International Journal of Music Education http://ijm.sagepub.

com/ A comparison of non-musicians' and musicians' aesthetic response to music experienced with and without video John A. Lychner 2008 26: 21 International Journal of Music Education DOI: 10.1177/0255761407085647 The online version of this article can be found at: http://ijm.sagepub.com/content/26/1/21 Published by: http://www.sagepublications.com On behalf of: International Society for Music Education: ISME can be found at: International Journal of Music Education Additional services and information for http://ijm.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Email Alerts: http://ijm.sagepub.com/subscriptions Subscriptions:

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav Permissions: http://ijm.sagepub.com/content/26/1/21.refs.html Citations: - Apr 16, 2008 Version of Record >> What is This? by Graca Mota on January 9, 2012 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 21-32 IJM-085647.qxd 1/24/2008 5:51 PM Page 21 A comparison of non-musicians and musicians aesthetic response to music experienced with and without video JOHN A. LYCHNER Western Michigan University, USA Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine aesthetic response to music experienced with and without video in this case a video produced with a variety of images and not a video of a live performance. The participants (N 64) were undergraduate and graduate students at a comprehensive university. The aural-only and aural with visual conditions were isolated to determine whether there would be a greater aesthetic response to the aural component when video was paired with it. In addition, the response of musicians or students majoring in music (n 32) was compared to the response of nonmusicians or students not majoring in music (n 32). Results indicated that non-musicians had a stronger response to the stimuli than musicians, particularly when the music was coupled with the video. However, video added to an audio stimulus did not appear to enhance participants aesthetic

response. In addition, musicians and non-musicians demonstrated notable differences in their aesthetic response to the stimulus, in this case a piece of country music. Key words affective response, audio, aural, music education, visual People have a need to discuss and describe the profound experiences of their lives. The aesthetic experience is among the most difficult to put into words. It seems that a wide variety of experiences are likely to elicit an aesthetic response, including but not limited to experiences with any of the arts (visual art, music, dance, and theater), nature, and literature. Often these are experienced in combination, and one could assume that the aesthetic response would be heightened as a result. However, this has not been definitively demonstrated. In fact, studies have indicated that there is no significant increase in aesthetic response when a corresponding video is added (Adams, 1994; Lychner, 2002). In addition, while research in aesthetic response has focused on western art music, it is likely that almost any genre of music can or will elicit an aesthetic response because a wide variety of musical genres are available and popular in modern society. Therefore, it seems prudent to study aesthetic responsiveness to various genres. The purpose of this study was to examine aesthetic response of musicians and non-musicians to a piece of country music experienced with and without its award-winning production video. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION Copyright 2008 International Society for Music Education Vol 26(1) 2132 [(200802)26:1] 10.1177/0255761407085647 http://ijm.sagepub.com by Graca Mota on January 9, 2012 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 21-32 IJM-085647.qxd 1/24/2008 5:51 PM Page 22 22 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION 26(1) Review of literature In affective response research, there has been considerable discussion regarding the terminology used to elicit participants responses. Philosophers and affective response researchers have attempted to address the difficulty people have with terminology. Langer (1993/1942) considered the problem with terminology an issue resulting from the multi-faceted nature of words, and later (1953) noted inconsistencies in the use of terminology throughout the field of philosophy. In an attempt to clarify terms and usage with regard to affective response, Price (1986) produced a glossary of common terms with definitions drawn from common usage. Later, Lychner (1998) studied terms commonly used in affective response research, finding a strong similarity between the terms aesthetic response and felt-emotional response, but a marked difference between these and the term perceived tension. In affective response studies using the Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI) to measure participants responses, the terms aesthetic response and perceived tension are the most commonly employed. While there continues to be debate about the nature of aesthetic response (Kivy,

