ABSTRACT INTOXICATED BY MUSIC: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF THE PREVALENCE OF ALCOHOL, ILLICIT SUBSTANCES, AND TOBACCO IN POPULAR MUSIC FROM

2000 TO 2011 By Chantal Fahmy August 2012 Many argue that the constant reference to illicit substances in lyrics shapes the minds of youth indicating what is acceptable and common behavior. This argument, motivated by fear, initiated a moral panic about drug use and music that fueled various studies throughout the 20th century to understand the prevalence of drug use in music and describe the possible negative impact of specific genres of music on youth. To continue this discussion, this study concentrates on the music of the millennium. From 2000 to 2011, a content analysis of the Top 40 songs' lyrics from Billboard's "Hot 100" was conducted, which shows that songs from the first half of the decade tended to contain more references to drugs and alcohol than in the second half. Rap/hip-hop contained the most references. Alcohol was the most mentioned substance across all genres followed by marijuana. Implications of these findings conclude this thesis.

INTOXICATED BY MUSIC: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF THE PREVALENCE OF ALCOHOL, ILLICIT SUBSTANCES, AND TOBACCO IN POPULAR MUSIC FROM 2000 TO 2011

A THESIS Presented to the Department of Criminal Justice California State University, Long Beach

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Criminal Justice

Committee Members:

Dina Perrone, Ph.D. (Chair) Connie Ireland, Ph.D. Ryan Fischer, Ph.D. College Designee: Henry Fradella, Ph.D.

By Chantal Fahmy B.A., 2008, University of California Irvine August 2012

UMI Number: 1521584

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is impossible to overstate my gratitude and appreciation for my Committee Chair, Dr. Perrone (a very important lady!). Without her inspiration, patience, constant explanations, academic knowledge, and encouragement, I would have been lost. Next, I would like to thank Dr. Fradella, my Department Chair, whose ability to fully devote himself to each of his students, given his countless number of roles and responsibilities, is remarkable. I would like to express my gratefulness for the guidance brought upon by my Committee Members, Dr. Ireland and Dr. Fischer. I want to thank the entire Criminal Justice Department faculty for not only making my experience at CSU, Long Beach an invaluable academic one, but also an extremely enjoyable one. A big thanks to Gigi, my literal "Partner in Criminal Justice)." There are no words to articulate my thoughts on what her friendship, both inside and outside our academic careers, has meant to me. I appreciate all the help she provided in everything and always being there to brainstorm with me. Thanks to Stephen, Andrea, and my brother Sean, for joining in my late night writing sessions, helping out with my neverending reference list, and for simply being there when I needed them the most. None of this would have been possible without my best friendsRoxi, Noodle, Shaynie, Denise, Brooky, and Jess. Their continual encouragement and ability to fill my days with endless laughter, ultimately kept my sanity intact. Last, but definitely not the least, I would like to dedicate this thesis to my parents. Without their support (emotional, physical, and
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financial) and unconditional love during this long process, I would not have made it to this point in my academic career. I am forever indebted to them.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Current Study Plan of Presentation Definitions 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Panics Panic Creators/Facilitators: Media and Moral Entrepreneurs Moral Panics and Music Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC) Is There Cause for Concern? Music Lyrics Media and Behavior Watching Music Videos Listening to Music Music Genre Preference and Drug Use Conclusion 3. METHODOLOGY Introduction Research Design Sample Selection Data Collection Coding
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iii viii ix

1 4 5 6 9 9 10 11 14 14 17 17 21 23 24 25 27 29 29 30 30 32 32

CHAPTER Coding Process Data Measures Alcohol Drugs

Drug Specific Codes

Page 34 36 37 37
37

Crack/cocaine Ecstasy Heroin Marijuana Meth RX drugs Tobacco Smoking Two or More Combined Partying/Clubbing Song Genres Genre Classifications Country R&B Pop Rap and hip-hop Rock Dance/house Play of Analysis 4. RESULTS Findings Alcohol Mentions Drug Mentions Specific drug type Other drug related mentiones Tobacco Mentions Smoking Mentions Two or More Combined Mentions Partying/Clubbing Mentions Genre and Mentions General mentions Specific drug type mentiones 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Discussion
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37 38 38 38 39 39 40 40 40 41 42 43 43 43 43 44 44 45 45 47 47 47 50 51 56 57 58 59 59 60 62 65 67 69

CHAPTER Illicit Substances Marijuana Marijuana Alcohol and Tobacco Are Moral Panics About Music Warranted? Study Limitations Future Research Policy Implications APPENDICES A. TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2000 B. TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2001 C. TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2002 D. TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2003 E. TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2004 F. TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2005 G. TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2006 H. TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2007 I. TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2008 J. TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2009 K. TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2010 L. TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2011 REFERENCES

Page 71 73 74 75 77 79 81 82 84 85 88 91 94 97 100 103 106 109 112 115 118 121

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LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1. Definitions of Music Genres and Drugs 2. Number of Mentions and Number of Songs 3. Number of Mentions by Genre Page 7 49 61

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LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1. General alcohol mentions from 2000 to 2011 2. General drug mentions from 2000 to 2011 3. Marijuana mentions from 2000 to 2011 4. Crack/cocaine mentions from 2000 to 2011 5. Prescription drug mentions from 2000 to 2011 6. Ecstasy mentions from 2000 to 2011 7. Heroin/meth mentions from 2000 to 2011 8. Dealing/selling drugs mentions from 2000 to 2011 9. Amount of drugs mentions from 2000 to 2011 10. Tobacco mentions from 2000 to 2011 11. Smoking (nonspecific) mentions from 2000 to 2011 12. Two or more combined mentions from 2000 to 2011 13. Partying/clubbing mentions from 2000 to 2011 14. Number of music genres from 2000 to 2011 15. Genres by general mentions of alcohol, drugs, and tobacco 16. Specific drug mentions by genre 17. General mentions of alcohol, drugs, and tobacco from 2000 to 2011 18. Illicit drug mentions from 2000 to 2011
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Page 50 51 52 53 54 55 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 63 64 66 69 70

FIGURE 19. National Survey on Drug Use and Health: 2000-2010, illicit substance use in past year by youth ages 12-17 20 Monitoring the Future: 2000-2011, illicit substance use in past year by 8th, 10th, and 12th graders from 2000 to 2011

Page

72

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Popular music has had been instrumental to the development and identities of youth cultures (Curtis, 2011). American youth tend to define and express themselves through popular representations of music. In fact, D. F. Roberts, Henriksen, and Christenson's (1999) research that was sponsored by the Office of National Drug Control Policy and the Department of Health and Human Services, showed that listening to music is "students' number one non-school activity" (p. 40). Adolescents spend almost 5 hours a day listening to music and watching music videos (D. F. Roberts et al., 1999). Moreover, music has become a tremendous part of daily life; it is the backdrop of all activities in the car, home, office, and school (Curtis, 2011; Fischer, Kastenmuller, Greitemeyer, Vogrincic, & Sauer, 2011; D. F. Roberts, et al., 1999). Music provides many young people with a vehicle of self-expression and the ability to connect with the artists who they idolize and seek to emulate. Many young people's identities are connected to this entertainment medium. Since young people are quite impressionable, parents, policymakers, educators, and health professionals have been concerned about the potentially negative effects music may have on youth's behavior (Binder, 1993; Chastagner, 1999; Garofalo, 1987; Lynxwiler & Gay, 2000). This is partly due to the fact that many studies have found links between rebellious or deviant behavior (e.g., substance use, violence, sexual 1

activity, etc.) and music preferences (Baker & Bor, 2008; Diamond, Bermudez, & Schensul, 2006; Knobloch-Westerwick, Musto, & Shaw, 2008; Lynxwiler & Gay, 2000; Markert, 2001). Even the music industry recognizes its impact on American culture. Strauss Zelnick (as cited in Diamond et al., 2006), former President of both Twentieth Century Fox and BMG Entertainment, stated: We weave threads in the social fabric. We may not change what people think, but we create a cultural vernacular for those thoughts . .. while accountability will always lie with the individual, we as an industry must recognize the role we play in influencing context and environment, (p. 269) Researchers have also sought to understand the causal mechanisms that influence adolescent behavior via both content analyses of lyrics and cause and effect studies (e.g., Ashby & Rich, 2005; Baker & Bor, 2008; Diamond et al., 2006; Gruber, Thau, Hill, Fischer, & Grube, 2005; Herd, 2008; Primack, Dalton, Carroll, Agarwal, & Fine, 2008; Primack, Douglas, & Kraemer, 2009). Most of this research found that there are links between the level of exposure to different forms of media and subsequent behavior. This relationship has been explained through Akers's (1973) and Bandura's social learning theories (1978) and cultivation theories (e.g., Christenson, Roberts, & Bjork, 2012; Diamond et al., 2006; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999), which posit that a consistent use of media will eventually prime the person into modeling the behaviors portrayed. Young people are especially more likely to mimic the behavior of those they trust and idolize (Akers, 1973). Thus, if music artists discuss drug, alcohol, or tobacco use or other risky behavior in their music, it is likely that young people may also engage in those behaviors.

