The Visual Pathway

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The Visual Pathway

VISUAL FIELD

RETINA

ON OT LGN OPTIC RADIATIONS

OC

Pathway extends from the front to the back of the brain. Precise retinotopic organization Deficits due to lesions of the pathway give valuable localizing information.

ON = Optic Nerve OC = Optic Chiasm OT = Optic Tract LGN = Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of Thalamus

VISUAL CORTEX

Beginning of the Pathway

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Ganglion cells

axons form the optic nerve

Bipolar cells

Rods and Cones

(Receptors)

Cells of the Retina

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Object to be seen

The next slide looks at the retina as if you are looking through the patients pupil via your ophthalmoscope.
Peripheral Retina

Central Retina (fovea in the macula lutea)

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Retinal Quadrants
Right retina Left retina

Vertical Meridian
UTQ LTQ UNQ nose LNQ LNQ LTQ UNQ UTQ

Horizontal Meridian

Macula with fovea centralis

Papilla (optic nerve head)

Retina as you would see it through the ophthalmoscope & the patients pupil
Temporal Hemiretina UTQ = upper temporal quadrant LTQ = lower temporal quadrant Nasal Hemiretina UNQ = upper nasal quadrant

LNQ = lower nasal quadrant

The blind spot in the Visual Field corresponds to the location of the optic nerve head on the NASAL side of the retina.
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Visual Fields & the Visual Pathway

VISUAL FIELD

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RETINA

ON OT LGN OPTIC RADIATIONS

OC

The following slides begin with the visual fields and then follow the pathway from the retina to the visual cortex.

ON = Optic Nerve OC = Optic Chiasm OT = Optic Tract LGN = Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of Thalamus

VISUAL CORTEX

Visual Fields
Definition: The entire area that
can be seen by the patient without movement of the head and with the eyes fixed on a single spot.
Upper Field of Left Eye

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Monocular Visual Fields

Temporal Field of Left Eye Nasal Field of Left Eye

Vertical Horizontal Meridian Meridian

UTQ
F

UNQ
F

Mapping of Visual Fields:

Confrontational method Perimetry (Manual or Automated)

Lower Field of Left Eye

LTQ

LNQ

Monocular Visual Fields:

Each eye is tested separately.

Normal Monocular Visual Field of Left Eye

Normal Monocular Visual Field of Right Eye

The monocular visual field is plotted with the Fovea (F) at the center. The monocular visual field (colored area -- blue for left; green for right in this example) is not round. Horizontal and Vertical Meridians correspond to those of the retina and divide the visual field into upper temporal, upper nasal, lower temporal and lower nasal quadrants. Imagine that this is your visual field, i.e. all that you can see with your left eye and your right eye (tested separately) when you look straight ahead and do not move your head or eyes.
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Visual Fields
Blind Spot
15 to the temporal side of the visual field of each eye On the horizontal meridian
Temporal Field of Left Eye Nasal Field of Left Eye

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Upper Field of Left Eye

Corresponds to the location of the optic nerve head 15 to the nasal side of the retina of each eye.

Lower Field of Left Eye

Normal Monocular Visual Field of Left Eye

Normal Monocular Visual Field of Right Eye

Demonstration of the Blind Spot: Draw the star and box on a piece of paper. Close your left eye; Look at the star with your right eye; Move paper back and forth until the green box disappears. Open your left eye and the box can be seen because even though it was falling on the blind spot of the right eye, it is not falling on the blind spot of your left eye. With both eyes open & binocular vision intact, you dont realize that there is a blind spot since the corresponding spot on the contralateral retina will see the object. 9

Visual Fields: Binocular

Temporal Field of Left Eye

Nasal Field of Left Eye

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Binocular field combines the two monocular visual fields with the foveas (F) aligned withNormal Monocular Visual Field of Left Eye one another. (i.e. the pink area in the image Left Visual Field to the right) Left Visual Field seen by both the left & right eyes. Right Visual Field seen by both the left & right eyes.
Monocular Crescent of Left Eye

Normal Monocular Visual Field of Right Eye Right Visual Field

Upper Fields Monocular Crescent of Right Eye Lower Fields

Monocular crescent for each eye (blue for left eye & green for right eye) is only seen by the nasal retina of the same eye.
Normal Binocular Visual Field

Understand the difference between the monocular visual field of the left eye vs. the binocular left visual field and vice versa for the right counterparts.

