealricaI slages are crealed
lhrough highIy visibIe maleriaI forms. WaIIs, gales,
saunas or access roads rovide slages for lhealricaI
evenls and lheir maleriaIilies shae ordered saces
vhich define and encourage secific lyes of
mobiIily and inleraclion belveen arlicianls and
maleriaI forms. The conlexl of inleraclion belveen
lhe varriors of slone and lheir audience is crealed
reciseIy in lhis socio-maleriaI coIIeclive.
Three fealures are common lo any observer of lhe
varrior in lhis conlexl: hrsl, lhe observer is oulside lhe
hiIIforl, second, he aroaches lhe seuIemenl going
lovards ils galevay, lhe mosl crilicaI oinl vhere, as
295
he moves from one onloIogicaI sace lo lhe nexl, a
sace of anxiely emerged, and lhird, lhis observer
vievs lhe slalue in molion, aIlering osilion as his
vievoinl graduaIIy changes during his aroach.
The image heId requires, in lhis vay, a body in molion,
movemenls in reIalion lo lhe slone varriors and lheir
seuing. In conlrasl vilh lhe movemenl of lhe observer,
lhe maleriaI Iogic, hieralism and symboIism underIine
lhe slalionary osilion of lhe varrior vhich emanales
from lhe rock ilseIf. This is vhere lhe size of lhese
slalues oughl lo be laken inlo consideralion. Mosl of
lhese hgures are over lvo melres high (Iig. 6) (CaIo
Lourido 2003, 15, Schauner 2004, 40). Their oversized
dimension mighl increase lheir aclanl over in
lhe IiminaI conlexl: hrslIy because lheir magnilude
vouId emhasize lhe vaIues and over of lhe varrior,
Figurc 8. An |rcn Agc riiua| sauna jrcn inc ni||jcri cj Briicircs. (Orauing nc!ic! acr Car!czc 1931,
pncicgrapn. Viicr |i|circ.)
296
and secondIy, because il couId be seen by anybody
aroaching lhe hiIIforl from far avay.
ConsequenlIy vhal does lhe maleriaIily of lhe
varriors of slone convey lo an audience aroaching
lhe hiIIforl, a sace of anxiely` Or more accuraleIy,
hov do varriors vork on lhis slage lo aecl lheir audi-
ence` Slone varriors vilh lheir accessories and cIolhes
can buuress ideas and idenlilies and acl as ecienl
mechanisms of resislance, lhough of a quile dierenl
kind from lhal oeraling in lhe hrsl cenlury .u, vhiIe
lhey inlensify some asecls of reaIily. Againsl a back-
ground of groving unresl, reordering and confronla-
lion in lhe Iale second cenlury nc, aher Rome enlered
norlhveslern Iberia, lhe erformalivily of lhese
images in lhe socio-maleriaI conlexl of lhe enlrances
lo lhe hiIIforls makes lhem acl as overfuI aclors and
negolialing agenls. In lhe nexl seclion I viII anaIyse
lhe vay in vhich lhe slalues acliveIy conlribule lo lhe
conslruclion of sociaIily in lhe hiIIforl lhrough lheir
erformalivily, aeslhelics and iconograhy.
5ituatcd acsthctics and scmintics
The aeslhelic inlerrelalion of lhese images has
vieved lhem as an exression of Roman rovinciaI
arl, foIIoving lhe crileria of lhe lradilionaI lheory of
'Romanizalion'. Hence, lhe Iack or resence of aeslhelic
fealures such as naluraIism, movemenl or reaIism, has
Ied some schoIars lo consider lhe varrior slalues lo be
imerfecl forms of arl (AImeida 1974, CaIo Lourido
1994). According lo lhese aulhors, lhe Iack of lechnicaI
skiII in handIing lhe maleriaI (slone) revenls lhe hnaI
crealion from achieving lhe aeslhelic ideaI soughl by
lhe IocaI communilies roducing lhem (CaIo Lourido
1994, 803). Some aulhors have aIso insisled on eslab-
Iishing an evoIulion oulIine for lhese slalues, based on
lhe aIIeged inlroduclion of eIemenls of Roman arl inlo
some of lhem (Schauner 2004). I do nol beIieve lhal lhe
higher IeveI of naluraIism of some of lhe icons derives
from an evidenl aueml lo coy Roman modeIs or lhal
lhese slalues are lhe roducl of an inabiIily lo imilale
lhem. Vieving rovinciaIism simIy as a faiIure lo
achieve a cIassicaI canon vilhin Roman rovinciaI arl
is quile robIemalic and cIouds IocaI Iogic beyond lhe
melrooIis (Gosden 2004, Hodos 2009, HingIey 2009,
ReveII 2009). And in lhe case of a visuaI cuIlure emerg-
ing in conlacl vilh Rome, aIbeil in a sliII nol Romanized
conlexl, il is even more chaIIenging. Imerfecl as lhe
heads or slalues of varriors may seem lo an observer
educaled in lhe cIassicaI canon, one vho onders olher
faclors such as lhe funclionaIily of lhe slalue may aclu-
aIIy disagree (GeII 1998).