Given the association between music and behavior, most research has attempted to identify which genres of music contain the most references to illicit substances (e.g., Christenson et al., 2012; Desmond, 1987; Grascia, 2003; Herd, 2008; KnoblochWesterwick et al., 2008; Markert, 2001; Miranda & Claes, 2004; Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999). The majority of these studies, which primarily focused on rap/hip-hop music with some focusing on rock music (see Table 1 for a list of genres and their descriptions), found that the particular genre of music could determine how often substances were mentioned, and that listening to those particular genres affected people's drug-using behavior (Desmond, 1987; Diamond et al., 2006; Herd, 2008; Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2008; Markert, 2001; Miranda & Claes, 2004). As a result, many began to fear the youth's unfettered access to, and overuse of, media (Ashby & Rich, 2005; Christenson et al., 2012; Diamond et al., 2006; Gruber et al., 2005; Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008). This created a moral panic about media and drug use that led to significant policy changes around music content and access to music. Specifically, music lyrics are reviewed for sex-, drug- and violence-related content, parental advisory warning labels are placed on music with that content present, and only those aged 18 and over are permitted to purchase the labeled music. Based on agenda setting or framing theory, it becomes clear how the way in which the media and moral entrepreneurs dominated and, hence, shaped the discourse around music and behavior, resulted in a moral panic that garnered enough attention to incite policy changes (Barcus & Jankowski, 1975; Callaghan & Schnell, 2009; Diamond et al., 2006; Jenkins, 1999). However, the link between music and behavior is actually much more complex. Media outlets not only shape how society functions, but they also mirror how society 3

functions; the relationship between media and culture is both symbiotic and dynamic in nature. This means that music is regularly influencing culture and behavior, and culture and behavior are regularly influencing music. So, music's influence on society, and therefore, society's influence on the music that becomes popular, is constantly changing. This is evident in the consistent changing fads of music (Curtis, 2011) that when certain genres (e.g., rock and roll and heavy metal) were no longer popular among young people, the influences of these genres were no longer considered threats. The media framers and moral entrepreneurs who originally portrayed the potential harms of music's influence underestimated the complexity of the dynamic relationship between music and behavior. Rather, certain genres have been stereotyped as damaging to youth, especially rap, hip-hop, and metal. These stereotypes prevail since few studies have analyzed the content of the most popular or mainstream music and how those songs have impacted youth (e.g., Christenson et al., 2012; G. H. Lewis, 1980; Markert, 2001; Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008; Primack et al., 2009; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999; Sernoe, 2005; Wright, 2000). Moreover, most of the research analyzing music lyric content was confined to the 20th century (Baumeister, 1984; Herd, 2008; Jaret & Thaxton, 1980; G. H. Lewis, 1980; Markert, 2001; Sernoe, 2005). To date, the literature has not focused on popular music of the millennium. Current Study This thesis fills the gap in the literature through a content analysis of music lyrics since the turn of the 21st century. Specifically, drug, alcohol, and tobacco content of lyrics from the millennium's 40 most popular yearly songs acquired from the Billboard Hot 100 charts is analyzed. This investigation of music from 2000-2011 discovers (a) if 4

recent popular music contained the same, fewer, or more mentions than in previous years based on other content analyses of music, (b) if the moral panic provoked by the amount of drug, alcohol, and tobacco mentions in music is warranted, (c) if previous research findings that particular genres comprised the most number of illicit substance mentions are valid, and (d) how, if at all, are youths' behaviors related to music. This content analysis shows that there is an imbalance between substance mentions and the fear of the effects of these mentions. Through an analysis of the content of the United States' top-rated music, this study indicates that perhaps warning labels for parents to monitor their children's intake of music is not necessary. In fact, when comparing mentions of substances in popular music for 2000-2011 to average past year use of those substances among youth from 2000-2010 (Johnston, O'Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2011; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999), the futility of the panic becomes clear. Plan of Presentation This introductory chapter provided a brief overview of the importance of studying music and media influences on adolescents, including an emphasis on deviant behavior. Chapter 2 provides a review of the literature describing how the moral panic surrounding drugs and music was formed and how that panic informed policies that are still in place today. Additionally, Chapter 2 provides information on previous research's important findings. It explains why ongoing analyses are still critical to understanding the complex relationship between drugs and music. Chapter 3 describes the methodological approach for the current study, including sample selection, codes, coding procedure, and the data measures utilized. Chapter 4 presents the results from the content analysis of lyrics. It 5

provides detailed information on the mentions found for each substance in music genres (see Table 3), and the longitudinal analyses of these findings over the course of the millennium. Chapter 5 concludes the thesis with a discussion of the study's findings in comparison to United States national survey data about youth's drug and alcohol use over the same time period, limitations, future research suggestions, and policy implications in lieu of the findings. Definitions Classifications of music genres and their corresponding sub-genres vary among the relative research and media outlets. Additionally, researchers and lyricists are not uniform in how they identify the substances found in music. For clarity, please refer to Table 1 for a list of substances, some of their street names, and their effects. Table 1 also contains a list of genres of music with their accompanying descriptions. Music genres are discussed in more detail in Chapter 3.

TABLE 1. Definitions of Music Genres and Drugs Category Term Definition

Music Country Acoustic sounds usually played with instruments such as guitars and harmonicas Characterized by its popularity more than the sound, this genre includes a blend of rock, disco, funk, and R&B Considered a hybrid of many genres, especially after losing its "danceable" qualities in the 60s, includes elements from R&B, electric guitar influenced blues, country music, and saxophone solos Consists of a flowing rhythm and usually includes specific jazz instruments such as the piano and saxophone Technically different genres, but the vast overlap between artists and music style, generally combines the two. It is characterized by a collection of spoken rhymes over a rhythmic background Characterized by unrelenting rhythmic qualities, a lack of general harmony, minimized lyrical content, focuses on the layering of sounds by electronic instruments, and usually played live by a DJ A euphoric stimulant, derived from the coca plant, best known for its popularity in powdered form and freebase (crack) forms. Derived from the cannabis plant, which produces the psychoactive THC. It is the most widely used psychoactive with both stimulant and depressant effects. It has a long history of medicinal and recreational use. A popular recreational psychoactive, usually sold in the form of ecstasy tablets. It is known for its euphoric and stimulant effects.

Related terms
Bluegrass, folk, western, gospel & alternative country Mainstream, popular, easylistening, & Top 40

Pop

Rock

Heavy metal, rock 'n' roll, classic rock, psychedelic rock, punk rock, & stoner rock

R&B

Rhythm and blues, blues, soul, & jazz

Rap/Hip-Hop

DJ, rapper, MC, gangsta rap, American rap, French rap, soul, & hardcore rap

Dance/House

EDM, techno, electronica, dubstep, & trance

Drugs

Crack/Cocaine

base, coke, zip, crack, blow, snow, nose candy, white girl, rock, candy, white pony, coca, candy cane, yay, & yayo Mary Jane, MJ, weed, dope, grass, pot, bud, hippie lettuce, kush, dro, greens, herb, cannabis, hemp, hashish, hash, chronic, cheeba, ganja, & reefer MDMA, X, E, XTC, Skittles, Smartees, Scooby snacks, Vitamin E, Vitamin X, Adam, candy, disco biscuits, rolls, molly, beans, happy pill, hug drug, & thizz

Marijuana

Ecstasy

TABLE 1. Continued Category Term

Heroin

Definition
A powerful euphoric depressant, which produces euphoria and apathy. This opiate painkiller is known for its addictive qualities and painful withdrawal symptoms. A class of prescription chemicals or pharmaceuticals, approved only for medicinal use. Many of these substances have mind or emotion altering properties. A strong euphoric mental and physical stimulant that is available both as a legal prescription drug and the illegal street form.

Related terms
Dope, junk, smack, H, tar, black tar, China white, & brown sugar

Prescription Drugs

Oxy, Peres, Cets, Vike, Vic, TNT, dust, morph, M, cody, Z-bar, benzos, chill pills, tranqs, Rittys, beans, & cotton Meth, crank, crystal, crystal meth, speed, glass, Christina, Tina, Cris, ice, speed, trash, garbage, & tweak

