4 OCTOBE R 2011

Scientific Background on the Nobel Prize in Ph !ic! 2011

T " E aC C E # E R aT $ N % & N $ ' E R S E

co()iled b the Cla!! for Ph !ic! of the Ro al S*edi!h acade( of Science!

The Ro al S*ediSh acade( of ScienceS ha! a! it! ai( to )ro(ote the !cience! and !trengthen their influence in !ociet + BO, -000- .#i##a /RE!CaTi01gEN 4 a23 !E4104 0- !TOCkhO#(3 !*EdEN TE# 546 7 689 :- 003 /a, 546 7 1- -6 803 iN/O;k0a+!E , hTTP<==k0a+!E

Nobel Prize > and the Nobel Prize > (edal de!ign (ark are regi!trated trade(ark! of the Nobel /oundation

The accelerating &ni0er!e

$ntroduction
The di!co0er of the accelerating e,)an!ion of the &ni0er!e i! a (ile!tone for co!(olog 3 a! !ignificant a! the di!co0er of the (inute te()erature 0ariation! in the Co!(ic ?icro*a0e Background .C?B2 radiation *ith the COBE !atellite .Nobel Prize in Ph !ic! 20063 @ohn ?ather and %eorge S(oot2+ B !tud ing the C?B3 *e (a learn about the earl hi!tor of the &ni0er!e and the origin! of !tructure3 *herea! the e,)an!ion hi!tor of the &ni0er!e gi0e! u! in!ight! into it! e0olution and )o!!ibl it! ulti(ate fate+ The e,)an!ion of the &ni0er!e *a! di!co0ered b 'e!to Sli)her3 Carl Airtz3 Bnut #und(ark3 %eorge! #e(aCtre and Ed*in "ubble in the 1:20D!+ The e,)an!ion rate de)end! on the energ content E a &ni0er!e containing onl (atter !hould e0entuall !lo* do*n due to the attracti0e force of gra0it + "o*e0er3 ob!er0ation! of t )e $a !u)erno0ae .SNe2 at di!tance! of about 6 billion light ear! b t*o inde)endent re!earch grou)!3 led b Saul Perl(utter and b Brian Sch(idt and Fda( Rie!! re!)ecti0el 3 re0eal that )re!entl the e,)an!ion rate in!tead i! accelerating+ Aithin the fra(e*ork of the !tandard co!(ological (odel3 the acceleration i! generall belie0ed to be cau!ed b the 0acuu( energ .!o(eti(e! called Gdark energ G2 *hich E ba!ed on concordant data fro( the SNe3 the ob!er0ation! of the ani!otro)ie! in the C?B and !ur0e ! of the clu!tering of gala,ie! E account! for about 89H of the total energ den!it of the &ni0er!e+ Of the re(ainder3 about 29H i! due to an unkno*n for( of (atter .called Gdark (atterG2+ Onl about 4H of the energ den!it corre!)ond! to ordinar (atter like ato(!+ $n e0er da life3 the effect! of the 0acuu( energ are tin but (ea!urable E ob!er0ed for in!tance in the for( of !hift! of the energ le0el! of the h drogen ato(3 the #a(b !hift .Nobel Prize in Ph !ic! 1:--2+ The e0olution of the &ni0er!e i! de!cribed b Ein!teinD! theor of general relati0it + $n relati0i!tic field theorie!3 the 0acuu( energ contribution i! gi0en b an e,)re!!ion (athe(aticall !i(ilar to the fa(ou! co!(ological con!tant in Ein!teinD! theor + The Iue!tion of *hether the 0acuu( energ ter( i! trul ti(e inde)endent like the co!(ological con!tant3 or 0arie! *ith ti(e3 i! currentl a 0er hot re!earch to)ic+

%eneral Relati0it and the &ni0er!e

The !tar! in the night !k (u!t ha0e al*a ! fa!cinated hu(an being!+ Ae can onl gue!! *hat the )eo)le of ancient ti(e! !)eculated about *hen the !a* the !tar! return e0er night to the !a(e !)ot! in the !k + Ae kno* of %reek )hilo!o)her! *ho )ro)o!ed a heliocentric a!trono(ical (odel *ith the Sun in the (iddle and the )lanet! circulating
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around it a! earl a! the 9rd centur B+C+3 but it *a! Nicolau! Co)ernicu!3 *ho in the 16th centur de0elo)ed the fir!t (odern 0er!ion of a (odel+ $t took %alileo %alileiD! geniu! in the beginning of the ne,t centur to reall ob!er0e and under!tand the underl ing fact!3 building one of the fir!t tele!co)e! for a!trono( and hence la ing the ground for (odern a!trono( + /or the ne,t three hundred ear!3 a!trono(er! collected e0er(ore i()re!!i0e table! of ob!er0ation! of the 0i!ible !tar!+ $n the Co)ernican ! !te(3 the !tar! *ere a!!u(ed to be fi,ed to a di!tant !)here and nothing in the ob!er0ation! indicated an thing to the contrar + $n 18173 Ed(und "alle di!co0ered that !tar! actuall could (o0e in the !k 3 but it *a! belie0ed that thi! ha))ened in a !tatic3 fi,ed uni0er!e+ Throughout the 17th and 1:th centur 3 the !tud of cele!tial bodie! *a! )laced on an e0er4fir(er footing *ith the fa(ou! la*! of Be)ler and Ne*ton+

$n No0e(ber 1:1-3 Flbert Ein!tein .Nobel Prize in Ph !ic! 1:212 )re!ented hi! theor of gra0it 3 *hich he nickna(ed %eneral Relati0it .%R2 J1K3 an e,ten!ion of hi! theor of !)ecial relati0it + Thi! *a! one of the greate!t achie0e(ent! in the hi!tor of !cience3 a (odern (ile!tone+ $t *a! ba!ed on the EIui0alence Princi)le3 *hich !tate! that the gra0itational (a!! of a bod i! the !a(e a! it! inertial (a!!+ Lou cannot di!tingui!h gra0it fro( accelerationM Ein!tein had alread checked that thi! could e,)lain the )rece!!ion of the )erihelion of ?ercur 3 a )roble( of Ne*tonian (echanic!+ The ne* in!ight *a! that gra0it i! reall geo(etric in nature and that the cur0ing of !)ace and ti(e3 !)aceti(e3 (ake! bodie! (o0e a! if the *ere affected b a force+ The crucial )h !ical )ara(eter! are the (etric of !)aceti(e3 a (atri, that allo*! u! to co()ute infinite!i(al di!tance! .actuall infinite!i(al line ele(ent! 4 or )ro)er ti(e! in the language of !)ecial relati0it +2 $t beca(e i((ediatel clear that Ein!teinD! theor could be a))lied to co!(ological !ituation!3 and Barl Sch*arz!child 0er !oon found the general !olution for the (etric around a (a!!i0e bod !uch a! the Sun or a !tar J2K+