2002), 90 percent or more of the participants asked to indicate their aesthetic response in studies using the CRDI indicated that they had what they considered to be an aesthetic experience while listening to the music and that their movement of the CRDI dial corresponded to their experience (Geringer, Madsen, & Gregory, 2004). The terminology chosen can be an impediment for researchers as they discuss results, but seems to be less so for participants. All research based on participant self-report is, of course, dependent on the participants understanding of the material with which they are to work or to which they are to respond. With regard to CRDI research in the area of aesthetic response, it is notable that participants responses are highly reliable in testretest experiences and that participants consistently indicate that they have had an aesthetic response (Geringer, Madsen, & Gregory, 2004). Participants in aesthetic response studies employing the CRDI have been undergraduate students, graduate students, and university faculty. As a result of education and personal experiences, this pool of participants would, in almost all cases, have an understanding of and experience with the term aesthetic. Therefore, it is appropriate to ask these participants to track or indicate their aesthetic response to a piece of music. Regardless of the terminology chosen, the majority of studies in affective response to music have compared the responses of musicians and non-musicians. Results from research on this topic have indicated that musicians and non-musicians have similar responses to the music presented to them (Adams, 1994; Capperella-Sheldon, 1992; Frego, 1999; Lychner, 1998; Madsen, Byrnes, CapperellaSheldon, & Brittin, 1993). In early CRDI studies, participants were asked to respond to various selections of western art music most often selections with broad appeal. However, recent studies have indicated that knowledge of a genre may play a role in a participants response to a stimulus (Coggiola, 2004; Misenhelter & Price, 2001). Price (1986) suggested that the ability to experience an affective response to music is a learned behavior resulting from study, practice, or performance. Coggiola (2004) suggested that experience with a genre (in this case, jazz) is likely to result in an enhanced or stronger response to that genre, especially when the music is more complex. In affective response studies using devices to record participants responses as they listen, the composite graph results tend to be unique for each musical selection. Among the various devices that have been developed (Fredrickson, 1994), Nielsens tongs and the CRDI have demonstrated this particular graphic result. Nielsen (1983) used a pair of tongs with spring resistance and a potentiometer to record participants perceived tension while by Graca Mota on January 9, 2012 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 21-32 IJM-085647.qxd 1/24/2008 5:51 PM Page 23 Lychner Aesthetic response to music experienced with and without video 23 listening to Symphony No. 104 by Haydn. Madsen and Fredrickson (1993) replicated the Nielsen study using the CRDI. The CRDI, a potentiometer (in dial format) whose readings are recorded by a computer as a string of numbers, is specifically designed to record ongoing responses to music

without disruption of the listening process. Lychner (1998) noted: quantitative analysis of the graphs for this study and previous CRDI studies indicate that each musical selection is unique. That is, each group of subjects that listen and respond via the CRDI will produce a similar graph for a given musical selection. (p. 317) It was also noted that variation in individual participant graphs may be substantial, but that the group outcome would be basically the same. Lychner (1998) described this as a musical footprint (p. 317). This phenomenon was also seen in subsequent studies (Coggiola, 2004; Frego, 1999; Lychner, 2002, in press) where there was high testretest reliability. Another factor that may play a role in the level or magnitude of response is the addition of a related stimulus. Music is often paired with another art form dance, theater, or film; however, in almost all cases, the music can be performed and appreciated without the paired art form. In addition, art forms have been combined or examined simultaneously in education to promote better understanding. Haack (1970) found that the visual arts can be used effectively to enhance the development of musical concepts. At the same time, there was a growing interest in interdisciplinary arts programs, also known as allied arts or related arts programs. Knieter (1971) indicated that programs of music education conceived as aesthetic education stress the sensitive, intelligent, and creative development of musicality through the fundamental avenues of expression: creativity, performance, and response (p. 19). Gardner (1993) included music and visual/spatial in his list of intelligences, and he suggested that as an aesthetic form, music lends itself especially well to playful exploration with other modes of intelligence and symbolization (p. 126). A number of studies have examined music paired with a visual stimulus in varied combinations of audio alone, video alone, and audio with video. Some of these studies focused on teaching, rehearsing, and evaluation of performance, while others concen-trated on the participants affective and cognitive responses. Yarbrough and Hendel (1993) had high-school and elementary students rate teacher effectiveness in rehearsal. The students who were rating the teacher experienced the rehearsal in one of four taped presentations audio and video, audio only, video only, or script only. They rated the script only and audio and video higher than the other two presentations. Sheldon (1994) used the CRDI to measure the effect of paired visual and aural stimuli on detection of tempo modulation, finding that non-musicians benefit from receiving bimodal sensory information, particularly aural and visual cues. Two studies found that the pairing of a visual component with audio resulted in higher ratings of the musical performance (Cassidy & Sims, 1991; Johnson, 1991). In these studies, the video was a performance video that is, a video of people performing, as opposed to a production video or a produced video that would include other visual images such as pictures (moving or still), drawings, animation, or text. Geringer, Cassidy, and Byo (1996) investigated the effects of visual information on nonmusic