I lherefore beIieve lhal ve shouId nol consider
lhese images lo be based on a Greco-Roman fealure
such as naluraIism because il did nol necessariIy
Iay a arl in lhe Iogic, aeslhelics, funclion and
inlenlion of lhe IocaI scuIluraI lradilion. Doing
so imIies acceling an evoIulionary melanarra-
live vhich leIeoIogicaIIy Iaces Roman aeslhelics
as lhe universaI ideaI vilh sel hases and fealures
aIying lo any form of arl. We musl simIy accel
lhal ve are faced vilh aIlernalive aeslhelics vhich
creale dierenl sociaIilies. As NoeIke (2003) argues,
Iaslic arl may be a sace of resislance in conlexls
of Roman accuIluralion. Againsl lhis background,
if faiIure lo kee cIassicaI canons conslilules a sign
of resislance againsl lhe norms of reresenlalion
of lhe imeriaI over and nol a mere indicalion of
arliaI or unhnished Romanizalion (AIdhouse-Green
2003), aII lhe more obviousIy mighl lhis be lhe case
in a conlexl of conlacl, negolialion, lransformalion
and confronlalion from lhe hrsl conlacl vilh Rome
unliI lhe Iauer look over oIilicaI and adminislralive
conlroI of lhe region.
The images of varriors, in my viev, are an exam-
Ie of resislance and indeendence, subIimaled in arl,
underslood as a 'seciaIized lechnoIogy lo achieve se-
cihc eecls' (GeII 1998). The very aeslhelics of lhe var-
riors, moving avay from Roman naluraIism lovards
hieralism, couId vork in lhal direclion, vhiIe Iaying
a arl in lhe conslruclion of a IocaI idenlily. MaleriaIily,
lhrough a series of characlerislics such as soIidily, hrm-
ness and size can, as ve have aIready slaled, be essenliaI
in lhe erformalive conslruclion of lhe image. The
aeslhelic canon, hovever, may aIso evoke a overfuI
sociaI reaIily. As Robb (2009) has recenlIy oinled oul,
lhe simIihcalion of lhe body of a slalue is a slrong acl
of concenlralion. y resenling a minimaIisl slandard-
ized image of lhe varrior an essenliaI and reguIalory
image is crealed for one soIe urose. Whal is Iosl in
lerms of naluraIism and movemenl is gained in lerms of
immediacy and underslandabiIily (Robb 2009, 174). AII
rolagonism is given lo iconograhy lhe veaons,
geslures and symboIic molifs of cIolhing as key lo
lhe eciency of lhe image ilseIf sel in lhe lhealricaI
sace ve have described.
5hic!ds and dcIcncc nI thc cnmmunity
One of lhe mosl oulslanding fealures of lhe varrior
is lhe osilion of lhe shieId or cacira: lhe varrior
hoIds il in fronl of his abdomen, shoving il lo lhe
visilor arriving near lhe zone of enlrance lo lhe
hiIIforl. This avkvard osilion may be Iinked lo ils
symboIic roIe in lhe ancienl vorId: ovning a shieId
shovs indeendence and announces a viIIingness
lo defend lhe same, acling as a maleriaI melahor of
roleclion. Ils Ioss, as oinled oul by LincoIn (1991,
297
143), invoIves lhe renuncialion of lhe
defealed grou of lhe sociaI bounds
reviousIy kel. This is consislenl
vilh a vision of lhe shieId as a mov-
abIe border searaling oneseIf, lhe
grou and lhe lerrilory from lhe
Olher.