$n 1:183 Ein!tein a))lied the %R eIuation! to the entire &ni0er!e J9K3 (aking the i()licit a!!u()tion that the &ni0er!e i! ho(ogenou!N if *e con!ider co!(ological !cale! large enough !uch that local clu!ter! of (atter are e0ened out+ "e argued that thi! a!!u()tion fit *ell *ith hi! theor and he *a! not bothered b the fact that the ob!er0ation! at the ti(e did not reall !ub!tantiate hi! conOecture+ Re(arkabl 3 the !olution! of the eIuation! indicated that the &ni0er!e could not be !table+ Thi! *a! contrar to all the thinking of the ti(e and bothered Ein!tein+ "e !oon found a !olution3 ho*e0er+ "i! theor of 1:1- *a! not the (o!t general one con!i!tent *ith the EIui0alence Princi)le+ "e could al!o introduce a co!(ological con!tant3 a con!tant energ den!it co()onent of the &ni0er!e+ Aith thi! Ein!tein could balance the &ni0er!e to (ake it !tatic+

$n the beginning of the 1:20!3 the Ru!!ian (athe(atician and )h !ici!t Fle,ander /ried(ann !tudied the )roble( of the d na(ic! of the &ni0er!e u!ing e!!entiall the !a(e a!!u()tion! a! Ein!tein3 and found in 1:22 that Ein!teinD! !tead !tate !olution *a! reall un!table J4K+ Fn !(all )erturbation *ould (ake the &ni0er!e non4!tatic+ Ft fir!t Ein!tein did not belie0e /ried(annD! re!ult! and !ub(itted hi! critici!( to Peit!chrift fQr Ph !ik3 *here /ried(annD! )a)er had been )ubli!hed+ "o*e0er3 a ear later Ein!tein found that he had (ade a (i!take and !ub(itted a ne* letter to the Oournal ackno*ledging thi! fact+ E0en !o3 Ein!tein did not like the conce)t of an e,)anding

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&ni0er!e and i! !aid to ha0e found the idea Rabo(inableG+ $n 1:243 /ried(ann )re!ented hi! full eIuation! J-K3 but after he died in 1:2- hi! *ork re(ained e!!entiall neglected or unkno*n3 e0en though it had been )ubli!hed in a )re!tigiou! Oournal+ Ae ha0e to re(e(ber that a true re0olution *a! going on in )h !ic! during the!e ear! *ith the ad0ent of the ne* Iuantu( (echanic!3 and (o!t )h !ici!t! *ere bu! *ith thi! )roce!!+ $n 1:283 the Belgian )rie!t and )h !ici!t %eorge! #e(aCtre *orking inde)endentl fro( /ried(ann )erfor(ed !i(ilar calculation! ba!ed on %R and arri0ed at the !a(e re!ult! J6K+ &nfortunatel 3 #e(aCtreD! )a)er *a! )ubli!hed in a local Belgian Oournal and again the re!ult! did not !)read far3 e0en though Ein!tein kne* of the( and di!cu!!ed the( *ith #e(aCtre+

$n the beginning of the 20th centur it *a! generall belie0ed that the entire &ni0er!e onl con!i!ted of our gala, 3 the ?ilk Aa + The (an nebulae *hich had been found in the !k *ere thought to be (erel ga! cloud! in di!tant )art! of the ?ilk Aa + $n 1:123 'e!to Sli)her J8K3 *hile *orking at the #o*ell Ob!er0ator 3 )ioneered (ea!ure(ent! of the !hift! to*ard! red of the light fro( the brighte!t of the!e !)iral nebulae+ The red!hift of an obOect de)end! on it! 0elocit radiall a*a fro( u!3 and Sli)her found that the nebulae !ee(ed to (o0e fa!ter than the ?ilk Aa e!ca)e 0elocit +

$n the follo*ing ear!3 the nature of the !)iral nebulae *a! inten!el debated+ Could there be (ore than one gala, S Thi! Iue!tion *a! finall !ettled in the 1:20! *ith Ed*in "ubble a! a ke figure+ &!ing the ne* 1004inch tele!co)e at ?t Ail!on3 "ubble *a! able to re!ol0e indi0idual !tar! in the Fndro(eda nebula and !o(e other !)iral nebulae3 di!co0ering that !o(e of the!e !tar! *ere Ce)heid!3 di((ing and brightening *ith a regular )eriod J7K+ The Ce)heid! are )ul!ating giant! *ith a characteri!tic relation bet*een lu(ino!it and the ti(e inter0al bet*een )eak! in brightne!!3 di!co0ered b the F(erican a!trono(er "enrietta #ea0itt in 1:12+ Thi! lu(ino!it 4)eriod relation3 calibrated *ith nearb Ce)heid! *ho!e di!tance! are kno*n fro( )aralla, (ea!ure(ent!3 allo*! the deter(ination of a Ce)heidD! true lu(ino!it fro( it! ti(e 0ariation E and hence it! di!tance .*ithin T10H2 fro( the in0er!e !Iuare la*+ "ubble u!ed #ea0ittD! relation to e!ti(ate the di!tance to the !)iral nebulae3 concluding that the *ere (uch too di!tant to be )art of the ?ilk Aa and hence (u!t be gala,ie! of their o*n+ Co(bining hi! o*n (ea!ure(ent! and tho!e of other a!trono(er! he *a! able to )lot the di!tance! to 46 gala,ie! and found a rough )ro)ortionalit of an obOectD! di!tance *ith it! red!hift+ $n 1:2:3 he )ubli!hed *hat i! toda kno*n a! U"ubbleD! la*D< a gala, D! di!tance i! )ro)ortional to it! radial rece!!ion 0elocit J:K+ E0en though "ubbleD! data *ere Iuite rough and not a! )reci!e a! the (odern one!3 the la* beca(e generall acce)ted3 and Ein!tein had to ad(it that the &ni0er!e i! indeed e,)anding+ $t i! !aid3 that he called the introduction of the co!(ological con!tant hi! Rgreate!t (i!takeG .E!elei in %er(an2+ /ro( thi! ti(e on3 the i()ortance of the co!(ological con!tant faded3 although it rea))eared fro( ti(e to ti(e+