students affective and cognitive responses to music using excerpts from works by Bach (abstract) and Dukas (programmatic), with results showing no significant difference for the Bach, but higher cognitive responses for the audio with video group with the Dukas. In a subsequent study of affective and cognitive response, Geringer, Cassidy, and by Graca Mota on January 9, 2012 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 21-32 IJM-085647.qxd 1/24/2008 5:51 PM Page 24 24 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION 26(1) Byo (1997) compared the aural-only (or music-alone) condition with a performance video and a production video. Results indicated that cognitive scores were higher for the performance video, and, while affective ratings were not significantly different, the production video received a consistently higher ranking than the other conditions. In an exploratory study of the visual and aural aspects of listening to music, Madsen, Legette, and Duke (1993) found that music majors and non-music majors responded similarly and that each excerpt was rated differently depending upon condition (visual-only, aural-only, and combined visual/aural). Using the same three conditions, Adams (1994) studied felt-emotional response to music. Comparing responses from musicians and nonmusicians, he found a significant difference between musicians and non-musicians for the visual-only task, with musicians demonstrating an ability to focus longer on the task, but no other differences were found between musicians and non-musicians. The Madsen, Legette, and Duke (1993) study used a performance video, while the Adams (1994) study used a produced video that included pictures of the cathedral in which the performance took place. In a more recent study, Lychner (2002) examined the magnitude of aesthetic response to a music soundtrack when heard alone and while viewing the corresponding video images. The film soundtrack was selected to comprise music written specifically to accom-pany the film. The visual-only condition was not included in order to isolate the aural and aural/visual conditions to determine if there was a greater aesthetic response to the aural component when the visual was paired with it. In addition, music majors and non-music majors were compared. Results indicated no significant difference between stimuli or major. Early aesthetic response studies employing the CRDI focused on classical music or western art music (Adams, 1994; Lychner, 1998; Madsen, Brittin, & Capperella-Sheldon, 1993; Madsen, Byrnes et al., 1993). Recent studies employing the CRDI have begun to explore aesthetic response to other genres, including pop music (Lychner, in press) and jazz (Coggiola, 2004). Given the wide variety of music available and the wide popularity of such genres as pop, rock, and country, it seems prudent to include these and other genres in the study of affective response to begin to examine the similarities and differences among the various genres of music impacting on society. In addition, the fact that music videos are ubiquitous makes one wonder if video in some way enhances the audience perception of, or aesthetic response to, the music. An understanding of these things may help the music educator bridge gaps between genres for students.