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Visual Fields: Binocular

Demonstration of the Binocular Visual Field & Monocular Crescent: Look straight ahead Close your right eye Move your finger to the right until it disappears Open right eye to see the pencil -- in the right temporal monocular crescent of your visual field.

Temporal Field of Left Eye

Nasal Field of Left Eye

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Normal Monocular Visual Field of Left Eye Left Visual Field

Normal Monocular Visual Field of Right Eye Right Visual Field

Upper Fields

Binocular vision is dependent upon the extraocular muscles aligning the eyes so that an image falls on corresponding points on the retina of each eye. This is essential for the brain to perceive a single image. Diplopia occurs when the images are not aligned to fall on corresponding points of each retina.

F Lower Fields

Normal Binocular Visual Field

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Visual Fields
Monocular Crescent of Left Eye Binocular Visual Field Monocular Crescent of Right Eye

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NOTE: DOTTED OUTLINE = MONOCULAR FIELD OF LEFT EYE SOLID OUTLINE = MONOCULAR FIELD OF RIGHT EYE

Retina of Left Eye

Retina of Right Eye

The image of an object in the visual field is inverted and reversed right to left on the retina. Temporal field of left eye (red & purple) is seen by the nasal retina of the left eye Nasal field of the left eye (green & yellow) is seen by the temporal retina of the left eye. Superior field of the left eye (red & green) is seen by the inferior retina of the left eye. Inferior field of the left eye (purple & yellow) is seen by the superior retina of the left eye. Similarly, the image is inverted & reversed for the right eye. Note: To avoid confusion and abide by convention, central representation, visual deficits, etc. will be described in terms of visual fields and not retinal quadrants.12

Visual Pathway
Optic Nerve (ON)
= Axons of ganglion cells in the retina of the corresponding eye Outgrowth of diencephalon, so is a CNS tract & not a true cranial nerve. Myelinated by oligodendrocytes.
Left retina Upper field Lower field

Left visual field

Right visual field

Pgs. 4 - 5

VISUAL FIELDS: Hatched = binocular Stippled = monocular Central area = macula

Right retina

Optic Chiasm (OC)

Located just anterior to pituitary Partial crossing of optic nerve axons in the OC is essential to binocular vision Axons from temporal fields cross
lateral TemporaNasal l Left temporal retina Nasal ON retina Right temporal retina III Ciliary ganglion Nasal Tempora l

OC Left LGN OT UVF LVF medial midbrain III

Right LGN
LVF medial E.W. UVF lateral

Axons from nasal fields do not cross Wilbrands knee may be artifact

pretectal nuclei

Retinotopic representation Central (macular) vision Peripheral vision Note: Reference point = Visual Fields

cuneus

lingual gyrus

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Left visual cortex

Calcarin e sulcus

Right visual cortex

Visual Pathway
Post-Chiasmatic portion of the pathway:
From optic tract to visual cortex, each side of the brain deals with the contralateral visual field.
Upper field Lower field

Left visual field

Right visual field

Pgs. 4 - 5

VISUAL FIELDS: Hatched = binocular Stippled = monocular Central area = macula

Optic Tract (OT)

Optic nerve fibers from the optic chiasm continue as the optic tract & terminate in the lateral geniculate nucleus of thalamus. Each tract contains axons that carry input from the contralateral visual field. Left OT receives from R. visual field Right OT receives from the L. visual field
TemporaNasal l Left temporal retina Left retina Right retina

Nasal ON retina

Right temporal retina III Ciliary ganglion

Nasal

Tempora l

OC Left LGN OT UVF LVF medial midbrain III

Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)

Primary termination of OT fibers Each LGN receives input from the contralateral visual field. OT Projections to pretectum for reflexes
lateral

Right LGN
LVF medial E.W. UVF lateral

pretectal nuclei

Retinotopic representation Central (macular) vision Peripheral vision Note: Reference point = Visual Fields

cuneus

lingual gyrus

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Left visual cortex

Right visual cortex

Visual Pathway
Post-Chiasmatic portion of the pathway:
From optic tract to visual cortex, each side of the brain deals with the contralateral visual field.
Upper field Lower field

Left visual field

Right visual field

Pgs. 4 - 5

VISUAL FIELDS: Hatched = binocular Stippled = monocular Central area = macula

Geniculocalcarine Tract (= optic radiations)

Axons of LGN neurons travel to primary visual cortex (Area 17) via the geniculocalcarine tract located in the retrolenticular and sublenticular portions of the internal capsule.
Axons from upper visual fields take a looping course into the temporal lobe on the way to visual cortex. (=Meyers loop) Axons from lower visual fields take a more direct route to visual cortex. Macular fibers are in an intermediate location in the optic radiation.
lateral Left retina Right retina