Methamphetamine

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction This literature review shows how previous research has criticized the attack on music and claims of its influence on youth in the United States. Music has been the leading scapegoat for bad behavior (drug use, sexual activity, and violence) among youth, as many Americans believe that listening to certain types of music will lead to deviant behavior. Because previous studies on different forms of media, especially music and music videos, have been linked to behavior and music has become saturated in the daily lives of adolescents, the attack on music by parents, policymakers, and other concerned individuals seems warranted. This has led to a panic over music and provoked studies of music lyric content, which tend to show that rap, hip-hop and rock music have historically contained the most references to drugs (including illicit substances, alcohol, and tobacco), sex, and violence (Christenson et al., 2012; Diamond et al., 2006; Gruber et al., 2005; Herd, 2008; Markert, 2001; Miranda & Claes, 2004; Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999). As a result, both the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC) and other entrepreneurs of this panic facilitated the implementation of policies to label music with parental advisory warnings. However, the careful review of the literature specifically linking music and music lyrics to behavior in this chapter demonstrates that much of the trepidation surrounding the relationship between drug use
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and music is unjustifiable. Rather, most of that relationship is attributable to peers and subcultural influences. To provide an overview of the literature on drugs and music, the first section of this chapter reviews how moral and synthetic panics regarding music and drugs have emerged that shaped the policy debates around these issues. It also examines how policymakers and many moral entrepreneurs dominated the discourse about the effects of music on adolescents and created a panic that parents should fear and ban certain songs because violence, sex, and drugs are present in the lyrics. Next, it describes how these moral and synthetic panics led to specific regulations and policies to control adolescents' access to music and provoked scholars to assess if music and/or music preferences influence adolescent behavior. Following an overview of that discussion, this chapter examines studies that show which genres and which songs have lyrics that are inundated with drug, alcohol, and tobacco content. Finally, using this current state of the literature, I show how my study both enhances and fills a gap in the discussion revolving around drugs and music. Panics In 1971, Jock Young first coined the phrase moral panic, although credit for the term is often give to Cohen (1972/2002). A moral panic describes "a condition, episode, person, or group of persons which emerge to become defined as a threat to societal values and interests" (Cohen, 1972/2002, p. 9). These threats create socially constructed parameters of acceptable or deviant behavior (Zgoba, 2004). Thus, moral panics can lead a group of people or type of behavior to be considered unacceptable or immoral (Forsyth Forsyth, Barnard, & McKeganey, 1997; Goode & Ben-Yehuda, 1994; Jenkins, 1999).
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Moral panics can seemingly form out of nowhere, although they often occur when society faces what is deemed a palpable and growing problem (Thompson, 1998). Often, the blame for the issue is placed on "folk devils" and the corrupt behavior they represent (Cohen, 1972/2002). It is believed that these perpetrators create such a large crisis that they must be dealt with or punished immediately in order to prevent additional and even greater consequences to the moral well-being of society (Burns & Crawford, 1999; Cohen, 1972/2002; Goode & Ben-Yehuda, 1994). Thus, in a moral panic, members of society fear that this behavior will only spread and cause great strife to the moral composition of their world. After a general consensus has been met by a majority of society, usually based on unverified claims regarding the problem and who is to blame for it, often, more social controls are declared (Goode & Ben-Yehuda, 1994). These can be in the form of stricter laws or longer prison sentences, which have been deemed the swiftest and most appropriate method to thwart this seemingly harmful behavior (Goode & Ben-Yehuda, 1994). Synthetic panics are similar to moral panics; however, synthetic panics describe society's reactions to synthetic drug use (Jenkins, 1999). According to Jenkins (1999), these panics contain the same outcry and fear that moral panics instill. Jenkins posits, though, that the degree of panic around drugs and drug use depends on those perceived to be the primary users of the substances; often, a higher degree of hostility surrounds nonWhite users than White users (see also Linnemann, 2010; Reinarman & Levine, 1997). Panic Creators/Facilitators: Media and Moral Entrepreneurs Moral or synthetic panics are often facilitated by both media outlets and an individual or group of individuals known as moral entrepreneurs who draw the public's
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attention to the issue (Becker, 1963/1995; Callaghan & Schnell, 2009). Media outlets tend to present to the public unsubstantiated claims to frame how the infectious growth of this behavior (i.e., use of the substances) will eventually deteriorate the moral fabric of society (Goode & Ben-Yehuda, 1994; Jenkins, 1999). Often relying on rare or "celebrity" cases that resulted in harm or even death, the media spin those cases to seem like the typical case (e.g., Binder, 1993; Jenkins, 1999; Tunnell, 2005). This heightens the public's fear and begins the legislative debate regarding the issue. Moral entrepreneurs, often families of the victims in high profile or "celebrity" cases, bring the issue to the attention of the media, attach symbolic and political connotations to the drugs and behaviors, and ignite a change in public policy (Becker, 1963/1995; Callaghan & Schnell, 2009; Jenkins, 1999; Reinarman & Levine, 1997). For example, Candace Lightner founded Mother's Against Drunk Driving (MADD) after a 46-year old drunk driver hit and killed her 13-year old daughter. Lightner and MADD had been the impetus for changing the drinking age in the United States from 18 to 21 (Sinclair, 2012). Similarly, the Federal Bureau of Narcotics framed marijuana use as a problem associated with Mexican immigrants (Becker, 1963/1995). This led to the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937. Thus, moral entrepreneurs, especially those in places of high political standing, influence how the debate is shaped and which policies are implemented (Callaghan & Schnell, 2009; Goode & Ben-Yehuda, 1994). Agenda setting or framing theory posits that the media influences public opinion and therefore policymakers by the issues it chooses to discuss. This gives the media enough power to guide the debate on issues and garner support for some movements and reforms while marginalizing others (Barcus & Jankowski, 1975; Callaghan & Schnell,
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2009; Diamond et al., 2006). Media sources have the ability to both spearhead and foster panics led by moral entrepreneurs such as the panic around drugs and music (Callaghan & Schnell, 2009; Jenkins, 1999). The intensity of these panics, as Jenkins (1999) and Goode and Ben-Yehuda (1994) have postulated are rarely grounded in actual usage statistics; rather, they are often based on society's revulsion to the symbolic representation of the drug(s). When a social problem is legitimized by the media and championed by moral entrepreneurs, policy makers often respond with crime control strategies that address the socially constructed reality vis-a-vis the moral panic, rather than creating policies that are responsive to empirical data (e.g., Sample & Kadleck, 2008). Griffin and Miller (2008) describe this process as crime control theater"a public response or set of responses to crime which generate the appearance, but not the fact, of crime control" (p. 160). But, basing policy on high-profile cases is a flawed approach. This point is well illustrated by the failed policies designed to control sex offenders (see Galeste, Fradella, & Vogel, 2012, for a review), and drug use and drug users (e.g., Jenkins, 1999; Musto, 1999). Consider, for example, that the United States has experienced media-fueled panics concerning the crack scare of the late-1980s (Reinarman & Levine, 1997), the Oxycontin panic of the mid-1990s (Tunnell, 2005), and the meth panic at the start of the millennium (Linnemann, 2010). Each of these led to draconian criminal justice sanctions (Thompson, 1998). These panics were disproportionate to the threat posed and often relied on celebrity cases; all were later debunked by official data and reports (Linnemann, 2010; Reinarman & Levine, 1997; Tunnell, 2005).

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Moral Panics and Music The moral panic surrounding music emerged from grassroots movements, mainly religious and anti-music groups and organizations that claimed that music will corrupt adolescents and have a detrimental effect on their moral development (Chastagner, 1999; Lynxwiler & Gay, 2000). These moral entrepreneurs helped shape the public discourse and representation of the problem, which led parents to believe that children will be harmed or were already being harmed by music (Chastagner, 1999). They blamed the music industry, artists, and record labels for the inappropriate content found in music. Most of their fears and anxieties regarding music developed out of the idea that with the growth of rock and roll, amongst other types of popular music, young people were establishing collective identities via a subculture that values sex, drugs and violence (Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2008; Lynxwiler & Gay, 2000). Thus, they claimed that something, specifically censorship, must be done to protect the children. The explicit lyrics found in music were believed to be causing a decline in the moral fabric of the United States. Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC) In 1985, the "Washington Wives," a group of politicians' wives led by Tipper Gore (wife of then Senator Al Gore), created the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC) and has made it the organization's responsibility to increase public awareness and educate parents regarding the dangers of glorifying deviant behavior found in music (Binder, 1993; Chastagner, 1999; Lynxwiler & Gay, 2000; Nuzum, 2001). The founders of the PMRC argued that both overt and covert messages concerning sex, drug use, and Satanism found in music lyrics may cause the listener to engage in behaviors in which 14

they would not have otherwise engaged (Arnett, 1991; Chastagner, 1999). The PMRC also argued that lyrics had a negative effect on children's attitudes and values (Binder, 1993; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999). The PMRC claimed that "messages could be reversed in the subconscious, and affect the behavior of their listeners such that they became more sympathetic to Satanism and drug use" (as quoted in Desmond, 1987, p. 281). Moreover, as adolescents mature, their ability to appreciate the true nature of the explicitness of the meaning in the music to which they listen strengthens. Thus, adolescents needed to be protected and parents need to be aware of the content of the music lyrics to which their children listen (Desmond, 1987; Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2008; Nuzum, 2001). Through the PMRC, the moral panic around music garnered enough national attention to incite Congressional hearings to determine if music lyrics should be subjected to a review board prior to their release (Chastagner, 1999; Lynxwiler & Gay, 2000; Nuzum, 2001). In their quest to monitor and control youths' accessibility to inappropriate music, both the PMRC and policymakers relied on research that demonstrated a relationship between lyrics and behavior (Binder, 1993; Chastagner, 1999; Garofalo, 1987; Lynxwiler & Gay, 2000). The PMRC argued that a stringent regulatory body to censor specifically ill-suited lyrics in music was necessary. They petitioned to include a rating system of explicit materials on each record (Binder, 1993; Chastagner, 1999). Before the 1985 hearings concluded, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) complied by asking its members to attach a warning label to all explicit content of music or to have the lyrics printed on the sleeve on the audio recording (Chastagner, 1999; Nuzum, 2001). While many argued that the PMRC's insistence on 15

labeling each single or album containing licentious words or images was a form of censorship that violated artists' First Amendment rights, the PMRC was granted the ability to label music with parental advisory stamps (Binder, 1993; Chastagner, 1999; Nuzum, 2001; Wright, 2000). Though these parental advisory labels exist as a means to impede the availability of explicit content in music, adolescents continue to access such material (Chio, Huang & Lee, 2005). A 2004 Gallup survey found that when purchasing a CD or cassette, 74% of youth are not affected by the warning label (Mika, 2005). In fact, studies indicate that the labels have the opposite effect, especially for boys over the age of 11. For these youth, the labels entice them to obtain the music (Bushman & Cantor, 2003). In other words, many adolescents seek out music with the warning label. Many legitimate digital music sources, such as iTunes, adhere to PMRC's requirements and label the songs with explicit behavior. However, the only requirement to bypass this label and gain access to the music is for the user to simply claim he/she is an adult by clicking on the "18 and over" button. Recent research has also shown that more than half (53%) of youth between the ages of 12 and 17 download music files via the Internet (Grazian & Rainie, 2001; Madden, 2009). As a result, a majority of adolescents download the music of their choice, regardless of the lyrical content, without parental approval (Chio et al., 2005; Lynxwiler & Gay, 2000; Nuzum, 2001; Reesman, 2010). Although the PMRC is still a functioning organization, their power and message has declined dramatically, especially since the music they originally set out to censor (heavy metal and rap), has become mainstream and therefore more difficult to control
16

(Chastagner, 1999). Still, the label, "Parental Advisory - Explicit Content," is used, and many of the big chain stores that sell music, like Wal-Mart that accounts for 60% of music sales, will not carry any music with a PMRC label for explicit content (Beaver,
2010).