In my viev, lhe geomelric
symboI deicled on lhe shieIds of
hve slalues lhose from Cendufe,
Armea, San }orge de VizeIa and lhe
lvo from Lezenho shouId be
inlerreled aIong lhe same Iines.
Some schoIars have considered il
as a Iabyrinlh. This inlerrelalion
highIighls lhis aolroaic dimension
of lhe shieId of lhe varrior (Quesada
Sanz 2003). The Iabyrinlh, amongsl
ils muIliIe meanings, is Iinked lo
lhe hysicaI defence of a lerrilory
or seuIemenl lhrough ils magicaI-
reIigious roleclion (GeII 1998). Yel,
vhal is deicled on lhe shieIds is nol
a Iabyrinlh siriciu scnsu. The geomel-
ric auern, vhich aIso aears on
lhe coins of Auguslus (cacira) and
aears again on a meloe of Iorla
IIaminia (Ianco Irei|eiro 1971),
couId be a characlerislic molif from
lhe second haIf of lhe hrsl cenlury nc.
As Hck oinled oul (2003, 56) 'if lhe
molif is so lyicaI of lhe norlhvesl
and lhe iece discovered by Ianco
in lhe cailaI of lhe emire vas so
unique, (.) il vouId be IogicaI lo
lhink lhal Romans look as a modeI a re-exisling
norlh-veslern indigenous molif', or al Ieasl one
originaling in lhe norlhveslern conlexl of Iberia.
The molif deicled on lhe varrior shieIds may
ossibIy maleriaIize a symboIism of lhe cenlre or
reresenl lhe ideaI Iayoul of a seuIemenl al lhal lime,
lhey couId acluaIIy refer lo bolh simuIlaneousIy. The
concel cenlreerihery (unilymuIliIicily) con-
slilules one of lhe fundamenlaI bases of archilecluraI
symboIism (Rykverl 1985, Snodgrass 1992, 214,
Robinson 2003). esides, ve musl bear in mind lhe
documenled engravings on slone vhich aear lo
be skelches of lhe Iayoul of hiIIforls (Myrberg 2006,
Meqide CameseIIe 2009) or of archilecluraI slruclures
such as cairns (radIey 2009, 423).
The Iayoul of seuIemenls such as lhose of Monle
Mozinho or San Cibran de Las, in fuII oeralion in
lhe second haIf of lhe hrsl cenlury nc, shov ecuIiar
simiIarilies vilh lhe molif reresenled on lhe shieId.
olh seuIemenls have a riluaI Iace in lhe cenlraI zone
surrounded by a ring of houses. SecondIy, in lhe case
of San Cibran de Las, slricl Ianning of ils Iayoul has
been demonslraled (Iig. 9): lhe seuIemenl vas hrsl
Iaid dovn, lhe Iols vere deIimiled and conslruc-
lion vork lhen began. Thus, as lhe excavalor oinled
oul, 'aII lhe dveIIings are Iocaled in lhe exlernaI area,
around radiaI slreels vhich Iink lhe Iover and uer
areas acling as circuIar axes' (AIvarez GonzaIez 2007,
30) as lhe molif deicls. ThirdIy, lhese hiIIforls vere
buiIl vilhin lhe framevork of a rocess of synoe-
cism lyicaI of lhe hrsl cenlury nc (GonzaIez-RuibaI
20062007, 33848), and vere conceived 'from lhe
slarl lo hosl a Iarge number of ersons and lhe inlerior
area vas divided inlo simiIar Iols for each famiIy'
(AIvarez-GonzaIez 2007, 31). Around lhe vaIIed
acrooIis lhere musl have Iived eoIe from dierenl
Iaces, robabIy concenlraling by hIialion in zones or
quarlers inside lhe seuIemenl. This IuraIily of ou-
Figurc 9. A|ctc. inc gccnciric sqn|c| !cpicic! cn inc snic|! cj cnc cj inc
siaiucs jrcn Iczcnnc an! cn iuc ccins cj Augusius (inis monela caslrensis
ccinagc jrcn ncrinucsicrn ||cria is gcncra||q incugni ic |c rc|aic! ic inc
Cania|rian War). Bc|cu. Acria| ticu cj San Ci|r4n !c Ias ni||jcri, San
Anarc, Ourcnsc, Spain. (Pncicgrapn. Tcrra Arquccs.)