The purpose of this study was to examine aesthetic response to a piece of country music experienced with and without video in this case a produced video and not a performance video. In addition, there was an attempt to determine if there is a difference in response between musicians (students majoring in music) and non-musicians (students not majoring in music). Method The participants (N 64) were undergraduate and graduate students enrolled at a Northern comprehensive university in the USA. Half of the participants (n 32) were musicians (students majoring in music) and half (n 32) were non-musicians (students not majoring in music). In each group, half of the participants (n 16) listened to Drive (For Daddy Gene) by Alan Jackson, while the other half (n 16) listened to and watched the video produced for Drive (For Daddy Gene) by Alan Jackson. Data were collected in two ways via the CRDI and via questionnaire. by Graca Mota on January 9, 2012 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 21-32 IJM-085647.qxd 1/24/2008 5:51 PM Page 25 Lychner Aesthetic response to music experienced with and without video 25 Participants were asked to manipulate the CRDI dial corresponding to their aesthetic response to the stimulus. Movement of the dial corresponded to the participants personal definition or understanding of the term aesthetic. The following instructions were read to all participants after they were seated at a CRDI station: Instructions (for audio with video) You are going to see and hear a music video. As you watch and listen, please move the dial in front of you corresponding to your aesthetic response to the music. Feel free to move the dial as much or as little as you like, utilizing as much or as little of the 256 degree range as you feel is appropriate. Following the piece, there will be a brief time period for you to answer several questions on the questionnaire at your station. Do not put your name on the questionnaire. You can skip any question on the questionnaire and simply leave it blank. The entire process should take not more than 20 minutes. You can leave, quit, or withdraw from participation without prejudice or penalty from the university or the School of Music. Are there any questions? Please try manipulating your dial and then return the pointer to the far left. [pause] Now, please put on your headphones and we will begin. Instructions (for audio alone)

You are going to hear a piece of music. As you listen, please move the dial in front of you corresponding to your aesthetic response to the music. Feel free to move the dial as much or as little as you like, utilizing as much or as little of the 256 degree range as you feel is appropriate. Following the piece, there will be a brief time period for you to answer several questions on the questionnaire at your station. Do not put your name on the questionnaire. You can skip any question on the questionnaire and simply leave it blank. The entire process should take not more than 20 minutes. You can leave, quit, or withdraw from participation without prejudice or penalty from the university or the School of Music. Are there any questions? Please try manipulating your dial and then return the pointer to the far left. [pause] Now, please put on your headphones and we will begin. The participants experienced and responded to the country music video Drive (For Daddy Gene) by Alan Jackson on the DVD Alan Jackson Greatest Hits Volume II, Disc 2. The stimulus was chosen because of the quality of the performance and production coupled with the availability of video of the performance in DVD format that provides consistently high-quality reproduction of both audio and video elements. This music video won the Video of the Year at the 2003 Academy of Country Music Awards. As in Lychner (1998), an overlay designed to give the visual appearance of a rounded Osgood scale with the word less at the far left anchor and the word more at the far right anchor was used on the face of the CRDI. Before the beginning of each session, participants were asked to place the pointer at the far left by the word less because, as Adams (1994) suggests and others have observed (Lychner, 1998; Misenhelter & Lychner, 1997), participants use the initial moments of a piece of music to establish a level of response whereby increase or decrease could be demonstrated (p. 46). by Graca Mota on January 9, 2012 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 21-32 IJM-085647.qxd 1/24/2008 5:51 PM Page 26 26 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION 26(1) A small studio with four CRDI stations, two on either side of a computer station, served as a laboratory for this project. Each station is visually separated from the next by wooden partitions and includes a CRDI dial, a set of headphones, a pencil, and a questionnaire that provides instructions and space for written responses. The audio equipment used to reproduce the audio stimulus included an AIWA 120-watt Shelf System with 5 Minidisc Changer, Model XR-H66MD, and KOSS Portable Stereophone Headphones, Model TD/61. The shelf system was located in a carrel next to the PC used to collect data from the CRDI dials. There was no interaction with or among the participants during the running of the stimulus. Each participant received a questionnaire when they were seated at their station.

The purpose of the questionnaire was to provide basic instructions for the participant and to determine the participants familiarity with the music and reaction to the stimuli. Two versions of the questionnaire were used to expedite data sorting one for audio with video (Figure 1) and one for audio only (not included here). The only difference in the forms was in the heading and a slightly different wording of the instructions to accom-modate the difference between listening and watching and just listening. Sixteen of the participants (eight music majors and eight non-music majors four from each group for each stimulus) were asked to repeat the process for testretest reliability. In addition, as in previous studies, there was no attempt to define aesthetic or aesthetic response for participants. Questionnaire Country Music (Audio with Video) CRDI #____ Please wait for Instructions. Then, when instructed ... Manipulate the CRDI dial in front of you as you listen to the music and watch the video. After hearing the music and watching the video in its entirety, please answer the following: 1. Do you recognize the tune? (circle one) YES NO 2. If yes, can you name the tune? (circle one) YES NO If yes, name the tune. _______________________________________ 3. If yes, can you name the artist? (circle one) YES NO If yes, name the artist. _______________________________________ 4. Did you have what you consider to be an aesthetic experience(s) while listening to the music