Is There Cause for Concern? As a result of the PMRC's claims that music has an effect on behavior, studies have sought to assess if music influences behavior and, if so, in what ways. A review of the studies on the content of lyrics compares the prevalence of what are considered risky behaviors, such as substance use, to determine if these mentions are connected to listeners' behavior. Although the frequency of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit substances in song lyrics is clear, the relationship between the number of mentions in lyrics and actual behavior has not shown a direct causal link. However, whether or not adolescent behavior is related to lyrics, it is clear that it is linked to music preferences, although that relationship might only be a correlation. Music Lyrics To assess the prevalence of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit substances in song lyrics, most of the studies of popular music conducted content analyses (Arlene, 1986; Brookshire, Davis, Stephens, & Bryant, 2003; Christenson et al., 2012; Herd, 2008; Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2008; Markert, 2001; Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999). Some studies examined the substance use references in the most popular music in a specific year or two (Brookshire et al., 2003; Knobloch-Westerwick, et al., 2008; Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999), while others conducted content analyses over the course of multiple years (Arlene, 1986; Diamond et 17

al., 2006) and even decades (Christenson et al., 2012; Herd, 2008; Markert, 2001). Overall, these studies concluded that they are unable to establish a causal relationship between music and usage of these substances. The content analyses of music lyrics emphasized the content in the songs and allowed interpretations of the association between the music and the substances it portrays. A few of the content analyses used keyword searches via lyrics websites to retrieve their data on music and lyrics (Diamond et al., 2006; Markert, 2001). While some studies searched for specific drugs in specific genres of popular music, such as ecstasy mentions in rap music (Diamond et al., 2006), others conducted searches of many different illicit substances. For example, Markert (2001) used key words to search for particular drugs such as dope and reefer to find references to marijuana use. Longitudinal content analyses of music lyrics found that over the last few decades, the number of references to alcohol and illicit substances has increased (Christenson et al., 2012; Herd, 2008). In mainstream or popular music, the number of illicit substance mentions increased from 12% in 1988 to 30% in 2008 (Christenson et al., 2012) and in rap specifically, the mentions of alcohol increased from 8% in 1979 to 44% in 1997 (Herd, 2008). Markert (2001) found that more drug references, especially those favorable to marijuana, were found in the nineties than in the sixties, which is contrary to many ideas Americans have regarding music and drugs in the sixties. Most research agrees that particular genres of music are more likely than other genres to contain explicitly derogatory lyrics pertaining to drug use, sexual behavior, and violence (Ashby & Rich, 2005; Baker & Bor, 2008; Diamond et al., 2006; Gruber et al., 2005; Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008). However, there is some disagreement within the
18

literature regarding which genres contain more negatively saturated messages regarding illicit substance use and alcohol (Arlene, 1986; Baker & Bor, 2008; Diamond et al., 2006; Gruber et al., 2005; Herd, 2008; Markert, 2001; Miranda & Claes, 2004; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999; Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008). Most studies indicate that rap/hip-hop songs contain the most mentions of all drugs (Gruber et al., 2005; Herd, 2008; Miranda & Claes, 2004; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999; Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008). However, many studies demonstrate that rock music, especially heavy metal, over the last few decades contains the most references to illicit substances both in song lyrics and their complementary music videos (Arlene, 1986; Baker & Bor, 2008; Diamond et al., 2006; Markert, 2001). However, rap/hip-hop songs, overwhelmingly, contained the most references to substance use in recent years (Gruber et al., 2005; Herd, 2008; Miranda & Claes, 2004; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999), with one specific study of a sample of songs from 2005 finding rap three times more likely to demonstrate illicit substances than any other genre (Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008). This discrepancy between heavy metal's references to substances and rap/hip-hop's number of references is likely due to the surge in popularity of rap and hip-hop music in the late 1980s and early 1990s (Curtis, 2011), and the drop in popularity of heavy metal. Gangsta rap, in particular, received mass appeal in the 1990s with famous rappers such as Dr. Dre and Cyprus Hill. This type of rap music is likely to be responsible for the large amount of explicit content found in rap or hip-hop music lyrics (Grascia, 2003; Miranda & Claes, 2004). A report sponsored by the United States Office of National Drug Control Policy, which analyzed the lyrics of 1,000 popular songs in 1996-1997, found that illicit substances were mentioned in 63% of rap/hip-hop songs 19

and in only 10% of all other genres of music (D. F. Roberts et al., 1999). D. F. Roberts and colleagues (1999) found that references to alcohol occurred in almost half of the rap/hip-hop genre, but in less than 13% of all other genres. However, sexual-related messages or violence are more prevalent than references to drug use in rap music (Desmond, 1987; Markert, 2001). The vast majority of research demonstrates that marijuana is the most mentioned illicit substance in lyrics both across and within specific genres of music (Christenson et al., 2012; Herd, 2008; Markert, 2001; Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008) followed by crack (15%), cocaine (10%), hallucinogens (4%), and heroin or other opiates (4%; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999). D. F. Roberts and colleagues (1999) found that only 3% of the 1,000 most popular songs from 1996 and 1997 had any indication of tobacco use and 17% of this sample contained alcohol use. In a content analysis conducted on the most popular songs from 2005, 23.7% depicted alcohol use and only 2.9% portrayed tobacco use (Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008). Critics of content analyses of music lyrics stress that only a few studies report that youth relate to the lyrical content found in music (Diamond et al., 2006; Dimitriadis, 2009). Most critics argue that lyrics, for the most part, are irrelevant (Desmond, 1987; Gruber et al., 2005). They argue that music listeners process lyrics and music separately (Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2008; Miranda & Claes, 2004). Moreover, youth generally only listen to the beat of the music (Baker & Bor, 2008; Diamond et al., 2006; Forsyth et al., 1997; Wright, 2000), and popular music has been said to "celebrate not the articulate, but the inarticulate and the evaluation of pop songs depends not on words but on sounds" (Storey, 2003, p. 123). Thus, these critics argue, identifying the particular genre that
20

contains the most songs about drugs, sex, or violence is unnecessary; young people are really only paying attention to the beats and sounds. While this may be the case, a substantial body of research demonstrates an overwhelming connection between youth subcultures, music, and substance use (see Perrone, 2010 for a review). Furthermore, engaging in risk-taking behavior such as binge drinking and using drugs is strongly correlated with listening to music and consuming other media that glorifies these activities (Baker & Bor, 2008; Fischer et al., 2011; Herd, 2008; Primack et al., 2009). Media and Behavior Many studies have determined that risk-taking behavior such as binge drinking, substance use, unsafe sexual behavior, and risky driving is strongly correlated with risk glorification activities presented in music and other media forms (Baker & Bor, 2008; Fischer et al., 2011; Herd, 2008; Primack et al., 2009). For example, studies demonstrate that those who listen to music or view movies, TV, and advertising, in which binge drinking, substance use, unsafe sexual behavior, and risky driving were present are more likely to engage in those behaviors (Christenson, et al., 2012; Fischer et al., 2011; Miranda & Claes, 2004; Primack, Land, & Fine, 2008; D. F. Roberts & Christenson, 2000). Moreover, watching music videos, an active form of media participation tends to have greater effects on behavior than does merely listening to the song, a passive hobby (Fischer et al., 2011; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999). The relationship between music or other forms of media and behavior can be explained through social learning theories (Akers, 1973; Bandura, 1978) and cultivation theories (e.g., Christenson et al., 2012; Diamond et al., 2006). Social learning theories posit that a consistent pattern of observing or being exposed to modeled behaviors (e.g.,
21

drug use, sex, violence) in television, music, or movies will eventually desensitize the person and make he/she more likely to engage in these behaviors (Ashby & Rich, 2005; Bandura, 1978; Christenson et al., 2012; Diamond et al., 2006; Gruber et al., 2005; Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008). These media forms both condition and provide scripts for human behavior, attitudes, and feelings (Diamond et al., 2006, D. F. Roberts et al., 1999). Individuals are more likely to model those behaviors that are portrayed or discussed positively (Christenson et al., 2012; Diamond et al., 2006; Primack, Dalton et al., 2008; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999) and when the person engaging in the behavior is someone the observer respects and admires (Akers, 1973). Thus, when celebrities, who youth idolize, describe positive drug experiences, adolescents are more likely to emulate these behaviors (Gruber et al., 2005). Cultivation theory asserts that entertainment media, specifically television, if heavily consumed, will eventually change the mindsets of those who watch it to believe that it corresponds with real life (Christenson et al., 2012; Diamond et al., 2006). It makes behaviors such as crime and social deviance appear normal, and therefore more acceptable (Akers, 1973; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999). Therefore, the adoption of ideas and beliefs reflected in mass media may influence subsequent behavior (Gruber et al., 2005). For example, those who watch many television shows with violence, are more likely to have a fear that violence will occur in their own lives (Ashby & Rich, 2005; Bandura, 1978). This same type of priming can be said for music. If drug and alcohol use is consistently depicted in music videos or repeated in the lyrics of songs, the normalization of these substances will materialize.

22

Watching Music Videos Music videos add visual dimensions to music lyrics, and make the lyrics more noticeable (Ashby & Rich, 2005; Gruber et al., 2005; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999). With the additional visible component attached to the song messages in the lyrics are further embedded in the pathways of the brain involving memory (Ashby & Rich, 2005; Desmond, 1987; Gruber et al., 2005). A study conducted on college students determined that when they listened to the audio version of a song at any point after watching its music video, it reminded them of the video (Ashby & Rich, 2005). Images of and references to substance use are prevalent in music videos. In a recent content analysis of the music videos that aired between 3 p.m. and 11 p.m. in a 3week time span in 2001 on MTV and BET, 4 out of 10 music videos contained some image or reference to alcohol, tobacco, or illicit substances (Gruber et al., 2005). The depictions of illicit substances far exceeded the depictions of tobacco within the music videos. As with song lyrics, rap and hip-videos were most likely to portray alcohol, tobacco, and/or illicit substances than any other genre of music (Ashby & Rich, 2005; Gruber et al., 2005). Even the mere exposure to music television, especially those videos that show drugs, is positively associated with the increased risk of substance use (Connolly, Casswell, Zhang & Silva, 1994). For example, many studies show that watching music videos increases the likelihood of initiating alcohol use since drinking alcohol is frequently depicted in music videos (Ashby & Rich, 2005; Connolly et al., 1994; Gruber et al., 2005; Klein et al., 1993).

23

Since music videos are a more precise method of message delivery and are more likely to trigger recall, many parents have sought to monitor their children's viewing. In one study, parents watched the show with the child to attempt to monitor their children's viewing of certain television programs (Strasburger & Donnerstein, 1999). However, the study showed that 44% of adolescents will watch Music Television (e.g., MTV) or something similar when they are alone rather than watching MTV with their parents (Strasburger & Donnerstein, 1999). Ashby and Rich (2005) found that at least 58% of youth watch MTV at least once a week, if not more. Listening to Music Although music may lack the graphic elements that videos, film, and television provide, lyric references can still be influential on youth (Gonzalez de Rivas, Milteer, & Shifrin, 2009; Primack et al., 2009), especially because of the central role music plays in peer group identity (Havere, Vanderplasschen, Lammertyn, Broekaert, & Bellis, 2011; Klein et al., 1993; D. F. Roberts & Christenson, 2000). In the 21st century, exposure to popular music has been rapidly increasing among youth while their exposure to films and television has been decreasing (Gonzalez de Rivas et al., 2009; Klein et al., 1993). Although television may still be considered the most predominant vehicle of the media, some researchers argue that because music can accompany adolescents in a variety of activities (e.g., exercising, driving, shopping) it is just as, if not more, problematic, even with the absence of any visual element (Fischer et al., 2011; Nunez-Smith et al., 2010; D. F. Roberts & Christenson, 2000; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999; Strasburger & Donnerstein, 1999).