298
Ialion vouId hnd ils oinl of unily in lhe cenlraI Iace
vilhin lhe vaIIed area, a sacred non-inhabiled sace
vhere severaI volive engravings are documenled and
vhere lhe reIief of a head has been found al one of lhe
enlrances. There are lvo radiaI movemenls deicled
in lhe draving and in lhe Iayoul of lhe seuIemenl:
from lhe cenlre lo lhe circumference and from lhe
circumference lo lhe cenlre. The inner moves lovards
lhe ouler and lhe ouler lovards lhe inner. Irom unily
lo muIliIicily and from lhis back lo unily.
The hve varrior images vilh lhis geomelricaI
molif on lheir shieIds mighl refer lo lhe very end of
lhe hrsl cenlury nc, and lhe reresenlalion of lhis
symboI, aIong vilh lhe veaons on lhe coins of cacira,
couId oinl lo lhe nev reaIily. Thus, lhe geomelricaI
hgure of lhe cacira, by being deicled on lhe shieId,
mighl indicale vhal lhe Iauer is rolecling, enhanc-
ing lhe over of lhe icon as a roleclion eIemenl for
lhe seuIemenl. No varrior slalues have been found
yel al lhe hiIIforl of San Cibran de Lasvhich is cur-
renlIy being excavaled, vhiIe in Monle Monziho lhe
remains of lvo aeared in lhe excavalion, lhough
onIy lhe lorso of one of lhem is reserved. Sym-
lomalicaIIy, lhe shieId vas broken o lhis slalue,
vhich couId indicale lhe reIevance of lhis symboI and
erhas reveaI iconocIaslic auiludes or raclices of
deaclivalion of a over eIemenl (Iig. 10). The facl is
lhal lhis slalue (AImeida 1974, 28, CaIo Lourido 1994,
345) is lhe same as lhe iece from Cendufe vhere lhe
geomelric molif aears.
Right hands: mcaning, matcria!ity and praxis
The righl hand is of greal signihcance lo indigenous
sociaIily because il is used lo reresenl lhe mosl
imorlanl geslures and maleriaI acls in lhese re-
Roman socielies. The righl hand is lhe channeI for
eace and for var. On lhe one side, il can be used lo
shake hands vilh anolher individuaI, vhelher as a
ersonaI acl or on behaIf of lhe communily. The male-
riaI geslure of lhe !cs is done vilh lhe righl hand. Il
aIso direcls var. Il carries lhe svord and is lhe bearer
of vioIence and of lhe caacily vhich an individuaI
and, by exlension, lhe communily have lo defend
oneseIf and subdue lhe olher. olh lhese asecls lurn
righl hands inlo a maleriaI melahor on vhich lo vork
and vilh vhich lo acl in lhe negolialion of lhe reaIily
of lhese communilies.
CIassicaI aulhors, iconograhy and archaeoIogi-
caI records corroborale lhe reIevance of lhe righl hand
in lhe conlexl of Iron Age socielies in lhe Iberian
eninsuIa. These communilies had a gesluraI corus
lo ob|eclify hosilaIily and !cs. Ierhas lhe cIearer
maleriaI examIe of shaking lhe righl hands (!cx-
irarun iunciic) as a sign of !cs (Marco Simn 2006)
is lhe facl lhal some hosilaIily lesserae found in lhe
IeninsuIa some of vhich have lhe lexl vriuen in
lhe indigenous Ianguage lake lhis shae. Il is quile
common lhal in inscrilions of lhis lye of lesserae, in
lhe CeIliberian Ianguage, lhe vord Car, for inslance,
aears. According lo some aulhors lhis vord can
be inlerreled as lhe abbrevialion of caruc or as lhe
feminine nominalive slem in r, or eIse il conveys lhe
idea of acl of hosilaIily or eIse is lhe indigenous
equivaIenl lo ncspiiiun (IeraIla Labrador 2000, 1434).