9 .182

$t !hould be noted for the hi!toric record! that #e(aCtre in hi! 1:28 )a)er correctl deri0ed the eIuation! for an e,)anding &ni0er!e obtaining a relation !i(ilar to "ubbleD! and found e!!entiall the !a(e )ro)ortionalit con!tant .the R"ubble con!tantG2 a! "ubble did t*o ear! later+ Ffter "ubbleD! re!ult had !)read3 Frthur Eddington had #e(aCtreD! )a)er tran!lated into Engli!h in 1:913 *ithout the !ection! about "ubbleD! la*+ $n a re)l to Eddington3 #e(aCtre J10K al!o )ointed out a logical con!eIuence of an e,)anding &ni0er!e< The &ni0er!e (u!t ha0e e,i!ted for a finite ti(e onl 3 and (u!t ha0e e(erged fro( an initial !ingle Iuantu( .in hi! *ord!2+ $n thi! !en!e3 he )a0ed the *a for the conce)t of the Big Bang .a na(e coined (uch later b /red "o le2+ $t !hould al!o be noted that Carl Airtz in 1:24 J11K and Bnut #und(ark in 1:2- J12K had found that nebulae farther a*a recede fa!ter than clo!er one!+

"ubbleD! and other!D re!ult! fro( 1:26 to 1:943 e0en though not 0er )reci!e3 *ere encouraging indication! of a ho(ogeneou! &ni0er!e and (o!t !cienti!t! *ere Iuick to acce)t the notion+ The conce)t of a ho(ogeneou! and i!otro)ic &ni0er!e i! called the Co!(ological Princi)le+ Thi! goe! back to Co)ernicu!3 *ho !tated that the Earth i! in no !)ecial3 fa0oured )lace in the &ni0er!e+ $n (odern language it i! a!!u(ed that the &ni0er!e look! the !a(e on co!(ological !cale! to all ob!er0er!3 inde)endent of their location and inde)endent of in *hich direction the look in+ The a!!u()tion of the Co!(ological Princi)le *a! inherent in the *ork of /ried(ann and #e(aCtre but 0irtuall unkno*n in large )art! of the !cientific !ociet + Thank! to the *ork of "o*ard Robert!on in 1:9-41:96 J19K and Frthur Aalker in 1:96 J14K it beca(e *ell kno*n+

Robert!on and Aalker con!tructed the general (etric of !)aceti(e con!i!tent *ith the Co!(ological Princi)le and !ho*ed that it *a! not tied !)ecificall to Ein!teinD! eIuation!3 a! had been a!!u(ed b /ried(ann and #e(aCtre+ Since the 1:90!3 the e0idence for the 0alidit of the Co!(ological Princi)le ha! gro*n !tronger and !tronger3 and *ith the 1:64 di!co0er of the C?B radiation b Frno Penzia! and Robert Ail!on .Nobel Prize in Ph !ic! 1:8723 the Iue!tion *a! finall !ettled J1-K+ The recent ob!er0ation! of the C?B !ho* that the large!t te()erature ani!otro)ie! .on the order of 10492 ari!e due to the (otion of the ?ilk Aa through !)ace+ Subtracting thi! di)ole co()onent3 the re!idual ani!otro)ie! are a hundred ti(e! !(aller+

Ein!teinD! EIuation! for a "o(ogeneou! and $!otro)ic &ni0er!e

$n Ein!teinD! theor J1K3 gra0it i! de!cribed b the !)aceti(e (etric g VW 3 *here the indice! run o0er the ti(e and the three !)ace coordinate!3 and *here the (etric 0arie! in !)aceti(e+ The infinite!i(al3 in0ariant3 line ele(ent dX i! gi0en b

dX 2 Y gVW .,2d, V d, W +
There are ten gra0it field! o0er the four !)aceti(e coordinate!+ "o*e0er3 the ! ((etrie! of the theor !te((ing fro( the EIui0alence Princi)le reduce that to t*o

.12

4 .182

inde)endent degree! of freedo(+ Ein!tein u!ed the (athe(atical theor of differential geo(etr to find the rele0ant ten!or! Iuadratic in !)aceti(e deri0ati0e! of the (etric field3 the Ricci ten!or RVW and the cur0ature !calar R3 to deri0e the d na(ical eIuation! for the (etric ten!or+ $n the (odified for( *ith a co!(ological con!tant Z3 the eIuation! are 1 RVW [ Rg VW 5 Zg VW Y 7\ %TVW 3.22 2 *here % i! Ne*tonD! con!tant3 *hich deter(ine! the !trength of the gra0it force3 and TVW i! the energ 4(o(entu( ten!or+ "ere3 a! in the follo*ing3 *e ha0e !et the 0elocit of light to unit .c Y 12+ Ein!teinD! eIuation! .22 re)re!ent ten cou)led differential eIuation!+ Aith the /ried(ann4#e(aCtre4Robert!on4Aalker a!!u()tion about the Co!(ological Princi)le the (etric !i()lifie! to

, dr 2,
2

dX Y dt [ a .t2,5 r d] 5 r !in ]d ,3 2,1[ kr,

22222

.92

*here a.t2 i! a !cale factor and k i! a con!tant that de)end! on the cur0ature of !)aceti(e+ The con!tant k ha! been nor(alized to the 0alue! 4130 or 1 de!cribing an o)en3 flat or clo!ed &ni0er!e+ The 0ariable! r3 ] and are !o called co4(o0ing coordinate!3 in *hich a t )ical gala, ha! fi,ed 0alue!+ The )h !ical co!(ological di!tance for gala,ie! !e)arated b r at a gi0en ti(e t .in the ca!e of k Y 02 i! a.t2r3 *hich gro*! *ith ti(e a! the !cale factor a.t2 in an e,)anding &ni0er!e+ $n order to !ol0e Ein!teinD! eIuation! for thi! (etric one al!o (u!t a!!u(e a for( for the (atter den!it + The Co!(ological Princi)le i()lie! that the energ 4(o(entu( ten!or ha! a for( !i(ilar to that of the energ 4(o(entu( ten!or in relati0i!tic h drod na(ic3 for a ho(ogeneou! and i!otro)ic fluid *ith den!it ^ and )re!!ure ) .*hich both (a de)end on ti(e2+ $t i!3 in the re!t fra(e of the fluid3 a diagonal ten!or *ith the diagonal ele(ent! .^3 )3 )3 )2+ $f *e in!ert the (etric abo0e and the energ 4(o(entu( ten!or into the eIuation! .22 3 *e get the t*o inde)endent /ried(ann eIuation!