selection? (circle one) NO YES Several 5. Did you feel that your movement of the dial roughly corresponded to variations of the above aesthetic experience? (circle one) YES NO 6. What was the highest magnitude (intensity) of this experience compared to others that you have had? (circle one) Low | | | | | | | High 1234567 Figure 1 Questionnaire. by Graca Mota on January 9, 2012 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from

21-32 IJM-085647.qxd 1/24/2008 5:52 PM Page 27 Lychner Aesthetic response to music experienced with and without video 27 Results The purpose of this study was to examine aesthetic response to country music experienced with and without video. In addition, there was an attempt to determine if there was a difference in response between musicians (students majoring in music) and nonmusicians (students not majoring in music). The graphic data (see Figure 2) indicate that there is a group response to the music both with and without the video. However, for both musicians and non-musicians, there is a stronger response to the audio-only condition. With regard to musicians, the audio line is slightly slower to rise, but rises farther and remains higher throughout the experience. The non-musician responses are much closer in general magnitude, but the audio-only line has more peaks and valleys and, similar to the musicians results, indicates a generally higher response than the audio with video line for approximately the final two-thirds of the piece. Overall, non-musicians had a stronger response to the stimuli than musicians, particularly when the music was coupled with the video (see Figures 2 and 3). The magnitude of the response is much closer

between these groups when experiencing the audio alone (see Figure 4). However, the musicians response rises and then plateaus and is rather flat thereafter through to the end of the piece, while the non-musicians response indicates more defined peaks and valleys relative to changes in the music when experiencing audio without video. This is reversed when the groups experience the audio with the video. Musicians indicate more defined peaks and valleys relative to the audio with video stimulus, while the non-musicians response rises quickly and then plateaus. Figure 2 Aesthetic response audio and video composite graph. by Graca Mota on January 9, 2012 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from

21-32 IJM-085647.qxd 1/24/2008 5:53 PM Page 28 28 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION 26(1) Figure 3 Aesthetic response audio with video graph. Figure 4 Aesthetic response audio-only graph. by Graca Mota on January 9, 2012 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 21-32 IJM-085647.qxd 1/24/2008 5:53 PM Page 29 Lychner Aesthetic response to music experienced with and without video 29 In general terms, the contours of the graphs are similar; however, there are noticeable differences. Pearson correlations were used to determine how closely the data are related. For the audio condition comparing musicians and non-musicians, the result was .87.