Likevise, lhe righl hand carries lhe veaon
and ils maleriaI and melahoric symboIism lhus
becomes highIy reIevanl lo indigenous sociaIily. We
knov lhrough Slrabo's Gccgrapnq lhal lhe re-Roman
communilies of lhis region choed 'lhe hands o
risoners and consecraled lhe righl hands' (3, 3, 6).
This is a videsread raclice amongsl indigenous
communilies in lhe Iberian eninsuIa during lhe
Iron Age. Amulaling lhe righl hand of lhe enemy
invoIves nol onIy humiIialion bul, as Sexlus AureIius
Viclor oinls oul (De Vir. III, 58), il aIso Iays a arl
in lriaIs of courage. This aulhor recounls lhal a falher
vho vanled lo decide vho shouId be his daughler's
fulure husband sels lhe suilors lhe lesl of Ieaving
lhe seuIemenl of Numanlia and relurning vilh lhe
righl hand of one of lheir enemies. They aIso serve
as var lrohies. Diodorus SicuIus (Hisicricus 12, 56,
5) narrales lhal in lhe bauIe of SeIinunle in 409 nc
mercenaries coming from Iberia carried bunches
of hands lied lo lheir beIls and lhe heads of lhe
Figurc 10. Ic. nuii|aic! sicnc uarricr jrcn Mcnic
Mczinnc (Pcnac|, Pcric, Pcriuga|). |igni. jragncni cj
uarricr siaiuc jrcn Ccn!ujc (Arccs !c Va|!ctcz, Viana
!c Casic|c, Pcriuga|).
299
enemies sluck on lheir sears. In facl, lhe Roman
army arorialed lhis form of unishmenl lo sub-
due lhe indigenous communilies of Iberia. VaIerius
Maximus in Mcncra||c Occ!s an! Saqings (2, 17, 11)
recounls lhal ServiIianus' miIilary garrisons gave lhe
order lo amulale lhe righl hands of any Lusilanians
embracing Virialhus' cause.
An iconograhy cenlred on lhe symboIic sig-
nihcance of righl hands and shieIds in lhe conlexl
of indigenous ouIalions of lhe Iberian eninsuIa
has aIso been documenled (AIfaye ViIIa 2004) (Iig.
11). Ior inslance, lhe righl hands, lhe cacira and lhe
sear of lhe defealed are reresenled on lhe sleIa of
inefar. Above lhem, lhe lvo muliIaled corses have
suered lhe seIeclive amulalion of lhe righl hand
and have been decailaled vhiIe a vuIlure is seen
Iunging lovards lhem. In anolher inslance, on lhe
sleIa of IaIao in AIcaiz (second lo hrsl cenlury nc),
a vexing and dishonourabIe acl of denying buriaI
lo lhe enemy by lhe viclorious varrior is deicled.
The horseman is carrying a sear and a cacira vhiIe
al lhe feel of lhe horse a corse is being devoured
by vermin. Once more, lhe amulalion of lhe righl
hand and lhe Ioss of lhe shieId are deicled. Marco
Simn (1998, 3934) has equaIIy inlerreled arl of
lhe iconograhy on lhe IunuIa from Cho de Lamas
(Conimbriga) as a scene of degradalion and amula-
lion of lhe Iimbs.
IinaIIy, lhese raclices have aIso been conhrmed
by archaeoIogicaI records in lhe Iron Age seuIe-
menl of La Hoya (Laguardia, AIava). Around lhe
lhird cenlury nc, lhis seuIemenl vas besieged and
sel on hre and ils inhabilanls vere murdered. The
skeIelaI remains conhrm lhal lhe eoIe of lhis sel-
lIemenl endured muliIalion raclices invoIving lhe
amulalion of hands and decailalion (LIanos 2005,
20072008, Iig. 12). In sum, il seems obvious lhal
lhe vioIenl muliIalion of lhese members acquires lhe
consideralion of a synecdoche amongsl lhe Iberian
communilies in lhe Lale Iron Age: lhe righl hand
as lhe signiher of lhe sociaI caacily of individuaIs
renders lhem useIess as such if il is amulaled (Soea
Genzor 2009). If ve accel lhe reIevance of lhe shieId
al lhe fronl in lhe crealion of a dierenlialed sace
againsl lhe enemy/foreigner and of lhe righl hand as
maleriaI melahors of indeendence and oIilicaI and
miIilary caacily of individuaIs, il lhen makes sense
lhal lhe varriors of lhe hiIIforls on lhe vaIIs adol
lhe lvo geslures. The righl hand aIvays hoIding lhe
dagger or carrying lhe unshealhed svord makes lhe
varriors vork as an aclive image in lhe conslruclion
and roleclion of lhe IiminaI sace.