,, a , 7\ 2%^ k Z 2 [ 25" _, , Y 99a,a, and

.42

,,a4\%.^ 5 9 ) 2 5 Z 3Y[ a99

*here a dot (ean! a ti(e deri0ati0e and " i! the e,)an!ion rate of our &ni0er!e called the "ubble )ara(eter3 or the "ubble con!tant3 *ith it! )re!ent 0alue "0+ $t i! !een to de)end on both the energ den!it of the &ni0er!e a! *ell a! it! cur0ature and a

.-2

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)o!!ible co!(ological con!tant+ Aith k and Z !et to zero3 one define! the critical den!it a! 9" 2 +^c Y 7\ % $n 1:943 #e(aCtre J16K had alread )ointed out that the co!(ological con!tant could be con!idered a! a 0acuu( energ and hence a contribution to the energ den!it of the for( Z +^Z Y 7\ % Ae *ill a!!u(e that the &ni0er!e i! co()o!ed of a !et of co()onent! i3 each ha0ing a fraction3 `i 3 of the critical den!it 3 `i Y

^i
+

^c
The t*o /ried(ann eIuation! are not enough to full !ol0e for the energ den!it 3 the )re!!ure and the !cale factor+ Ae al!o need an eIuation of !tate3 ^ Y f.)23 *hich can u!uall be *ritten a! *i Y )i =^i+ /or e,a()le3 *i take! the 0alue 0 for nor(al3 non4 relati0i!tic3 (atter and 1=9 for )hoton!+ Since *e no* con!ider the co!(ological con!tant a! a )art of the energ 4(o(entu( ten!or *e can co()are the e,)re!!ion for the energ 4(o(entu( ten!or for a )erfect fluid in the re!t fra(e3 *ith diagonal ele(ent! .^3 )3 )3 )23 to the co!(ological ter( ^Z gVW3 *ith diagonal ele(ent! ^Z .13 413 4 13 412+ Ae conclude that )Z Y 4^Z3 i+e+3 *Z Y [1 + The co!(ological con!tant can hence be !een a! a fluid *ith negati0e )re!!ure+

/ro( EI+ .-23 it i! clear that a !tatic uni0er!e cannot be !table+ EI+ .-2 deter(ine! the deceleration or acceleration of the &ni0er!e+ Since the e,)an!ion of the &ni0er!e *a! .*rongl 2 a!!u(ed to be be !lo*ing do*n .i+e+3 a negati0e !ign of the acceleration23 a )ara(eter I03 called the deceleration )ara(eter3 *a! defined b I0 Y [ ,,,,aaa Y[+ ,a2a" 02

/ro( EI<! .42 and .-2 it then follo*! that I0 Y 1a `i .1 5 9*i 2+ 2i Ahen *e (ea!ure the light co(ing fro( a di!tant obOect3 *e can obtain t*o )iece! of infor(ation a)art fro( the direction to the obOect+ Ae can (ea!ure the red!hift and the a))arent lu(ino!it of the obOect< $t i! !traightfor*ard to (ea!ure the *a0elength of light .e+g+ fro( a gi0en ato(ic !)ectral line2 that a di!tant obOect e(it!+ /ro( EI+ .92 .62

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one can ea!il co()ute the relation bet*een the *a0elength an obOect e(it!3 b1 at ti(e t1 and the *a0elength ob!er0ed here b0 at ti(e t 0 b0 a.t0 2 Y+ b1 a.t1 2 Thi! i! con0entionall e,)re!!ed in ter(! of a red!hift )ara(eter z a! zY

b 0 [ b1 a.t 0 2
Y[ 1+ a.t1 2b1

/or !(all z3 *e can then inter)ret the red!hift z a! the radial 0elocit of the obOect .it *ould corre!)ond to a co))ler effect23 and *e find again "ubbleD! la*+ /or co!(ological di!tance!3 the inter)retation i! le!! !i()le+ Once *e find !tandard candle! lu(inou! enough3 ho*e0er3 (ea!ure(ent! of red!hift are relati0el !traightfor*ard+ ?ea!uring a co!(ological di!tance in the &ni0er!e i! not !traightfor*ard+ Ae (u!t u!e a light !ignal that i! e(itted at a certain ti(e and detected at another+ curing thi! ti(e the &ni0er!e ha! e,)anded+ There are different di!tance (ea!ure! introduced3 but the one u!ed for !tandard candle!3 i+e+3 obOect! *ith kno*n intrin!ic lu(ino!it i! the lu(ino!it di!tance d#3 defined b
1=2 3

d# Y .#=4\l2

*here # i! the ab!olute lu(ino!it of the !tandard candle and l i! the a))arent lu(ino!it + #u(ino!it di!tance can be co()uted in ter(! of the )ara(eter! in *hich *e are intere!ted3 and for !(all z *e can e,)and it a!

d #+ Y 1 "0

1,,2, z 5 .1 [ I 0 2 z 5 +++ , + 2,,

.82

Fgain3 to be co()letel clear3 d# i! not an una(biguou! (ea!ure of the di!tance to the !tandard candle3 but it i! a (ea!ure !en!iti0e to the )ara(eter! *e *ant to deter(ine+ $n order to u!e it *e need to kno* of cele!tial obOect! *ith kno*n ab!olute lu(ino!it + /ro( EI+ .823 *e can !ee that in the nearb &ni0er!e3 the lu(ino!it di!tance! !cale linearl *ith red!hift3 *ith 1="0 a! the con!tant of )ro)ortionalit + $n the (ore di!tant &ni0er!e3 d# de)end! to fir!t order on the rate of deceleration3 or eIui0alentl on the a(ount and t )e! of (atter that (ake u) the &ni0er!e+ The general e,)re!!ion ha! to be *ritten in ter(! of an integral o0er the red!hift zD of the )ro)agating )hoton a! it tra0el! fro( red!hift z to u!3 at z Y 0+ $n the ca!e that relate! to thi! earD! Nobel Prize in Ph !ic!3 *e (a a!!u(e a flat &ni0er!e3 k Y 0 .a! indicated to good accurac b C?B (ea!ure(ent!23 and !ince radiation gi0e! onl a tin contribution toda 3 *e (a a! an

8 .182

a))ro,i(ation kee) onl the (atter contribution `? and that of dark energ `Z+ The e,)re!!ion for the lu(ino!it di!tance then beco(e!
z

dzd15 z .72 d # . zN " 0 3 ` ? 3 ` Z 2 Ye ` .1 5 zd29 5 ` +"00Z? $f *e could (ea!ure d# accuratel for lo* z a! *ell a! for higher red!hift!3 *e could both (ea!ure the "ubble con!tant and deter(ine the energ co()onent! of our &ni0er!e3 in )articular the 0alue of `Z J18K+ $t (a be noted fro( the e,)re!!ion under the !Iuare root in EI+ .72 that *hen one (ea!ure! 0er high red!hift obOect!3 the influence of the co!(ological con!tant i! reduced3 and the o)ti(al range i! roughl for 0+9 f z f 2+