TemporaNasal l

Left temporal retina

Nasal ON retina

Right temporal retina III Ciliary ganglion

Nasal

Tempora l

OC Left LGN OT UVF LVF medial midbrain III

Right LGN
LVF medial E.W. Meyers loop UVF lateral

pretectal nuclei

Optic radiation or geniculocalcarine tract

Retinotopic representation Central (macular) vision Peripheral vision Note: Reference point = Visual Fields

cuneus

lingual gyrus

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Left visual cortex

Calcarin e sulcus

Right visual cortex

Visual Pathway
Primary Visual Cortex (Area 17)
Located on either side of & within the calcarine fissure. Upper fields project to the lingual gyrus. Lower fields project to the cuneus.
Left retina Macular representation is most caudal in Area 17. Upper field Lower field

Left visual field

Right visual field

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VISUAL FIELDS: Hatched = binocular Stippled = monocular Central area = macula

Right retina

Peripheral field representation is in the rostral 2/3rds of Area 17. Lesions of Area 17 result in blindness in the contralateral visual field.
TemporaNasal l

Left temporal retina

Nasal ON retina

Right temporal retina III Ciliary ganglion

Nasal

Tempora l

OC Left LGN OT UVF LVF medial midbrain III

Association Visual Cortex (Areas 18

& 19)
Input from Area 17 & elsewhere Deals with complex aspects of vision
lateral

Right LGN
LVF medial E.W. Meyers loop UVF lateral

Lesions of result in visual agnosia.

pretectal nuclei

Optic radiation or geniculocalcarine tract

Retinotopic representation Central (macular) vision Peripheral vision Note: Reference point = Visual Fields

cuneus

lingual gyrus

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Left visual cortex

Calcarin e sulcus

Right visual cortex

Lesions of the Visual Pathway

Left 1. Normal visual fields Right

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Fields, not retinal quadrants

Definitions

Strabismus Diplopia

2. Blindness of the right eye

3. Blindness of right eye + contralateral left upper quadrantanopia

Amblyopia
Scotoma Quadrantanopsia - # 3, 6 Aka Hemianopsia - # 4, 5, 7 field Heteronymous Defects - # 3, 4 Homonymous Defects - # 5, 6, 7 Congruous Defects - # 5, 6, 7 Incongruous Defects - # 3 Altitudinal Defects - # 6
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4. Bitemporal heteronymous hemianopsia

cuts

5. Left homonymous hemianopsia

6. Left upper homonymous quadrantanopsia

7. Left homonymous hemianopsia with macular sparing

Masked area = area of visual loss

Lesions of the Visual Pathway

Left 1. Normal visual fields Right
2. Blindness of the right eye

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3. Blindness of right eye + contralateral left upper quadrantanopia

4. Bitemporal heteronymous hemianopsia

5. Left homonymous hemianopsia

6. Left upper homonymous quadrantanopsia

7. Left homonymous hemianopsia with macular sparing

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Pupillary Constriction
Right
Direct Reflex Afferent limb = Optic Nerve (SSA)

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(Miosis)
Left
Consensual Reflex

AKA Pupillary Light Reflex

Efferent limb = Oculomotor Nerve (GVE) Postganglionic Preganglionic

Nolte 17-38

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Reflex abolished if afferent or efferent is damaged.

Pg. 7 Right Left Right Left

Afferent defect

C
Right Left

Efferent defect

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Pupillary Dilation
(Mydriasis)
Decreased light to pupil Severe pain Strong emotional stimulus

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Cortex, Thalamus & Hippocampus

Hypothalamus (CNS control center for AN S)

Reticular Formation

Reticulospinal fibers Dilation of pupil Superior Cervical Ganglion Preganglionic Sympathetic Neurons in Thoracic Cord (T1T2)

(post-ganglionic sympathetic)

(pre-ganglionic sympathetic)

Horners Syndrome
Pupillary Constriction Ptosis Flushed & Dry Skin Loss of Sympathetics Lesion can be in CNS or PNS Deficits ipsilateral to lesion
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Accommodation (or Near) Reflex

1. Initiated by shift in gaze from far to near.
Ocular convergence 2. Three components: Pupillary constriction Lens thickening

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3. Efferent limb: GSE & GVE of Oculomotor 4. Afferent limb & Central Connections:
Optic nerve Optic tract Lateral Geniculate Nucleus Optic Radiation Primary Visual Cortex Association Visual Cortex Optic Radiation Br. of Superior Colliculus Superior Colliculus Oculomotor Nuclei Oculomotor Nerve Argyll Robertson pupil: Pupillary constriction occurs as part of the accommodation reflex, but not in response to light.
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The Visual Cortex and Beyond

Overview of Questions How can brain damage affect a persons perception? Are there separate brain areas that determine our perception of different qualities?