24

Studies have shown links between music and substance use (e.g., Primack et al., 2009). A study of 959 students at three large urban high schools in the United States found that marijuana references in popular music were linked to behavior (Primack et al., 2009). During the release of the marijuana-inundated songs, 12% of the sample had used marijuana in the past month and 32% had used it at some point in their lives. Additionally, the frequency of mentions of smoking tobacco in music lyrics, while sporadic (D. F. Roberts et al., 1999), affects smoking behaviors (Primack, Land, et al., 2008). Music Genre Preference and Drug Use Studies of music and drug use have consistently shown a relationship between musical genre preference and drug use. Most of these studies point to the important role that subcultures (Hebdige, 1979) and, hence, peers (Akers, 1973) play in influencing behavior. Subcultures tend to have their own style of dress, music preference and drug preference (Becker, 1963/1995; see Perrone, 2010 for a review). Thus, the subculture and the peers who associate themselves with this subculture, are more likely to listen to the music and engage in other behaviors, including substance use, associated with it (Becker, 1963/1995). For example, the heroin and morphine using drug subculture of the 1950s preferred jazz music (e.g., Champney-Smith, 2003). The Burnouts subculture, popularized by stadium rock bands such as Kiss and Metallica, preferred cocaine, PCP, crack cocaine, or smoked cigarettes to set themselves apart (e.g., Champney-Smith, 2003; Perrone, 2010). Crack cocaine also shares a close connection with rap music (e.g., Champney-Smith, 2003). Rap music, in addition to reggae and different subgenres of 25

rock music is linked to marijuana and, when paired with hallucinogens, it was a popular drug combination for many in the Woodstock generation who listened to bands such as the Grateful Dead (e.g., Champney-Smith, 2003). Many of the soul-influenced pop bands of the 1960s (e.g., The Who), garage rock bands of the 1970s, and the punk and skinhead revolution from the mid-1970s used amphetamines and barbiturates to alter their state of mind (e.g., Champney-Smith, 2003). Throughout history, there has been a link between those who favor country or western music and alcohol use (e.g., ChampneySmith, 2003; Jaret & Thaxton, 1980; G. H. Lewis, 1980). Many of the rave and dancescene goers prefer the use of ecstasy (e.g., Champney-Smith, 2003; Christenson et al., 2012; Forsyth et al., 1997; Perrone, 2010). In fact, studies show that youth who preferred electronic music demonstrate a substantially higher intake of all types of illicit drugs (Baker & Bor, 2008; Havere et al., 2011). The rap and heavy metal listeners, research has widely shown, are those most likely involved in deviant or rebellious behaviors (Baker & Bor, 2008; Diamond et al., 2006; Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2008; Lynxwiler & Gay, 2000; Markert, 2001). For example, those who preferred rap music were more likely to engage in violence, theft, and drug use (Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2008; Miranda & Claes, 2004). In addition, adolescents who preferred heavy metal music were more likely to engage in reckless behaviors, including drug use (Baker & Bor, 2008). In a 1979 study of almost 3,000 sixteen year-olds living in California, the heavy metal fans were more likely than any other music preference categories (pop, jazz/salsa, rock & roll, disco/dance, R&B/soul, and country) to be frequent users (defined as "more than occasionally") of stimulants, alcohol, and marijuana (G. H. Lewis, 1980). King (1988) further demonstrated that a
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majority of those who preferred heavy metal exhibited higher rates of chemical dependence. This link between music and behavior is not unique to Americans. One study of Australian concertgoers found that recent illicit substance use was significantly correlated with those who preferred rap or dance/house music (Lim, Hellard, Hocking, & Aitken, 2008). For example, Forsyth and colleagues' (1997) study of 1,400 Scottish schoolchildren from both disadvantaged and affluent neighborhoods found that the preference for rave music (dance/house) was positively related to the use of both legal and illegal substances. Similarly, a study of more than 800 nightclub goers in Belgium found that alcohol was the substance of choice (91.5% of respondents), and more than half (51.8%) used illegal drugs including marijuana (44.4%), ecstasy (19.1%), and cocaine (17.1%; Havere et al., 2011). However, whether listening to a particular genre of music caused the drug use or, conversely, if the individual's music preference stemmed from their choice of drugs remains unclear (Diamond et al., 2006; Forsyth et al., 1997; Lim et al., 2008, Miranda & Claes, 2004; Primack et al., 2009). Most scholars posit that musical preference and drug use share no causal relationship. Rather, drug and music preferences are symbiotic and associated with a specific subculture (Forsyth et al., 1997; Havere et al., 2011; Lim et al., 2008; Markert, 2001; Miranda & Claes, 2004). Conclusion The protection of America's youth is important and necessary, but the moral panic over their music listening habits is excessive based on the lack of a direct causal link between music and deviant behavior. There is relationship between music 27

preference, media saturation, and bad behavior, but the time-order of these has yet to be established. Causality is unknown and improbable. For example, a person who is already deviant may prefer certain genres of music that are considered rebellious or harmful. Still, the fear that listening to particular music will cause the listener to use drugs created a moral panic and lead to policies (e.g., parental advisory labels), which are not only unsuccessful, but in some cases have shown the opposite of its originally intended effect. Furthermore, the research shows that links between drug use and music can be explained by peer and subcultural influences. Thus, the relationship among these factors is complex and the discussion around music and behaviors is incomplete. These shortcomings are partly due to the lack of content analyses focusing on substance use instead of violence or sex (Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2008). In addition, most of the previous studies that have focused on substance prevalence in music did not investigate popular or mainstream music, but rather specific genres (e.g., Herd, 2008); focused mainly on the 1990s (e.g., D. F. Roberts et al., 1999); and did not include a thorough review of all substances (e.g., Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008). Accordingly, the current study adds to this dialogue by reviewing music lyric content of substances over the course of the millennium from 2000 to 2011.

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CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY Introduction To best assess the prevalence of illicit drug, alcohol, and tobacco mentions in the music of the millennium, a content analysis of the top 40 songs' lyrics of Billboards "Hot 100 Year-End" chart was conducted. Although content analyses are considered a quantitative form of research, many of the inferences reviewed in textual analysis are more concerned with the specific attributes associated with the text, rather than merely the number. However, the mere prevalence or repetition of the substances in music can indicate that use of these substances is acceptable and common and that the artists may also be using the substances, both of which can influence the listeners' substance use patterns. Therefore, a content analysis of the music lyrics provides the prevalence of illicit drugs, alcohol, and tobacco mentions and the recurrence of these substances in music. Each of the song's lyrics were closely examined and coded to assess how often and in which music genres illicit substances, alcohol, and tobacco were mentioned. The methodology chapter will first discuss how the data were obtained and why the Billboard Hot 100 list was utilized as the sample for this study. Next, the general coding process is explained and the specific codes and how they were operationalized are described in detail, including genres. Following this explanation, the researcher explains how the data were analyzed given the multiple codes by genre and year.
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Research Design To analyze the content of music lyrics of the millennium, 40 songs from each year from 2000 to 2011 were chosen from the Billboard Hot 100 list. The songs on the Hot 100 list (see Appendices A-L) are the best indication of the 100 most popular songs for a given year (Curtis, 2011). Billboard's Hot 100 list is compiled through an algorithm that includes sales data and amount of airplay (Billboard.com, n.d.). Nielsen SoundScan, representing more than 90% of the merchants in the music industry, generates the sales data from each year's top songs based on a ranking analysis of the sales from music stores, online merchants and internet downloads. Billboard obtains airplay data from Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems (Nielsen BDS), which electronically monitors more than 140 radio markets in the United States. Using its digital pattern recognition technology, Nielsen BDS captures more than 100 million song spins and detections annually on more than 1,600 radio stations in the United States, Canada, and Mexico. This technology is also used for satellite radio such as Sirius XM, Internet radio, such as AOL radio, and more than 20 music television channels in the United States and Canada (Nielsen SoundScan, n.d.). Sample Selection The top 40 songs from each of the year's Billboard Hot 100 charts were chosen for the sample as a way to accurately gauge that year's most popular music (Curtis, 2011; Hambouz & Ojalvo, 2011; Wright, 2000). The American "Top 40" format emerged in 1951 for radio hosts as a benchmark for the most popular youth-oriented music (DiMeo, 2006). Over the past half a century, radio entrepreneurs followed suit, and the "Top 40" has been reinvented and revamped to maintain the appeal and relevance to its listening 30

audience, namely teenagers and young adults nationwide. To this day, many radio stations nationwide still use the "Top 40" format (Keith, 2000). Since the "Top 40" has over a 50-year history as the most popular songs among young people, only the top 40 songs from each of the Billboard Hot 100 Year-End charts were selected. The Billboard Hot 100 chart is compiled on a weekly basis, but the yearend charts rank the highest-rated songs for that year based on a point system. Each song is given points depending on its position on the weekly charts throughout the year and how long it stayed on each weekly chart. The points for the song that year determine if and in what place the song is placed on the year-end chart (Billboard, n.d.). The Top 40 songs for each year were chosen from 2000-2011. Although the aggregate number of all 12 years' top 40 songs should be 480, the final sample only consisted of 472. A few songs made the top 40 list in more than one year. For example, Kanye West's song "Gold Digger" (West, Charles, & Richard, 2004, track 4) was listed in the top 40 of the Hot 100 in both 2005 and 2006; it may have grown in popularity towards the end of 2005. In addition, the following songs were also listed in the Hot 100 for more than one year: "Family Affair" (2001 and 2002) by Mary J. Blige (Blige et al., 2001, track 2), "Live Your Life" (2008 and 2009) by Rihanna and T.I. (Mihai, Harris, Riddick, & Smith, 2008, track 5), "Hot n Cold" (2008 and 2009) by Katy Perry (Perry, Gottwald, & Martin, 2007, track 7), "Whatever You Like" (2008 and 2009) by T.I. (C. Harris, Scheffer, & Siegel, 2008, track 6), "I'm Yours" (2008 and 2009) by Jason Mraz (Mraz, 2004, track 2), "I Gotta Feeling" (2009 and 2010) by The Black Eyed Peas (W. Adams, Pineda, Gomez, Ferguson, Guetta, & Riesterer, 2009, track 5), and "Just the Way