Standard Candle! in F!trono(

F *ell4kno*n cla!! of !tandard candle!3 a! (entioned abo0e3 i! the Ce)heid 0ariable !tar!3 *hich no*ada ! can be identified out to di!tance! of about 10 ?)c+ To obtain a record of the e,)an!ion hi!tor of the &ni0er!e3 one need!3 ho*e0er3 !tandard candle! that can be identified o0er di!tance! at lea!t 100 ti(e! larger+ Flread in 1:973 Aalter Baade J17K3 *orking clo!el *ith /ritz P*ick at the ?t Ail!on Ob!er0ator 3 !ugge!ted that !u)erno0ae are )ro(i!ing a! di!tance indicator!< the are e,tre(el bright and can3 o0er a fe* *eek!3 out!hine an entire gala, + Therefore3 the *ould be 0i!ible o0er a con!iderable red!hift inter0al+ The SNe that ha0e been di!cu!!ed o0er the )a!t decade! a! !tandard candle! J1:K are de!ignated t )e $a .SNe $a2+

Fccording to Aillia( /o*ler .Nobel Prize in Ph !ic! 1:792 and /red "o le J20K3 t )e $a !u)erno0ae occur occa!ionall in binar ! !te(!3 *hen a lo*4(a!! *hite d*arf accreting (atter fro( a nearb co()anion a))roache! the li(it of 1+4 !olar (a!!e! .Nobel Prize in Ph !ic! 1:793 Subra(an an Chandra!ekhar23 and beco(e! un!table+ F ther(onuclear e,)lo!ion en!ue! and an i((en!e a(ount of energ i! !uddenl relea!ed+ The e0olution of the !u)erno0a brightne!! *ith ti(e E the !o4called light cur0e E can be ob!er0ed o0er a fe* *eek!+ $n a t )ical gala, 3 !u)erno0ae occur a fe* ti(e! in thou!and ear!+ $n our gala, 3 !u)erno0ae ha0e been ob!er0ed *ith the naked e e3 e+g+3 b Chine!e a!trono(er! in 10-4 and b T cho Brahe in 1-82+ The !u)erno0a 1:78F .not of t )e $a2 in the nearb gala, the #arge ?agellanic Cloud3 at a di!tance of 160 000 light ear!3 *a! ob!er0ed both in light and in neutrino! .Nobel Prize in Ph !ic! 20022+ /or a re0ie* of !u)erno0a $a )ro)ertie!3 and their u!e a! !tandard candle!3 !ee3 e+g+3 the re0ie* b ca0id Branch and %u!ta0 Ta((ann J21K+

SNe $a are identified through their !)ectral !ignature!< The ab!ence of h drogen feature! and the )re!ence of a !ilicon ab!or)tion line+ Their !)ectra and light cur0e! are a(azingl unifor(3 indicating a co((on origin and a co((on intrin!ic lu(ino!it + The !(all de0iation! fro( unifor(it can be in0e!tigated and corrected+ Ob!er0ation! of ho* the brightne!! of the!e SNe 0arie! *ith red!hift3 therefore3 allo* !tudie! of the e,)an!ion hi!tor of the &ni0er!e+ Fnd becau!e E according to theor E

7 .182

the e,)an!ion rate i! deter(ined b the energ 4(o(entu( den!it of the &ni0er!e and the cur0ature of !)aceti(e3 di!co0er of the ulti(ate fate of the &ni0er!e a))ear! )o!!ible+

cetection of T )e $a Su)erno0ae
The ho(ogeneit of SNe $a !)ectra (ake! thi! cla!! of obOect! e(inent !tandard candle candidate!+ Becau!e the )eak lu(ino!it occur! after onl a !hort ti(e3 a !u)erno0a (u!t be ob!er0ed earl on after the e,)lo!ion in order to deter(ine the )eak (agnitude *ith high )reci!ion+ There i! al!o another catch< SNe $a are rare3 occurring onl a cou)le of ti(e! )er (illenniu( in an gi0en gala, + "o*e0er3 to get a !tati!ticall !ignificant deter(ination of co!(ological )ara(eter!3 a large ob!er0ational !a()le i! needed3 including SNe at fairl high red!hift! .z g 0+92+ The fir!t ! !te(atic !earch for SNe $a at high red!hift! *a! (ade during the late 1:70! b a cani!h4Briti!h collaboration J22K *orking at the 1+- ( cani!h tele!co)e at #a Silla3 Chile+ T*o ear! of ob!er0ation! re!ulted in the di!co0er of t*o di!tant SNe E one of the( of T )e $a3 the SN1:77& at z Y 0+91+ "o*e0er3 thi! !u)erno0a *a! ob!er0ed after it! (a,i(u( *hich ha()ered the )reci!ion of the )eak brightne!! deter(ination+ So3 it !ee(ed that di!co0er of di!tant SNe *a! )o!!ible but difficult+ Ob0iou!l larger and fa!ter in!tru(ent! *ere needed to en!ure the reIuired !tati!tic!+ The Su)erno0a Co!(olog ProOect .SCP2 *a! initiated in 1:77 b Saul Perl(utter of the #a*rence Berkele National #aborator .#BN#23 &SF3 *ith the ai( of (ea!uring the )re!u(ed deceleration of the &ni0er!e 4 u!ing SNe $a a! !tandard candle!+ $n an e,)anding &ni0er!e do(inated b (atter3 gra0it !hould e0entuall cau!e the e,)an!ion to !lo* do*n+ To addre!! the )roble( of !ufficient !tati!tic!3 Perl(utter and collaborator! de0elo)ed a !trateg that the dubbed Su)erno0a on ce(and+ &!ing a CCc4ba!ed *ide4field i(ager at a 4 ( tele!co)e3 the grou) *ould ob!er0e thou!and! of gala,ie! o0er t*o to three night! Ou!t after ne* ?oon+ $(aging the !a(e )atche! of the !k about three *eek! later and u!ing i()ro0ed i(age4)roce!!ing techniIue!3 allo*ed !election of entire batche! of about a dozen or !o ne* SNe at a ti(e+ The ti(ing en!ured that (an SNe *ould be clo!e to )eak brightne!!3 (aking e!!ential calibration )o!!ible+ Fnd3 becau!e the SNe *ere guaranteed3 ti(el follo*4u) ob!er0ation! on the *orldD! large!t tele!co)e! in Chile3 "a*aii and #a Pal(a could be !cheduled in ad0ance for a )re4defined date+ The fir!t high4z SN *a! di!co0ered in 1::23 and b 1::43 the total nu(ber found b SCP reached !e0en+ The fir!t re!ult! *ere )ubli!hed in 1::- J29K+