However the correlation for the same groups in the video condition was .75. This relatively low correlation is notable because when all other combinations are compared the correlations range from .85 to .92. The most interesting result with regard to the graphic differences is that in comparing musicians and non-musicians with regard to the video stimulus (Figure 3), the musicians responded in a way that closely matched changes in the form of the music. Downward movement of the line and valleys corresponded to quieter sections that could be described as verses, while upward movement of the line and plateaus corresponded to louder sections with fuller instrumentation that, while employing different words, seem to function as choruses or refrains. This type of demar-cation, while seen much less overtly in the musicians responding to audio only, is not noticeable in either of the non-musicians lines. It was determined a priori that reliability would be established through an immediate testretest format and that musicians and non-musicians as well as both stimuli would be equally represented. A Pearson correlation was calculated to compare the data. Results indicated a reliability of .79 for musicians and .90 for non-musicians. Musicians often had a lower response level during their second hearing for testretest reliability. On the post hoc questionnaire, 94 percent of the non-musician participants indicated that they had what they considered to be an aesthetic experience and seven of them indicated that they had several aesthetic experiences, while only 56 percent of the musician participants indicated having an aesthetic experience and only two indicated having several. For both groups, 88 percent of the participants indicated that their movement of the dial roughly corresponded to the variations in their aesthetic experience. With regard to the stimuli, 72 percent of the participants who experienced the audio with video indicated having what they considered an aesthetic experience and three of them indicated having several, while 78 percent of the participants experiencing the audio alone indicated that they had an aesthetic experience and six of them indicated having several. Questionnaire responses indicated that 67 percent of participants did not recognize the tune or the artist. All of the musicians who indicated that they recognized the tune and the artist identified both correctly, but three of the non-musician participants who indicated that they could identify the artist did not identify him correctly. The last question on the questionnaire asked the participants to rate the magnitude of this experience as compared to others that they have had. Nearly 30 percent of both groups rated the experience at a 4 on the seven-point Likert-type scale. The remaining responses were normally distributed for nonmusicians, but were skewed low for musicians, with two responses of 5 and no responses of 6 or 7. Discussion The results of this study suggest several things. First, video added to an audio stimulus does not appear to enhance participants aesthetic response. Second, country music appears to elicit an aesthetic response, as does every type of music that has been studied using the CRDI. Third, musicians and non-musicians demonstrate strong differences in their aesthetic response to this piece of country music. by Graca Mota on January 9, 2012 ijm.sagepub.com

Downloaded from 21-32 IJM-085647.qxd 1/24/2008 5:53 PM Page 30 30 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION 26(1) Research to date indicates that video added to an audio stimulus does not notably enhance the aesthetic response of participants (Adams, 1994; Frego, 1999; Lychner, 2002). This study adds weight to that idea. It seems logical that visual images would enhance response to an aural stimulus, especially those images seen in dance and film that are designed to be experienced together. However, as Frego (1999) suggests, the combined visual/aural condition may . . . cause confusion due to the division of attention within the task listen, watch, and simultaneously respond (p. 42). Therefore, it is possible that the addition of video to an aural stimulus may actually detract from the participants aesthetic experience. Further research is needed to clarify this issue. People respond to music, and while the aesthetic response studies employing the CRDI began with a focus on classical music or western art music (Madsen, Brittin, et al., 1993), recent studies employing the CRDI have begun to explore aesthetic response to other genres including pop music (Lychner, in press) and jazz (Coggiola, 2004). In all of the aesthetic response studies employing the CRDI, including this one, most of the participants have indicated having an aesthetic response to the stimuli, regardless of genre. This suggests that music in its broadest definition is likely to elicit aesthetic response. Certainly, more work needs to be done to test this theory, but the concept seems plausible. As noted earlier, nearly every study concerning aesthetic response to music has compared the responses of musicians and non-musicians to various selections of western art music, with results indicating that musicians and non-musicians have very similar responses to the music presented to them (Adams, 1994; Capperella-Sheldon, 1992; Frego, 1999; Lychner, 1998; Madsen, Byrnes, et al., 1993). However, it was also noted that recent studies have indicated that knowledge of a genre may play a role in a participants response to a stimulus (Coggiola, 2004; Misenhelter & Price, 2001). Therefore, musicians may have had a less favorable response to country music in this study as a result of a lack of knowledge or preference for the genre. Country music is not studied in most colleges or universities. It is possible that musicians have a bias that country music is common or simple and therefore could not possibly elicit an aesthetic response. Musician responses to this study may also reflect a bias of this sort and may not be an honest reaction to what they heard or experienced. Knowledge and bias are certainly areas that need more attention and study as they relate to aesthetic response. The effect of preference on aesthetic response is also worth considering and investigating further. Visual analyses of temporal graphs reveal that, while individual graphs are unique, they demonstrate similar individual footprints and are generally closely related in shape and magnitude to their composite group graph. The concept of a musical footprint provided by CRDI composite group graphs introduced by Lychner (1998), which suggests that participants are likely to consistently respond in a way that provides a graphic representation of their aesthetic experience unique to a particular piece of music, appears to apply here. As was noted earlier, there is a wide variety of music available, and genres such as pop, rock, and country are widely popular. Therefore, it seems prudent to include these genres in the study of affective response to determine the similarities and differences among the various genres of music