Figure 4.1 (a) Side view of the visual system, showing the three major sites: the eye, the lateral geniculate nucleus, and the visual cortex. (b) Visual system showing how some of the nerve fibers from the retina cross over to the opposite side of the brain at the optic chiasm.

Pathway from Retina to Cortex Signals from the retina travel through the optic nerve to the Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) Primary visual receiving area in the occipital lobe (the striate cortex) And then through two pathways to the temporal lobe and the parietal lobe

Visual Areas

Areas V1 V5

KW 8-17

Visual Cortex

Neurons in Striate Cortex Edge detector End-stopped cells Respond to: Moving lines of specific length Moving corners or angles No response to: Stimuli that are too long

Feature Detectors Neurons that fire to specific features of a stimulus Pathway away from retina shows neurons that fire to more complex stimuli Cells that are feature detectors: Simple cortical cell Complex cortical cell End-stopped cortical cell

Table 4.1 Properties of cortical neurons

Vision Visualized With FMRI

Fovea Periphery

Figure 4.17 (a) Red and blue areas show the extent of stimuli that were presented while a person was in an fMRI scanner. (b) Red and blue indicates areas of the brain activated by the stimulation in (a). (From Dougherty et al., 2003.)

Brain Imaging Techniques - fMRI

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Hemoglobin carries oxygen and contains a ferrous molecule that is magnetic Brain activity takes up oxygen, which makes the hemoglobin more magnetic

fMRI determines activity of areas of the brain by detecting changes in magnetic response of hemoglobin
Subtraction technique is used like in PET

Figure 4.14 The magnification factor in the visual system: The small area of the fovea is represented by a large area on the visual cortex.

Maps and Columns in the Striate Cortex Cortical magnification factor

Fovea has more cortical space than expected

Fovea accounts for .01% of retina

Signals from fovea account for 8% to 10% of the visual cortex

This provides extra processing for highacuity tasks.

Figure 4.24 How a tree creates an image on the retina and a pattern of activation on the cortex.

Other Cortical Areas

Vision begins to processed by V1-V5 Then goes to other lobes of the brain for further processing. What we have seen. Object identification. Where we have it. Locating object in world.

Areas V1 V5

KW 8-17

Figure 4.27 The monkey cortex, showing the what and the where pathways. The where pathway is also called the how pathway. (From Mishkin, Ungerleider, & Macko, 1983.)

What and Where (How) Pathways Where pathway may actually be How pathway Dorsal stream shows function for both location and for action. Evidence from neuropsychology Single dissociations: two functions involve different mechanisms Double dissociations: two functions involve different mechanisms and operate independently

Table 4.2 A double dissociation

What and How Pathways - Further Evidence Rod and frame illusion Observers perform two tasks: matching and grasping Matching task involves ventral (what) pathway Grasping task involves dorsal (how) pathway Results show that the frame orientation affects the matching task but not the grasping task.

Figure 4.30 (a) Rod and frame illusion. Both small lines are oriented vertically. (b) Matching task and results. (c) Grasping task and results.

Modularity: Structures for Faces, Places, and Bodies Module - a brain structure that processes information about specific stimuli
Inferotemporal (IT) cortex in monkeys Responds best to faces with little response to non-face stimuli Temporal lobe damage in humans results in prosopagnosia.

Figure 4.32 (a) Monkey brain showing location of the inferotemporal (IT) cortex. (b) Human brain showing location of the fusiform face area (FFA), which is located under the temporal lobe.

Figure 4.33 Size of response of a neuron in the monkeys IT cortex that responds to face stimuli but not to nonface stimuli. (Based on data from Rolls & Tovee, 1995.)

Monkey Face Cells

Evolution and Plasticity: Neural Specialization Evolution is partially responsible for shaping sensory responses:
Newborn monkeys respond to direction of movement and depth of objects Babies prefer looking at pictures of assembled parts of faces Thus hardwiring of neurons plays a part in sensory systems

Margaret Thatcher Illusion

QuickTime and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture.

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