$n the (ean ti(e3 light cur0e! of !e0eral nearb t )e $a SNe *ere (ea!ured b the Calhn=Tololo Su)erno0a Sur0e led b ?ario "a(u 3 ?ark Philli)!3 Nichola! Suntzeff .of the Cerro Tololo $nter4F(erican Ob!er0ator in Chile2 and @o!e ?aza .&ni0er!idad de Chile2 J24K+ Thi! data *a! e!!ential to de(on!trate that t )e $a SNe *ere u!eful a! !tandard candle!+ Progre!! *a! (ade u!ing a relation bet*een )eak brightne!! and fading ti(e3 !ho*n b ?ark Philli)! J2-K3 to recalibrate the SNe to a !tandard )rofile+ The brighter one! gre* and faded !lo*er E the fainter one! fa!ter3 and the relation

: .182

allo*ed to deduce the )eak brightne!! fro( the ti(e !cale of the light cur0e+ The fe* Gabnor(alG occurrence! *ere filtered out+ Pro()ted b the !ucce!! of the Su)erno0a on ce(and !trateg and (oti0ated b the i()ortance of the Iue!t for I03 Brian Sch(idt of the ?ount Stro(lo Ob!er0ator in Fu!tralia and Nichola! Suntzeff of the Cerro Tololo $nter4F(erican Ob!er0ator in Chile founded3 in 1::43 a co()eting collaboration3 con!i!ting of !u)erno0a e,)ert!3 backed b the reno*ned !cienti!t Robert Bir!hner E the "igh4z Su)erno0a Search Tea( ."PT2+ O0er the follo*ing ear!3 the "PT led b Sch(idt and the SCP led b Perl(utter inde)endentl !earched for !u)erno0ae3 often but not al*a ! at the !a(e tele!co)e!+ #ike SCP3 "PT could !ucce!!full de(on!trate the 0alidit of the cho!en !trateg 3 finding batche! of SNe at or clo!e to (a,i(u( light that then could be follo*ed u) b !)ectro!co)ic ob!er0ation! .!ee /ig+ 12+

/igure 1+ One of the high red!hift !u)erno0ae of t )e $a for *hich the "PT collaboration J28K could (ea!ure the (agnitude3 i+e+3 the lu(ino!it 3 both before and after the )eak lu(ino!it + $n the beginning of 1::73 both grou)! )ubli!hed !cientific )a)er! and ga0e talk! at conference!3 cautiou!l )ointing out that their ob!er0ation! !ee(ed con!i!tent *ith a lo* (atter den!it &ni0er!e+ The t*o breakthrough )a)er! J283 27K i()l ing that the e,)an!ion of the &ni0er!e doe! not !lo* do*n but actuall accelerate!3 *ere !ub(itted for )ublication later that ear+ The "PT article i! ba!ed on ob!er0ation! of 16 SNe $a (ainl anal zed b Fda( Rie!!3 then a )o!tdoctoral re!earcher at &ni0er!it of California at Berkele 3 *herea! the SCP )a)er3 *ith Perl(utter a! the dri0ing force3 include! 42 T )e $a SNe+ The fact that both grou)! inde)endentl )re!ented !i(ilar 4 albeit e,traordinar 4 re!ult! *a! a crucial a!)ect for their acce)tance *ithin the )h !ic! and a!trono( co((unit +

10 .182

The Ob!er0ation!
/igure 1 !ho*! the !u)erno0a data fro( J27K )lotted in ter(! of brightne!! .bolo(etric (agnitude2 0er!u! red!hift+

/igure 1< The "ubble diagra( for 42 high red!hift t )e $a !u)erno0ae fro( SCP and 17 lo* red!hift !u)erno0ae fro( the Calan=Tololo Su)erno0a Sur0e + The !olid cur0e! re)re!ent a range of co!(ological (odel! *ith Z Y 0 and `? Y 03 1 and 2+ The da!hed cur0e! !ho* a range of GflatG (odel! *here `? 5 `Z Y 1+ Note the linear red!hift !cale+

The larger the (agnitude3 the fainter i! the obOect+ On the red!hift !cale3 z Y 1 corre!)ond! to a light tra0el ti(e of al(o!t 7 billion light ear!+ The data i! co()ared to a nu(ber of co!(ological !cenario! *ith and *ithout 0acuu( energ .or co!(ological con!tant2+ The data at z f 0+1 i! fro( J26K+ Ft red!hift! z g 0+1 .i+e+3 di!tance! greater than about a billion light ear!23 the co!(ological )rediction! !tart to di0erge+ Co()ared to an unreali!tic e()t &ni0er!e .`? Y `Z Y 02 *ith a con!tant e,)an!ion rate3 the SNe for a gi0en high red!hift are ob!er0ed to be about 10 4 1-H fainter+ $f the &ni0er!e *ere (atter do(inated .`? Y 123 the high4z !u)erno0ae !hould ha0e been about 2-H brighter than *hat i! actuall ob!er0ed+ The conclu!ion i! that the

11 .182

deceleration )ara(eter I0 i! negati0e3 and that the e,)an!ion at the )re!ent e)och une,)ectedl accelerate! .!ee abo0e2+ The re!ult of the anal !e! of the t*o collaboration!3 !ho*ing that `Z Y 0 i! e,cluded *ith high !ignificance3 and that the e,)an!ion of the &ni0er!e accelerate!3 i! !ho*n in /ig+ 2+

/igure 2+ The left4hand )anel !ho*! the re!ult! of fitting the SCP !u)erno0a data to co!(ological (odel!3 *ith arbitrar `? and `Z J27K+ The right4hand )anel !ho*! the corre!)onding re!ult! fro( "PT J28K+ Could the di(ne!! of the di!tant !u)erno0ae be the effect of inter0ening du!tS Or (ight the SNe $a in the earl &ni0er!e ha0e had different )ro)ertie! fro( the nearb 3 recent one!S Such Iue!tion! ha0e been e,ten!i0el addre!!ed b both collaboration!3 indicating that du!t i! not a (aOor )roble( and that the !)ectral )ro)ertie! of near and di!tant SNe are 0er !i(ilar+ Flthough not a! e0ident at the ti(e of the di!co0er 3 later !tudie! of SNe be ond z Y 1 J2:K3 fro( the ti(e *hen the &ni0er!e *a! (uch den!er and `? do(inated3 indicate that at that earl e)och3 gra0it did !lo* do*n the e,)an!ion a! )redicted b co!(ological (odel!+ Re)ul!ion onl !et in *hen the &ni0er!e *a! about half it! )re!ent age+

12 .182

/igure 9+ F !u((ar figure fro( Re0ie* of Particle Pro)ertie!3 htt)<==r))+lbl+go03 !ho*ing the co(bination of !u)erno0a ob!er0ation! .SNe23 the (icro*a0e background .C?B2 and the !)atial correlation bet*een gala,ie! .GBar on Fcou!tic O!cillation!G3 BFO2+