Figurc 11. |cprcscniaiicns cj anpuiaic! rigni nan!s. (|c) sic|a cj Bincjar, (rigni) sic|a cj Pa|ac in A|caiz.
300
Captivatinn and distributcd symbn!s
A hnaI IeveI of anaIysis is ossibIe if ve Iook inlo lhe
symboIs and decoralive eIemenls recurring in dierenl
maleriaI domains vilhin lhese communilies. The same
symboIs (lriskeIe, svaslika, elc.) and auerned forms
are used lo cover lhe coslumes of lhe varrior slalues,
lhe body ornamenls, lhe vaIIs of houses and lhe pc!ras
jcrncsas. IirslIy, lhey are deicled on body ornamenls
such as lorcs or beIls, and are reresenled on lhe dress
and beIls of lhe varrior slalues. SecondIy, lhey aear
on lhe IinleIs, door|ambs and cornices or as slone discs
embedded in lhe vaIIs of houses. And hnaIIy, lhey
aear carved in lhe pc!ras jcrncsas, Iarge slones lhal
divide lhe inlernaI sace of riluaI saunas Iocaled |usl
oulside lhe hiIIforl enlrances (Iigs. 8 & 13:3). The use
of lhese overfuI symboIs and geomelricaI auerns
may have been lo serve as roleclion devices againsl
conlaminalion in lhese IiminaI conlexls (VasconceIIos
1913, 80, Loez CueviIIas 1989, GonzaIez-RuibaI 2004,
Rodriguez-CorraI 2009, 2012). In lhis conneclion, lhese
auerns by lheir muIliIicily and comIex geomelricaI
basis couId roduce a Iink over lime belveen lhe
erson and maleriaI forms because from a cognilive
erseclive vhal lhey resenl is, in GeIIs (1998, 80)
lerm, 'unhnished business'. Their visuaI roerlies of
reeliliveness and symmelry insire an aearance of
animalion. The geomelric molifs mighl lhus acl as a
sorl of 'lechnoIogy of enchanlmenl' (GeII 1992) vhose
sociaI eciency is nol onIy due lo symboIic issues bul
aIso lo cognilive issues. The geomelric molifs shouId
nol be considered as mere decoralion if by lhal ve
mean somelhing vilhoul a urose. Decoralion is
essenliaI lo lhe sychoIogicaI funclionaIily of lhe
arlefacls, coslumes and archilecluraI eIemenls and
shouId nol be disassocialed from ils olher sociaI and
raclicaI funclions.
The reelilion of lhe same visuaI media (ao-
lroaic symboIs and auerns) al dierenl scaIes
suggesls, in my viev, a fraclaI concelion of lhe
indigenous sociaIily in lhis region during lhe Lale Iron
Age. SymboIs and auerns are resenl on lhe bodies
of lhe varriors, on lhe vaIIs of lhe houses and al lhe
enlrances lo hiIIforls vhere varriors are Iaced
and acl. The same auern, lherefore, is vorking in lhe
domains of lhe individuaI (body), lhe famiIy (house),
and lhe communily (hiIIforl). SubsequenlIy, il mighl
be vorking in lhese hiIIforls as a calegory of erson
vho acls for lhe vhoIe communily as bolh a coIIeclive
and singuIar erson (IovIer 2004, 2008). The com-
munily and famiIy acl as a erson on a dierenl scaIe,
so lhe singIe individuaI is a fraclaI equivaIenl of lhe
famiIy and lhe communily.