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You Are" (2010 and 2011) by Bruno Mars (Mars, Lawrence, Levine, Walton, & Cain, 2010, track 2). Data Collection Lyrics were obtained using one of Billboard magazine's partners, Metro Lyrics. Metro Lyrics is a searchable lyrics database that houses the lyrics from all songs listed on the Billboard charts (Metro Lyrics, n.d.). Since the lyrics are accurate and have the artist's copyright restrictions, they were not available for personal use (copy/paste) off the website. Lyrics then were copied and pasted from azlyrics.com and elyrics.net and compared to Metro Lyrics to both ensure validity and make the data suitable for analysis in ATLAS.ti. Coding The process of transforming qualitative data to information that can be statistically analyzed and comprehended is called coding. Data coding is a systematic way in which to take a collection of information and produce or seek out the necessary bits for the indicated research (Maxfield & Babbie, 2011). It generally includes two sets of operations. First, the researcher separates the information into classifications that have similar or distinct characterizations. Second, these unified categories are analyzed separately to obtain the suppositions, which then guide the research (Basit, 2003; Guetzkow, 1950). By taking textual or visual data and producing numbers, concepts, and meanings from them, the researcher can gain inferences about the particular connotations within the data. Using heuristic inquiry, the researcher investigates the data by taking into consideration all aspects and depictions of the experience presented (Moustakas, 2001). 32

This process of discovering any piece of pertinent information in the data is a way for the researcher to be perceptive not only to new bits of information in the research, but to widen their understanding of information with which they already reviewed or analyzed (Moustakas, 2001). When coding music lyrics, this process was helpful as new terms or expressions emerged in later years of the lyrics from the Billboard Hot 100, and therefore, new codes were created (see Altheide, 1996). For example, the code partying/clubbing was added later when it became evident that many of the lyrics were describing how the artist was regularly partying. This became an important theme that consistently ran throughout the millennium's lyrics. The researcher coded the lyrics using ATLAS.ti, a qualitative data management program, which is used to search for both manifest and latent content. Manifest content refers to the visible and evident text whereas latent content refers to the hidden or unobservable meanings of the text (Maxfield & Babbie, 2011). It is up to the researcher to determine what level of interpretation to use in order to distinguish manifest and latent content (Maxfield & Babbie, 2011). In this project, the researcher only coded manifest content since latent content could have led to misinterpretations of the artists' original intent. For example, in the song "Butterfly" (Shellshock & Mazur, 1999, track 6) by Crazy Town, the lyrics read "your loving gets me high," which can be misunderstood as a drug reference. Because of the nature of content analyses, specifically how the coding process produces data, there is a degree of subjectivity created by the researcher when determining what lyrics to code under which categories. To help alleviate this reliability concern, a second researcher coded a random sample of 10% of the songs. After the 33

second researcher was given the list of codes and explanations used by the original researcher to analyze the data, a total of 48 songs, four per year were coded. A 95.3% level of inter-rate reliability was reached which minimizes the potential for coding biases. Using ATLAS.ti, the researcher is able to create codes and links, or the electronic associations of codes to parts in the text. This allows the researcher to easily identify which sections contain more mentions in comparison to others. Codes can be defined as the names of the classifications in which the researcher has designated are important for gaining inferences from the text, or in this case, music lyrics. The researcher constructs the coding schemes in ATLAS.ti, which are easily accessible as the researcher is reading through text. Links, in contrast, are simply the electronic connection between the researcher's list of codes and where they are found specifically within the text. For example, if the researcher wanted to identify which songs or years contained the most mentions of crack/cocaine, they could easily click on the crack/cocaine code and a list of all the links to these coded mentions would appear. The researcher uploads all the information or data into a rich-text-formatted document and titles them accordingly. Each year's top 40 song lyrics were placed in separate word documents within ATLAS.ti and all songs were coded using the same coding scheme. Coding Process Before starting the first stage of coding, the researcher began by pre-naming general categories of codes such as alcohol, tobacco, and drugs. Other prepared codes used were the genres of each song (e.g., pop, R&B, and rock). Since codes such as alcohol and drugs are very general in scope, other more specific codes emerged from the 34

data that could then be categorized under these prepared general codes. Therefore, most of the codes were grounded in the lyrics. For example, when the researcher began to notice that particular brands of alcohol were being mentioned repeatedly, the specific code brand of alcohol was created. As coding continued, certain song lyrics contained mentions, which could possibly become new codes, or they contained mentions that were unnoticed or not coded in previous songs. In such instances, the new mention either lead to a new code or was coded under one of the general categories. The researcher then returned to all previous songs to ensure all similar mentions of that specific code were captured. This procedure, called the constant comparative method of data analysis (Strauss, 1987), allowed the researcher to identify parallels across lyrics. In most cases, emergent codes were categorized with a new specific code and were then filed under the general code that already existed for a given substance. For example, many drug mentions were solely referencing the dealing of drugs; thus, these mentions were initially coded under dealing/selling, as well as the general drug code. Occasionally, though, a completely new general code emerged, such as partying/ clubbing. The partying/clubbing code materialized as the researcher began to notice many references to these activities in the lyrics. As discussed below, the researcher did not use this reference as a precise assumption of drug or alcohol use. In another example, the artist often would describe smoking in a manner that did not indicate what was being smoked (e.g., tobacco or marijuana). As a result, smoking was coded as its own category and included all of the previous mentions when it was

35

unclear to what the artist was referring. Coding continued in this manner until all songs had successfully been categorized as referencing drugs, alcohol, or tobacco. Since most song lyrics contain colloquial and slang references to the English language, it was necessary to identify these references and ensure they were not overlooked. When a lyric or passage referenced an illicit substance in slang, or was not situated in a passage in which the connotation was clear, the researcher consulted UrbanDictionary.com. UrbanDictionary.com is a web-based dictionary of slang words and phrases, which contains over six million definitions, identifications, and meanings. Submissions are regulated by volunteer editors, much like Wikipedia.com, and rated by site visitors (Urban Dictionary, n.d.). The coding for alcohol and tobacco terms was fairly straightforward in that few enigmatic colloquial terms are used to describe these. However, if there was any indication of a possible slang term regarding alcohol, tobacco, or any illicit drug, it was cross-referenced against UrbanDictionary.com (see Table 1). Data Measures To grasp a Ml spectrum of how often artists discuss the use of drugs and alcohol in their music, a variety of coding schemes were utilized. Substance use was coded as either explicit mentions (e.g., weed and crack) or acknowledgement of any use of these substances (e.g., doing a line of coke) to understand how the artists portrayed them in the lyrics. Anytime an illicit substance, alcohol, or tobacco was mentioned or referenced, including those mentions in song titles, it was coded as one mention. However, if the drug or alcohol reference was in the chorus such as "Buy U A Drank (Shawty Snappin)" by T-Pain featuring Yung Joe (Najm & Robinson, 2006, track 12), it was only coded once, although repeated throughout the song. Therefore, one song may have multiple 36

mentions, which indicates the prevalence of mentions of each type of substance in every song. A vast majority of coded data are single words with some being phrases, whole lines, and even multiple lines. It is important to note that all alcohol, drug, or tobacco mentions were coded both in their particular general category, such as alcohol or drugs, as well as their more specific category such as crack/cocaine or brand of alcohol. Since multiple mentions were coded more than once, both in their general and specific categories, the general categories of alcohol and drugs are not mutually exclusive. All the codes are listed below. Alcohol The code alcohol includes any act of drinking liquor such as "sippin"' or "fill my cup." Any type of alcohol (e.g., beer, wine, or vodka) or any specific brand of alcohol (e.g., "Cristal," "Henny," or "Patron") was also coded as alcohol. Drugs All mentions of illicit substances and /or their use were coded as drugs. This included any specific mention of a drug such as "weed," "coke," or "E," any root of administration method such as "smoking," "snorting," or "inhaling," any indication of an amount of drugs such as a "brick," a "20 sac," or a "gram," any indication of selling drugs such as "I'm slingin'," and any mention of "getting high." Drug Specific Codes Crack/cocaine. Crack/cocaine was coded as a dual category used to describe the fast-acting euphoric stimulant, which is extracted from the coca bush. In its purest form it is a white crystalline powder and is usually administered by snorting through the nasal 37

passages, but can be injected or taken orally (Lingeman, 1974). In its freebase form, also known as crack, this substance is usually smoked by inhaling the vapors from cocaine after it is heated (Fay, 1988; Lingeman, 1974). An example of crack/cocaine found in the lyrics was in Petey Pablo's song "Freek-a-Leek (Smith, Evans, Barrett, Love, & Jefferson, 2003, track 6) in which he says to "sniff a lil' coke." Ecstasy. Although ecstasy is the popular name for this drug, it is chemically known as MDMA. It is a synthetic psychedelic whose effects include a feeling of euphoria, a sense of a close bond or intimate connection with others, and a calm, less anxious feeling (Carson-DeWitt, 2001). "And I keep 'em drugged up off that ecstasy" was identified as an example of this drug in the song "Always on Time" by Ja Rule featuring Ashanti (Vest, Atkins, & Gotti, 2001, track 5). Heroin. Heroin is a semisynthetic opiate derived from morphine. In its pure form, heroin is a white, odorless, crystalline powder with a bitter taste that is soluble in water (Faye, 1988; Lingeman, 1974). The user often feels a drowsy detachment from pain, aggression, and anxiety. Many users inject intravenously to receive the greatest effect (Fay, 1988; Lingeman, 1974). An example of heroin in the lyrics is in Will Smith's song "Switch" (Smith, Holland, & Bennett, 2004, track 3) in which he says "taking you higher, like a syringe hittin' ya arm." Marijuana. Marijuana is the most common term used to describe the leaves of the cannabis plant. The feelings associated with marijuana have mind-altering effects including a dreamy state of relaxation, vivid sense of perceptions, a disturbance of memory, and fragmentation in thought formations (Carson-DeWitt, 2001; Lingeman, 1974). Aside from alcohol, nicotine, and caffeine, marijuana is the worlds' most widely 38