The dra(atic conclu!ion that the e,)an!ion of the &ni0er!e accelerate! ha! been confir(ed during the la!t decade b )reci!ion (ea!ure(ent! of the C?B and b !tudie! of gala, clu!tering3 !ee /ig+ 9+

Ahat i! cark Energ S

The dri0ing force behind the acceleration i! unkno*n3 but the current belief i! that the cau!e of the e,)an!ion i! 0acuu( energ .in thi! conte,t called dark energ 2 E a! !ugge!ted b #e(aCtre alread in 1:94 J16K+ The SN re!ult! e(erged at a ti(e *hen !o(e co!(ologi!t!3 for (an different rea!on!3 argued that the &ni0er!e (ight be 0acuu( do(inated+ Other! *ere3 ho*e0er3 reluctant to acce)t !uch a clai( i()l ing a non4zero co!(ological con!tant+ The SN ob!er0ation! *ere the crucial link in !u))ort of 0acuu( do(inance3 directl te!ting (odel! *ith Z g 0+ The currentl acce)ted co!(ological !tandard (odel E the Concordance ?odel or the ZCc? (odel E include! both a co!(ological con!tant Z and Cold .i+e+ non4relati0i!tic2 cark ?atter+ The SNe re!ult! co(bined *ith the C?B data and inter)reted in ter(! of the Concordance ?odel allo* a )reci!e deter(ination of `? and `Z .!ee /ig+ 92+

The )rediction! of the Concordance ?odel agree3 *ithin the e,)eri(ental uncertaintie!3 *ith all the )re!entl a0ailable data+ None of the alternati0e (odel! )ro)o!ed to e,)lain the SN ob!er0ation!3 ba!ed on inho(ogeneitie! of the &ni0er!e at large !cale!3 e,tra

19 .182

di(en!ion! or (odification! of general relati0it 3 !ee( to con0incingl account for all ob!er0ation!+ The 0er !ucce!!ful Standard ?odel for Particle Ph !ic!3 *hich de!cribe! nature at the !(alle!t !cale! *here *e can (ea!ure3 ha! t*o inherent !ource! for 0acuu( energ 3 Iuantu( fluctuation! and !)ontaneou! ! ((etr breaking+ $n relati0i!tic Iuantu( )h !ic! the 0acuu( i! not e()t but filled *ith Iuantu( fluctuation!3 allo*ed b "ei!enbergD! uncertaint )rinci)le .Nobel Prize in Ph !ic! 1:922+ F nai0e e!ti(ate of ,the !ize of the 0acuu( energ den!it 3 u!ing the gra0it con!tant %3 PlanckD! con!tant ,, and the 0elocit of light3 c3 *ould i()l a contribution to the energ den!it ^ Z of the order of ? Pc2 ^Z T 9 3 lP *here ?P i! the Planck (a!! .T 101: %e'=c22 and lP i! the Planck length .T 10499 c(23 i+e+3 about 10117 %e'=c(9+ Thi! i! to be co()ared to the )re!ent4da critical den!it of T 0+-j104- %e'=c(9+ Since the energ den!it of the &ni0er!e according to (ea!ure(ent! !ee(! 0er clo!e to critical3 the nai0e e!ti(ate i! *rong b 122 order! of (agnitude+ Prior to the di!co0er of the accelerated e,)an!ion of the &ni0er!e3 )article )h !ici!t! belie0ed3 that there (u!t be a ! ((etr )rinci)le forbidding a co!(ological con!tant+ There i!3 ho*e0er3 another (echani!( in the Standard ?odel that generate! 0acuu( energ + $n order to e,)lain ho* the &ni0er!e can be !o ho(ogeneou! *ith different )art! that !ee(ingl cannot ha0e been in cau!al contact *ith each other3 the idea of an inflationar )ha!e in the earl &ni0er!e *a! )ut for*ard J90K+ $t !tate! that at a 0er earl !tage3 the &ni0er!e *ent through a )ha!e tran!ition3 breaking certain ! ((etrie!3 !)ontaneou!l generating a ti(e4de)endent3 huge 0acuu( energ den!it that during a 0er !hort ti(e (ade the &ni0er!e e,)and enor(ou!l + F !i(ilar effect (a !till be at *ork3 leading to the 0acuu( energ that *e !ee toda + Thi! !o4called Iuinte!!ence (a )erha)! be detectable3 a! !uch a 0acuu( energ *ould ha0e a *eak ti(e de)endence .!ee J91K3 and reference! therein2+

Other i()ortant but et unan!*ered Iue!tion! are *h `Z ha! it! (ea!ured 0alue E and *h `Z and `? at the )re!ent e)och in the hi!tor of the &ni0er!e are of the !a(e order of (agnitude+ Ft )re!ent *e ha0e no theoretical under!tanding of the 0alue of ` Z+

Conclu!ion
The !tud of di!tant !u)erno0ae con!titute! a crucial contribution to co!(olog + Together *ith gala, clu!tering and the C?B ani!otro) (ea!ure(ent!3 it allo*! )reci!e deter(ination of co!(ological )ara(eter!+ The ob!er0ation! )re!ent u! *ith a challenge3 ho*e0er< Ahat i! the !ource of the dark energ that dri0e! the accelerating e,)an!ion of the &ni0er!eS Or i! our under!tanding of gra0it a! de!cribed b general relati0it in!ufficientS Or *a! Ein!teinD! R(i!takeG of introducing the co!(ological

14 .182

con!tant one (ore !troke of hi! geniu!S ?an ne* e,)eri(ental effort! are under*a to hel) !hed light on the!e Iue!tion!+