The symboIs and comIex auerns aIso cover
lhe surface of lhe pc!ra jcrncsa of lhe saunas. These
buiIdings are IiminaI Iaces due lo lheir Iocalion al lhe
enlrances, and lheir semi-sublerranean archileclure
vilh inlernaI divisions. Movemenl vilhin lhe sauna
invoIves a syneslhelic lransformalion lhrough lhe
body. odiIy sensalions vhich demand a very secihc
lye of movemenl going lhrough a smaII oening
in lhe pc!ra jcrncsa and vhich lake lhe individuaI
from Iighl inlo darkness, from coId lo heal, from
dry lo vel or ticc tcrsa, and even bring changes of
smeII (sveal and grease) and sound (inner echoes)
(GonzaIez-RuibaI 20062007, 575, Rodriguez-CorraI
2009, 18993). Whelher lhe pc!ra jcrncsa divides and
creales areas of rivacy, change or sensoriaI crealion
or nol (for simiIar debales regarding caves, megaIilhic
monumenls or MaIlese lemIes see Levis-WiIIiams
Figurc 12. Skc|cia| rcnains uiin signs cj inc tic|cni nuii|aiicn jrcn scu|cncni cj Ia Hcqa (Iaguar!ia, A|ata, Spain).
(Pncicgrapns. A. I|ancs.)
301
1
2
3
4
(2002) and TiIIey (2007, 2008)), lhe same symboIs and
auern on lhe surface of lhe houses and lhe varrior
bodies al lhe enlrances aear |usl lhere, vorking al
lhal IiminaI momenl vhere lhe syneslhelic surround-
ing of lhe individuaI mulales and is lranshgured.
These buiIdings consequenlIy seem lo be Iinked vilh
secihc riles of assage and lransformalion.
If ve lake a fraclaI vision of lhe maleriaI and
sociaI sace of lhe seuIemenl, il is necessary lo lhink
lhal aII lhe symboIs and decoralions mighl have acled
simuIlaneousIy in lhe sociaI, syneslhelic and cognilive
conslruclion of vhal being indigenous is, a vay of
being-in-lhe-vorId rior lo becoming Roman (WooIf
1998) vhich vas cerlainIy in oeralion from lhe sec-
ond cenlury nc and vhich, aher .u 0, vas graduaIIy
deaclivaled over lhe foIIoving hundred years. In lhe
hrsl cenlury .u, in hiIIforls such as lhose of Sanla
TecIa or Cividade de Ancora, lhis Iaslic decoralion is
reused as conslruclion maleriaI or is covered by olher
conslruclions, vhich lherefore indicales lhal il Ioses
ils cognilive and symboIic vaIue and ils aolroaic
funclion. Il is IogicaI lo lhink lhal if il is no Ionger used
and does nol have reIevance as a maleriaI symboI on
lhe vaIIs of houses, il shouId Iikevise cease lo func-
lion on lhe beIls of lhe slone varriors and on pc!ras
jcrncsas. SymlomalicaIIy, lhe vaIIs of many of lhe
Figurc 13. Maicria| sqn|c|s. 1. arcniicciura| !cccraiicn jrcn inc ni||jcri cj Sania Tcgra (A Guar!a, Spain), 2. !cncsiic
!cccraiicn. !ccr jranc an! jriczcs jrcn ni||jcri cj Sa|rcsc (nc!ic! acr Gcnz4|cz-|ui|a| 2004), 3. edra formosa
jrcn |iras, Vi|a Ncta !c |ana|icac, Pciuga| (nc!ic! acr Qucircga 2003), 4. uarricr siaiuc jrcn Iczcnnc (Bciicas,
Vi|a |ca|, Pcriuga|).
302
hiIIforls are no Ionger reaired from lhal momenl
onvards, lhe inner sace is abandoned or graduaIIy
Ioses ouIalion and lhe houses begin lo exand
oulside lhe vaIIs, as can be noled in Caslromao or
Monle Mozinho (Rodriguez-CorraI 2012, 75). The
erformalive and fraclaI sace vhich ve have |usl
reconslrucled is dismanlIed and lhe slalues begin lo
Iose lheir urose. The varrior icons are deaclivaled
and in some cases, around lhe mid hrsl cenlury .u,
lheir uses and meanings are recycIed. AIready incor-
oraled inlo olher maleriaI coIIeclives, lhey negoliale
olher reaIilies vhich are added as a furlher hase in
lheir cuIluraI biograhy. Il is nov lhal an eigrah
is added lo some slalues. We knov lhal lhe varrior
of So }uIio vas found in lhe oId rubbIe li of lhe
excavalion of a Roman IeveI of lhe hiIIforl, vhich
oinls lo lhe secondary conlexl vhere image and lhe
eigrah Iived logelher. Il is aIso by lhen, in lhe hrsl
haIf of lhe hrsl cenlury .u, lhal lhe varrior of Sanhns,
vhich used lo be Iaced al one of lhe enlrances lo lhe
hiIIforl, is dismanlIed and reIocaled aIong vilh lvo
aneigrahic aIlars inside a slruclure on lo of lhe
seuIemenl.