used drug, especially since the plant has many other uses. THC, the active substance in marijuana, can be consumed in a number of ways via many different types of paraphernalia (Carson-DeWitt, 2001; Fay, 1988; Lingeman, 1974). A few examples of marijuana in the lyrics included "purple haze in my lungs" from the song "How We Do" by The Game featuring 50 Cent (Taylor, Elizondo, Jackson, & Young, 2004, track 6) and "puffin' on a joint" from the song "Say Aah" by Trey Songz featuring Fabolous (Neverson, Jackson, Walka, Ferebee, Corell, & Scales, 2009, track 7). Meth. Methamphetamine, commonly known as meth, crank, speed, or crystal meth is a psychomotor stimulant with a chemical structure similar to amphetamine (Carson-DeWitt, 2001; Chepesiuk, 1999). This drug stimulates the central nervous system, though with a less pronounced effect than amphetamines (Chepesiuk, 1999). It causes increased talkativeness, reduced fatigue, lack of an appetite, increased activity, and a general sense of well-being (Carson-DeWitt, 2001; Chepesiuk, 1999). It can be injected, snorted, swallowed, or smoked. An example found in the lyrics was in Eve's song featuring Gwen Stefani called "Let Me Blow Ya Mind" (Jeffers, Storch, Young, Jordan, & Elizondo, 2000, track 4) in which she says, "they wanna bank up, crank up, makes me dizzy." RX drugs. A prescription drug or medication is any drug that is prescribed by a physician with written direction for personal medical use. In this way, it is distinguished from over-the-counter medications in that it cannot be obtained without written authorization. It is only considered illicit when used by persons who do not have the appropriate permission from a physician or it is used other than how it was prescribed (Fay, 1988). An example of RX drugs (the shorthand used for prescribed medication) 39

was found in Jay-Z and Alicia Key's song "Empire State of Mind" (Hunte, Keys, Shuckburgh, Keyes, Sewell-Ulepic, Carter, & Robinson, 2009, track 5), which the lyrics read, "better slip you an Ambien." Tobacco Tobacco was coded as any tobacco product, including cigarettes, smokeless tobacco and hookah. An example from the lyrics was in 30H!3's song titled "Don't Trust Me" (Foreman, Mott, & Levin, 2008, track 3) in which the lyrics stated, "I got the breath of the last cigarette on my teeth." Smoking Smoking was defined as any type of smoking the artist was doing or discussing in the lyrics when what was being smoked was unknown or unclear. The artist could have been referring to smoking substances ranging from tobacco to crack. If it was clear that the artist was discussing smoking tobacco or smoking marijuana, these mentions were coded as tobacco or marijuana ("and therefore drugs,), respectively; they were not coded as smoking. Therefore, smoking was a mutually exclusive code that only contained the references in which the material being smoked was not apparent. For example, in the song "I Wanna Love You" by Akon featuring Snoop Dogg (Broadus & Thiam, 2006, track 4), the lyrics read, "I'm sittin' in the back in the smoker's section (just smokin')." Two or More Combined Two or more combined included any words referring to a single experience or item, which had two substances. For example, a spliff, the combination of both marijuana and tobacco, was coded as tobacco/marijuana, such as in the song "Where the

40

Party At" by Jagged Edge featuring Nelly (Wingo, Casey, Casey, & Norman, 2000, track 2), which says they are "down right splifted." Additionally, the phrase "getting twisted," which is used to describe the effects of using both marijuana and alcohol, was coded in this category under the specific code of alcohol/drugs. A specific example of this code was found in the song "21 Questions" by 50 Cent featuring Nate Dogg (Jackson, Risto, Cameron, & Cameron, 2002, track 14) in which the lyrics said, "I just wanna chill and twist a lot." Unlike the general codes of alcohol and drugs, two or more combined was considered mutually exclusive. Therefore, a spliff was only coded once under this category and not again under drugs and tobacco. Partying/Clubbing The final coded category, partying/clubbing, captured any indication that the artist would be partying or dancing all night such as the song "Get this Party Started" by Pink (Perry, 2001, track 4) or "in da club ... we gonna be up in this ... 'til we break daylight" from the song "Disco Inferno" by 50 Cent (Crawford, Pitts, & Jackson, 2004, track 13). Although this is not a direct drug or alcohol reference, it gives the connotation that the artist may be using drugs and alcohol in order to stay up all night to party. Researchers studying the use of illicit substances and the abuse of alcohol in club or party settings have found that "the pleasures of clubbing are also grounded in illicit, recreational drug consumption" (Goulding, Shankar, Elliott & Canniford, 2009, p. 759; Luke, Dewar, Bailey, McGreevy, Morris & Burdett-Smith, 2002, Perrone, 2010). However, this was not used as a definitive indication that drugs or alcohol was consumed, but rather highlighted the possible association between partying and drug or alcohol use that was depicted in the artists' songs. So, although partying/clubbing was coded as a separate 41

category to add to the discussion, it was not reflected in the number of drug and alcohol mentions. For example, in "Shake Ya Tailfeather" by Nelly, P. Diddy, and Murphy Lee (Haynes, Harper, & Smith, 2002, track 4), the lyric says "we gonna party till the lights come on" which was only coded as partying/clubbing; whereas the phrase "everybody drunk out on the dance floor" from the song "Tipsy" by J-Kwon (Kent, Williams, & Jones, 2003, track 3) was coded as both partying/clubbing and alcohol. Song Genres Some Billboard charts are organized by genre, and other music evaluations, such as the Grammy Awards, find that music genres as a classification tool are necessary in distinguishing the variability of different styles of music. Also, musical genres are vital descriptors for record stores and labels to determine how to catalogue the albums and songs (T. Roberts, 2011). Thus, genres of each of the songs were coded using the following categories: country, dance/house, rap/hip-hop, pop, R&B (rhythm and blues), and rock music. Although Billboard uses a slightly different categorization of genres: country, rock, pop, dance/club, and R&B/hip-hop (Billboard.com, n.d.), R&B/hip-hop were separated into two distinct categories of rap/hip-hop and R&B, since much of the literature discusses rap/hip-hop as an interconnected classification that contains the most illicit references of all genres (Gruber et al., 2005; Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008). In the case where a song fell into more than one genre's classification, the researcher located on which genre's chart that particular song was ranked the highest in that given year. This way, the song was categorized by the genre that the majority of people considered it to be.
42

Genre Classification Country. Country music was identified as a type of music with an acoustic sound and generally played with instruments such as guitars, banjoes, harmonicas, and fiddles (Mann, 2008). Country music's influence began in the Southern United States and encompasses subgenres such as alternative country, bluegrass, Western, and folk music (Curtis, 2011; Mann, 2008). It is characterized by what is commonly referred to as a "twang," which can be described as an abrupt initiation of a sound from the instrument followed by a quick mute (Mann, 2008, p. 78). One of the songs from the sample that was coded as country was "Landslide" by the Dixie Chicks (Nicks, 2002, track 2). R&B. Rhythm and Blues (R&B) developed from the blues and jazz music made popular in the 1930s (Curtis, 2011). The 1940s and 1950s marked the rise in popularity of R&B stemming from urban popular music (Richards, 2002). Billboard magazine first coined the term Rhythm and Blues in 1949 and used it as replacement for a previous chart titled "Race Music" (Curtis, 2011; Richards, 2002, p. 1). Songs that included a small group of jazz instruments, namely the piano and saxophone, with a substantial amount of guitar instrumentation with a flowing rhythm (Richards, 2002) were coded as R&B. An example of an R&B song from the sample was "Burn" by Usher (Cox, Dupri, & Raymond, 2003, track 6). Pop. Popular (or pop) music is difficult to define because of its comprehensive nature. Growing out of the 1970s, this genre includes a blend of rock, disco, funk, and R&B (T. Roberts, 2011). The popularity of the genre can not only be attributed to the large body of the American population who enjoy it, but also to the light and easylistening sounds prevalent in it (Curtis, 2011; T. Roberts, 2011) such as "Rock Your 43

Body" by Justin Timberlake (Williams, Hugo, & Timberlake, 2002, track 6). Pop music is distinct from other genres in that the success and popularity of the artist coincides with the popularity of their songs (T. Roberts, 2011). For example, Justin Bieber's fame can be attributed to the "Bieber Fever" surrounding the massive appeal of his songs on the Billboard charts (Hambouz & Ojalvo, 2011, CI). Since a particular sound is not unique to pop music, and songs designated as pop often relate to popularity, those songs on the Top 40 list that were ranked on the Pop charts were coded as pop. Rap and hip-hop. Rap and hip-hop are usually seen as an integrated genre, which identifies with the black American urban population and their original art forms such as graffiti art and breakdancing that emerged in the 1970s (Curtis, 2011). Although hip-hop and rap can be technically separated as music genres, the vast overlap between the two generally combines the same artists and music (Olufiinmilayo, 2006). The music style is a collection of spoken rhymes or poems (rap) "over a rhythmic background mainly characterized by the manipulation of preexisting recordings" usually involving a DJ (disc jockey) or MC [Master of Ceremonies (Olufunmilayo, 2006, p. 558)]. Songs with these characteristics such as "Without Me" by Eminem (Mathers, Bell, Bass, McLaren, Dudley, & Horn, 2002, track 10) were coded as rap/hip-hop. Rock. Although it was originally dubbed "rock 'n' roll," rock music is now the term used to define this genre that emerged in the 1950s. This change in moniker, which occurred in the 1960s, is partly due to the change in the sound from the previous decade in which much of the danceable portion of the music was no longer as influential (Gale, 2011). Rock music is considered a hybrid of many different genres and includes elements from R&B, electric guitar influenced blues, country music, black and white 44

gospel music, and saxophone solos, amongst many others (Curtis, 2011; Gale, 2011). Given the variety of sounds that can be categorized as rock music, those songs on the Top 40 list that were ranked on the Rock charts were coded as rock. An example of a song that was coded as rock was "When I'm Gone" by 3 Doors Down (Arnold, Roberts, Harrell, Henderson, & Upchurch, 2002, track 1). Dance/house. Dance/house music is technically considered part of the broader category of electronic dance music (EDM). This genre has surged in popularity over the last few decades and is distinct from other types of music in many ways (Butler, 2001). Aside from the change in lyrical content compared to other genres, it lacks a general harmony and limits the use of pitch (Butler, 2001). It is characterized by its unrelenting rhythmic qualities, is usually produced and played live by a DJ, and focuses on the layering of sound by means of electronic instruments such as a synthesizer (Butler, 2001). Songs with these characteristics such as "Everytime We Touch" by Cascada (Mackillop, Reilly, Risavy, 2005, track 1) were coded as dance/house. Plan of Analysis After all the codes, including genres, were categorized and all lyrics had been coded, all the data found in the lyrics were analyzed. Data were assessed by number of references of each code in each song, number of references of each code in each genre, and number of references of each code in each year. Furthermore, the number of songs included within each genre per year was evaluated as a means to determine if certain genres were more popular in particular years than others. Additionally, the number of references within each song was compared to the number of songs to create a ratio of mentions to songs. This enabled the researcher to determine how often, in which years, 45

and in which types of music drugs, alcohol, and tobacco mentions were most prevalent. The results of these analyses follow.