Reference!
J1K F+ Ein!tein3 Rcie /eldgleichungen der %ra0itationG3 Sitzung!ber+ Preu!!+ Fkad+ Ai!!+ Berlin3 1:1-< 74447483 .1:1-23 J2K B+ Sch*arz!child3 Rkber da! %ra0itation!feld eine! ?a!!en)unkte! nach der Ein!tein!chen TheorieG3 Sitzung!ber+ Preu!!+ Fkad+ Ai!!+ Berlin3 1:16< 17:41:63 .1:1623 J9K F+ Ein!tein3 RBo!(ologi!che Betrachtungen zur allge(einen Relati0it1t!theorieG3 Sitzung!ber+ Preu!!+ Fkad+ Ai!!+ Berlin3 1:18< 14241-23 .1:1823 J4K F+ /ried(ann3 Rkber die BrQ((ung de! Rau(e!G3 Peit!chrift fQr Ph !ik3 103 9884 9763 .1:2223 J-K F+ /ried(ann3 Rkber die ?lglichkeiten einer Aelt (it kon!tanter negati0er BrQ((ung de! Rau(e!G3 Peit!chrift fQr Ph !ik3 213 92649923 .1:2423 J6K %+ #e(aCtre3 R&n uni0er! ho(ogmne de (a!!e con!tante et de ra on croi!!ant rendant co()te de la 0ite!!e radiale de! nnbuleu!e! e,tra4galactiIue!G3 Fnnale! de la Socintn ScientifiIue de Bru,elle!3 F483 4:4-:3 .1:2823 J8K '+ Sli)her3 RThe radial 0elocit of the Fndro(eda nebulaG3 #o*ell Ob!er0ator Bulletin3 -73 0ol $$<-64-8 .1:1923 J7K E+P+ "ubble3 RE,tragalactic nebulaeG3 F!tro)h !+ @+3 643 921496:3 .1:2623 J:K E+P+ "ubble3 RF relation bet*een di!tance and radial 0elocit a(ong e,tra4galactic nebulaeG3 Proc+ Nat+ Fcad+ Sci+3 1-3 16741893 .1:2:23 J10K %+ #e(aCtre3 RThe beginning of the *orld fro( the )oint of 0ie* of Iuantu( theor G3 Nature3 1283 8063 .1:9123

1- .182

J11K C+ Airtz3 Rce Sitter! Bo!(ologie unter der Radialbe*egung der S)iralnebelG3 F!tr+ Nachr+3 2223 214263 .1:2423 J12K B+ #und(ark3 RThe (otion! and di!tance! of !)iral nebulaeG3 ?NRFS3 7-3 76-4 7:43 .1:2-23 J19K "+P+ Robert!on3 RBine(atic! and *orld !tructureG3 F!tro)h !+ @+3 723 27449013 .1:9-2N RBine(atic! and *orld !tructure $$G3 ibid+3 793 1784201 3 .1:9623 RBine(atic! and *orld !tructure $$$G3 ibid+3 793 2-84281 3 .1:9623 J14K F+%+ Aalker3 ROn the ?ilneD! theor of *orld4!tructureG3 Proc+ #ond+ ?ath+ Soc+ .223 423 :041283 .1:9623 J1-K F+F+ Penzia! and R+A+ Ail!on3 RF (ea!ure(ent of e,ce!! antenna te()erature at 4070 ?c=!G3 F!tro)h !+ @+3 1423 41:44213 .1:6-23 J16K %+ #e(aCtre3 RE0olution of the e,)anding uni0er!eG3 Proc+ Nat+ Fcad+ Sci+3 20.123 124183 .1:9423 J18K F+ %oobar and S+ Perl(utter3 R/ea!ibilit of (ea!uring the co!(ological con!tant Z and (a!! den!it ` u!ing t )e $a !u)erno0aeG3 F!tro)h !+ @+3 4-03 144173 .1::-23 J17K A+ Baade3 RThe ab!olute )hotogra)hic (agnitude of !u)erno0aeG3 F!tro)h !+ @+3 773 27-49043 .1:9723 J1:K C+T+ Bo*al3 RFb!olute (agnitude! of !u)erno0aeG3 F!tron+ @+3893 1021410293 .1:6723 J20K A+F+ /o*ler and /+ "o le3 RNucleo! nthe!i! in !u)erno0aeG3 F!tro)h !+ @+3 1923 -6-4-:03 .1:6023 J21K c+ Branch and %+F+ Ta((ann3 RT )e $a !u)erno0ae a! !tandard candle!G3 Fnn+ Re0+ F!tron+ F!tro)h !+3 903 9-:497:3 .1::223 J22K "+&+ Norgaard4Niel!en3 #+ "an!en3 "+E+ @orgen!en3 F+F+ Sala(anca3 R+S+ Elli!3 A+@+ Couch3 RThe di!co0er of a t )e $a !u)erno0a at red!hift of 0+91G3 Nature3 99:3 -294-2-3 .1:7:23 J29K S+ Perl(utter et al+3 RF Su)erno0a at zY0+4-7 and i()lication! for (ea!uring the co!(ological decelerationG3 F!tro)h !+ @+3 4403 #414#443 .1::-23 J24K ?+ "a(u et al+3 RThe 1::0 Calhn=Tololo Su)erno0a SearchG3 F!tron+ @+3 1063 29:2424083 .1::923 J2-K ?+?+ Philli)!3 RThe ab!olute (agnitude of T )e $a !u)erno0aeG3 F!tro)h !+ @+3 4193 #10-4#1073 .1::923

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J26K ?+ "a(u et al+3 RThe "ubble diagra( of the Calhn=Tololo T )e $a !u)erno0ae and the 0alue of "0G3 F!tron+ @+3 1123 29:7424083 .1::623 J28K F+%+ Rie!! et al+3 ROb!er0ational e0idence fro( !u)erno0ae for an accelerating uni0er!e and a co!(ological con!tantG3 F!tron+ @+3 1163 100:410973 .1::723 J27K S+ Perl(utter et al+3 R?ea!ure(ent of ` and Z fro( 42 high4red!hift !u)erno0aeG3 F!tro)h !+ @+3 -183 -6-4-763 .1:::23 J2:K F+%+ Rie!! et al+3 RT )e $a !u)erno0a di!co0erie! at z g1 fro( the "ubble S)ace Teleco)e< E0idence for )a!t deceleration and con!traint! on dark energ e0olutionG3 F!tro)h !+ @+3 6083 66-46783 .200423 J90K F+ Starobin!k 3 RF ne* t )e of i!otro)ic co!(ological (odel! *ithout !ingularit G3 Ph !+ #ett+3 B:13 ::41023 .1:702N B+ Sato3 R/ir!t order )ha!e tran!ition of a 0acuu( and e,)an!ion of the &ni0er!eG3 ?NRFS3 1:-3 468448:3 .1:712N F+"+ %uth3 RThe inflationar uni0er!e< F )o!!ible !olution to the horizon and flatne!! )roble(!G3 Ph !+ Re0+3 c293 94849-63 .1:702N F+c+ #inde3 RF ne* inflationar !cenario< F )o!!ible !olution to the horizon3 flatne!!3 ho(ogeneit 3 i!otro) and )ri(ordial (ono)ole )roble(!G3 Ph !+ #ett+3 B1073 97:49:93 .1:712N F+ Flbrecht and P+@+ Steinhardt3 RCo!(olog for %rand &nified Theorie! *ith radiati0el induced ! ((etr breakingG3 Ph !+ Re0+ #ett+3 473 1220412293 .1:7223

J91K E+@+ Co)eland3 ?+ Sa(i and S+ T!uOika*a3 Rc na(ic! of cark Energ G3 $nt+ @+ ?od+ Ph !+3 c1-3 18-941:963 .20062+

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