impacting on society. A better understanding of these similarities and differences may help the music educator bridge gaps between genres for students. References Adams, B. (1994). The effect of visual/aural conditions on the emotional response to music. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Florida State University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 55, A2312. by Graca Mota on January 9, 2012 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 21-32 IJM-085647.qxd 1/24/2008 5:53 PM Page 31 Lychner Aesthetic response to music experienced with and without video 31 Capperella-Sheldon, D. (1992). Self-perception of aesthetic experience among musicians and nonmusicians in response to wind band music. Journal of Band Research, 28(1), 5771. Cassidy, J., & Sims, W. (1991). Effects of special education labels on peers and adults evaluations of a handicapped youth choir. Journal of Research in Music Education, 39(1), 2334. Coggiola, J. C. (2004). The effect of conceptual advancement in jazz music selections and jazz experience on musicians aesthetic response. Journal of Research in Music Education, 52(1), 2942. Fredrickson, W. (1994). Devices for recording ongoing responses to music in education and therapy. Missouri Journal of Research in Music Education, 31, 19. Frego, D. (1999). Effects of aural and visual conditions on response to perceived artistic tension in music and dance. Journal of Research in Music Education, 47(1), 3143. Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences (2nd edition). New York: Basic Books. Geringer, J., Cassidy, J., & Byo, J. (1996). Effects of music with video on responses of nonmusic majors: An exploratory study. Journal of Research in Music Education, 44(3), 240251. Geringer, J., Cassidy, J., & Byo, J. (1997). Nonmusic majors cognitive and affective responses to performance and programmatic music videos. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45(2), 221 233. Geringer, J., Madsen, C., & Gregory, D. (2004). A fifteen-year history of the Continuous Response Digital Interface: Issues relating to validity and reliability. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 160, 115.

Haack, P. (1970). A study involving the visual arts in the development of musical concepts. Journal of Research in Music Education, 18(4), 392398. Johnson, C. (1991). Use of the Continuous Response Digital Interface in evaluation of auditory versus auditory and visual aspects of musical performance. Southeastern Journal of Music Education, 3, 97 108. Kivy, P. (2002). Introduction to a philosophy of music. New York: Oxford University Press. Knieter, G. (1971). The nature of aesthetic education. In B. Reimer (Ed.), Toward an aesthetic education (pp. 320). Washington, DC: Music Educators National Conference. Langer, S. (1953). Feeling and form: A theory of art developed from Philosophy in a new key. New York: Charles Scribners Sons. Langer, S. (1993/1942). Philosophy in a new key: A study in the symbolism of reason, rite, and art. (3rd edition). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Lychner, J. (1998). An empirical study concerning terminology relating to aesthetic response to music. Journal of Research in Music Education, 46(2), 303319. Lychner, J. (2002). A comparison of aesthetic response to audio with video and audio alone. Missouri Journal of Research in Music Education, 39, 4154. Lychner, J. (in press). Aesthetic response and television theme music. Southeastern Journal of Music Education. Madsen, C. K., Brittin, R. V., & Capperella-Sheldon, D. A. (1993). An empirical method for measuring the aesthetic response to music. Journal of Research in Music Education, 41(1), 5769. Madsen, C. K., Byrnes, S. R., Capperella-Sheldon, D. A., & Brittin, R. V. (1993). Aesthetic responses to music: Musicians vs. nonmusicians. Journal of Music Therapy, 30(3), 174191. Madsen, C. K., & Fredrickson, W. (1993). The experience of musical tension: A replication of Nielsens research using the continuous response digital interface. Journal of Music Therapy, 30(1), 4663. Madsen, C. K., Legette, R., & Duke, R. (1993). Visual and aural aspects of listening to music: An exploratory study. Unpublished manuscript. Misenhelter, D., & Lychner, J. (1997). A comparative study of aesthetic response: Erik Saties Trois Gymnopedies and Frederic Chopins Ballade in A-flat. Contributions to Music Education, 24 (2), 1629.