Cnnc!usinn
My aim has been lo relhink lhe slone varriors beyond
lhe lradilionaI concelions lhal have revaiIed in
archaeoIogicaI research. On lhe one hand, acknov-
Iedging lhe exislence of diachronic eIemenls in
lhese images, I have shovn lhal lhey cannol be fuIIy
underslood al |usl one oinl in lheir exislence. Their
signihcance derives from lhe ersons and evenls
lo vhich lhey vere connecled over lime and from
lheir caabiIily of accumuIaling hislories. Thus, I
have argued lhal in lhe hrsl cenlury .u, in a conlexl
of negolialion of discreanl idenlilies, lhese images
vere reused as a galevay lo lhe asl, encasuIaling
a deIiberale relro-ideoIogy.
On lhe olher hand, I have aIso anaIysed lhese
images in lheir rimary conlexl. Moving avay from
lhe nolion of reresenlalion lhal has dominaled lheir
inlerrelalion, I have considered lhe slone varriors
nol as a mere reeclion of a heroic ideoIogy bul as
aclive arlefacls vorking lo creale lhe indigenous
sociaIily ilseIf. AIlhough lhe images are sliII aboul
ob|ecl or ideas vhich are laken lo make resenl, lhey
are nol mereIy reresenlalionaI bul aIso erformalive.
As lhis arlicIe has lried lo shov, lhe varrior slalues
vere lhoughl lo lranscend lheir slalus as a symboI
and lo roduce onloIogicaI eecls. The condilions
of ossibiIily for lhe meaning of lhese varriors musl
be found in lhe erformalive ensembIe made u of
dierenlialed saces co-crealed by vaIIs, gales and
riluaI raclices. Il is in lhis conlexl vhere lhese images
acl, addressed lo foreigners (because of lheir Iocalion)
and enemies (olenliaIIy so because of lheir Iocalion).
Through melahoric imIicalions, mimelic lechniques
and lheir inserlion vilhin a nelvork of reIalionshis
and Iinks, lhese maleriaI images acquire lheir sense.
In sum, lheir erformalive over emanales from lhe
inserlion of lhe medium (slone), in lhe maleriaIized
aclion (shoving lhe shieId and lhe armed righl hand),
in lhe Iace vhere lhe image is disIayed (lhe vaII and
lhe oulcro) and in lhe audience al vhich il is aimed
(individuaIs coming from lhe oulside), co-crealing lhe
IiminaIily of lhe sace al a re-redicalive IeveI and
aclivaling lhe over of lhe image. Thus, lhe meaning
of lhe vaII as a IiminaI sace in lhe archileclure of lhe
hiIIforl is emhasized by lhe resence of lhe varrior
scuIlure, vhich visuaIIy anliciales lhis lransilion
zone, marking lhe indeendence of lhe hiIIforl vhiIe
serving as an aclive eIemenl of roleclion for lhe
communily.
jaticr |c!rigucz-Ccrra|
|nsiiiuic cj Arcnacc|cgq
Unitcrsiiq cj Oxjcr!
36 Bcauncni Sircci
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Authnr bingraphy
]utler Rodrguez-CorruI is a osldocloraI researcher of lhe
GIIN (Universidad de Sanliago de ComosleIa, Sain) vho
is currenlIy a visiling schoIar al lhe Inslilule of ArchaeoIogy,
Universily of Oxford. He seciaIizes in lheorelicaI archaeo-
Iogy and in lhe archaeoIogy of lhe AlIanlic Iuroe in lhe
hrsl miIIennium nc.

Cambridge Archaeological Journal. The Empowerment of Imagery - Stone Warriors in The Borders

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Cambridge Archaeological Journal. The Empowerment of Imagery - Stone Warriors in The Borders

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Cambridge Archaeological Journal

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