Misenhelter, D., & Price, H. E. (2001). An examination of music and nonmusic majors response to selected excerpts from Stravinskys Le Sacre du printemps. Journal of Research in Music Education, 49(4), 323329. Nielsen, F. (1983). Oplevelse af musicalsk spanding (The experience of musical tension). Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag. Price, H. E. (1986). A proposed glossary for use in affective response literature in music. Journal of Research in Music Education, 34(3), 151159. Sheldon, D. (1994). Effects of tempo, musical experience, and listening modes on tempo modulation perception. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42(3), 190202. Yarbrough, C., & Hendel, C. (1993). The effect of sequential patterns on rehearsal evaluations of high school and elementary students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 41(3), 246257. by Graca Mota on January 9, 2012 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 21-32 IJM-085647.qxd 1/24/2008 5:53 PM Page 32 32 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION 26(1) John A. Lychner is Professor of Music, Chair of Music Education, and Director of the University Concert Band at Western Michigan University in Kalamazoo, USA. He received his BME and MA in Music from Northeast Missouri State University and his PhD in Music Education from Florida State University. Lychner taught in the Lindbergh School District in St Louis, Missouri, and at Rickards High School in Tallahassee, Florida. Address: School of Music, Western Michigan University, 1903 W. Michigan Avenue, Kalamazoo, Michigan 490085434, USA. Address: [email: john.lychner@wmich.edu] Abstracts Ein Vergleich der sthetischen Reaktion auf Musik mit und ohne Videoprsentationen bei Musikern und Nicht-Musikern Ziel der Studie war es, die sthetische Wirkung von Musik zu untersuchen, die mit und ohne Videoaufzeichnung dargeboten wurde in diesem Fall wurde ein Videoband mit verschiedenen visuellen Reizen, aber nicht ein Video einer Live Auffhrung hergestellt. Bei den Teilnehmern (N 64) handelte es sich um Studierende einer Gesamtuniversitt. Die Hrbedingungen ohne und die mit visueller Darbietung wurden voneinander getrennt, um festzustellen, ob eine strkere sthetische Reaktion auf die akustische Komponente festzustellen wre, wenn sie mit visueller Darbietung verbunden wurde. Ferner wurden die Reaktionen der Musikstudenten (n 32) mit denen der NichtMusiker (n 32) verglichen. Es zeigte sich, dass die Nicht-Musiker strkere Reaktionen zeigten als die

Musiker, besonders dann, wenn die Musik mit dem Video verbunden war. Allerdings schien die Hinzufgung eines Videos zum akustischen Stimulus dessen Wirkung nicht zu verstrken. Auerdem zeigten Musiker und Nicht-Musiker erkennbare Unterschiede in ihrer sthetischen Reaktion auf die dargebotene Country Music. Una comparativa de la respuesta esttica de msicos y no msicos a la msica experimentada con y sin video El propsito de este estudio fue examinar la respuesta esttica a la msica experimentada con y sin video. En este caso, se trat de un video producido con una variedad de imgenes y la audicin de una ejecucin en vivo sin el video. Los participantes (N 64) eran estudiantes no graduados y graduados en una universidad de amplia oferta educa-tiva. Las condiciones de slo audicin y audicin con imgenes fueron aisladas, para determinar si la respuesta esttica al componente auditivo cuando vena acompaado del video poda llegar a ser mayor. Adems, las respuestas de los msicos o de los estudiantes de msica (n 32) fue comparada con la respuesta de los no msicos o de estudiantes no especializados en msica (n 32). Los resultados indicaron que los no msicos respondieron con ms fuerza ante el estmulo que los msicos, particularmente cuando la msica se acoplaba al video. Sin embargo, el video agregado a un estmulo auditivo, al parecer no intensific la respuesta esttica de los participantes. Adems, surgieron notables diferencias entre las respuestas estticas de los msicos y no msicos ante los estmulos, en este caso, una pieza de msica country. by Graca Mota on January 9, 2012 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from