46

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS This chapter presents the results of the content analysis of the music lyrics of the Top 40 from the Billboard Hot 100 charts from 2000-2011. Out of the 472 songs that were coded for drugs, alcohol, tobacco, smoking, two or more combined, and partying/clubbing, 199 songs had at least one of the above mentions. Coincidentally, the song with the most mentions of alcohol was "Blame It (On the Alcohol)" by Jamie Foxx featuring T-Pain (Brown, Conte, Foxx, Henderson, Nash, Prescott, & Stewart, 2008, track 5) with 18 different mentions of alcohol use. The song with the most number of drug mentions was "Ridin"' by Chamillionaire featuring Krayzie Bone (Salinas, Salinas, Henderson, & Seriki, 2006, track 4), which had 13 separate drug references. The song with the most mentions consisting of any combination of the codes was "Nothin"' by N.O.R.E. (Santiago, 2002, track 3) with 14 references. To reiterate, though, choruses and song titles were only coded once, the first time the chorus or title was mentioned. Findings Alcohol Mentions As previously stated, the general alcohol code (or total alcohol) was used to identify all the mentions of alcohol in the lyrics, regardless of type, brand, or context of the mention. The total number of alcohol-related mentions was by far the most prevalent in comparison to all other coded categories (e.g., drugs, tobacco, partying/clubbing). In
47

addition, alcohol contained more references than any of the sub-categories within this general category (see Table 2). Between 2000-2011, 244 alcohol mentions were found in 120 songs. Since the number of songs was nearly half the number of mentions, it is safe to assume that many of the songs that discussed alcohol did so more than once. Also, it is important to note that based off the total number of 472 songs, alcohol was mentioned in approximately 25% of them. In addition, there were 58 mentions of the brand of alcohol (e.g., "Bacardi" or Dom Perignon") in 43 songs and 54 mentions of the type of alcohol (e.g., "rum and coke" or "champagne") in 41 songs. Therefore, the number of mentions closely mirrors the number of songs, which suggests that each of these songs likely had at least one mention within these categories. The remaining alcohol mentions (N= 132) simply could not be appropriately classified as either a brand or type of alcohol, and therefore remained coded solely under general alcohol. For example, "I drank too much last night" from the song "Thank You" by Dido (Armstrong & Herman, 1998, track 6) or "got drunk on the beach" from the song "Teenage Dream" by Katy Perry (Levin, McKee, Martin, Gottwald, & Perry, 2010, track 1). Overall, the number of general alcohol mentions steadily increased from the year 2000 to 2010 (see Figure 1). However, there were drops in the number of these mentions in three specific years: 2005,2008, and 2011. Also, songs from 2010 had the most alcohol-related mentions (N= 34), whereas songs from 2000 had the least number of alcohol-related mentions (N= 4).

48

TABLE 2. Number of Mentions and Number of Songs # of mentions Alcohol-related General alcohol (or total alcohol) 244 Brand of alcohol 58 Type of alcohol 54 Drug-related General drugs (any drug) 167 Amount of drugs 16 Crack/cocaine 21 Dealing/selling drugs 25 Ecstasy 11 Heroin 2 Marijuana 77 Meth 2 Prescription drugs 13 Tobacco Tobacco 10 Smoking Smoking 39 Two or more combined Alcohol/drugs 26 Drugs/tobacco 3 Partying/Clubbing Partying/clubbing 202

In # of songs 120 43 41 79 13 19 21 11 2 46 2 11 9 31 21 3 139

49

Alcohol
35

30 25
20

15
10 5

0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

FIGURE 1. General alcohol mentions from 2000 to 2011.

Drug Mentions Just as the general alcohol code was used to capture any and all codes related to alcohol consumption, the general (or total) drugs code was utilized in a similar manner. However, unlike alcohol, all mentions of drugs, including specific drug mentions (meth, marijuana, etc.) were coded both under the general drugs code and its respective drug mention. Thus, the sub-categories within the general drugs code covered all aspects of drug use in the lyrics. A total of 167 drug mentions were found in 79 songs; on average, at least two mentions were found per song (see Table 2). However, for the drugs specifically, a few songs contained many mentions and most likely carried the bulk of this uneven ratio of number of mentions to number of songs. For example, "Lean Wit It, Rock Wit It" by Dem Franchize Boys (Gleaton, Hill, Hunt, Leverette, Tiller, Willingham,

50

& Hammond, 2006, track 6) and "Addictive" by Truth Hurts featuring Rakim (Blake & Garrett, 2002, track 2) each contained six different drug mentions. Overall, the number of drug mentions from the year 2000 to 2011 gradually increased to a peak in 2006 (except for a drop in 2003), followed by a decrease until 2008, and then a slight increase in mentions until 2011 (see Figure 2). The most wideranging code was general drug mentions, which ranged from one reference in 2000 to 35 in 2006. Additionally, drugs marked the highest number of mentions in one year (2006) within a single category (N= 35).

Drugs

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

FIGURE 2. General drug mentions from 2000 to 2011.

Specific drug type. In accordance with previous research (Christenson et al., 2012; Herd, 2008; Markert, 2001; Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008), marijuana clearly had the largest number of drug-related mentions in the song lyrics with 77 mentions in 46 songs (see Table 2). Although the number of marijuana mentions steadily increased from 51

2001 to 2006 (with a drastic increase from 2003 to 2004), there was a significant drop in these mentions in the year 2007 (see Figure 3). From 2007 to 2011, the number of marijuana mentions consistently fluctuated every year. The largest number of marijuana mentions was in songs from the year 2006 and the lowest number of these mentions (N = 1) was in 2008's Top 40 songs.

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

FIGURE 3. Marijuana mentions from 2000 to 2011.

The next most mentioned illicit substance crack/cocaine was found in 19 songs, a total of 21 times (see Table 2). Although no cocaine or crack mentions occurred in the year 2000's Top 40 song lyrics, all other years contained at least one reference to this substance, with 2005 containing five mentions (see Figure 4). As far as any general trends or patterns in crack/cocaine mentions, until a drop in 2003's Top 40 song lyrics, there was a sharp increase in the number of these mentions in songs from 2004. Next, there was decline in these specific mentions in 2005, but the number of mentions steadily
52

increased from 2006 to 2011. The most number (N = 5) of crack/cocaine mentions were identified in lyrics from 2004, with the lowest number (N= 0) in 2000.

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

FIGURE 4. Crack/cocaine mentions from 2000 to 2011.

Prescription drugs were identified in the lyrics 13 times within 10 songs (see Table 2). Although there were no mentions of prescription drugs from 2000, 2001, 2003, 2008, 2009, and 2011, there was at least one mention in every other year with a steady flow from 2004-2007 (see Figure 5). This may have to do specifically with a recent style of hip-hop music ("Screw Music") that made a type of prescription drug (codeine and promethazine hydrochloride cough syrup) popular (Herd, 2008; Peters et al., 2007. Year 2006 and 2007 shared the most number of prescription drug references (four each), and 2002,2004, and 2005 each had the lowest number (N= 1).

53

Prescription Drugs
4 3,5 3 2.5
2

1.5

1
0.5 -

0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

FIGURE 5. Prescription drug mentions from 2000 to 2011.

Ecstasy, or MDMA as it is known otherwise, contained an even ratio of number of mentions to number of songs (11:11). This means that 11 different songs each contained one ecstasy reference (see Table 2). An interesting pattern emerged from the lyrics regarding ecstasy. When ecstasy mentions were identified in the song lyrics, the number of these mentions was consistently one or two (see Figure 6). There were no mentions in 2000, 2005, 2008, and 2009; only one mention in 2001, 2003, 2004, 2010, and 2011; and two mentions found in 2002, 2006, and 2007. Although heroin and meth could not be more pharmacologically different, an interesting pattern emerged concerning how often and in which years these substances were mentioned. Both heroin and meth clearly contained the least amount of drug specific mentions with only two mentions each in two songs (see Table 2). Both of their first mentions occurred in 2001, with heroin's second mention identified in 2005 and meth's second mention identified in 2006 (see Figure 7).
54

Ecstasy
...

]
i i

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 20:10 2011

FIGURE 6. Ecstasy mentions from 2000 to 2011.

Heroin/Meth
i
0.9 -

"~'"
i

I kroin

FIGURE 7. Heroin/meth mentions from 2000-2011.

55

Other drug-related mentions. Aside from the specific types of drugs coded in the general drugs category, the other major types of mentions were dealing/selling drugs and amount of drugs. Dealing/selling was coded as any indication the artist was describing an exchange of drugs for money. Twenty-five mentions of dealing/selling drugs were found in 21 songs from 2000-2011 (see Table 2). Year 2000 was the only year that did not include at least one mention of dealing drugs (see Figure 8). Years 2003 and 2008 through 2011 contained one mention each, and 2001 and 2002 contained two mentions each. Between 2004 and 2007, at least three mentions occurred yearly with 2004 having four mentions and 2005 with the most mentions (N- 6).

Dealing/Selling Drugs
6 5

4
3

1 I o
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

FIGURE 8. Dealing/selling drugs mentions from 2000 to 2011.

56

Amount of drugs was coded as any indication the artist was discussing a quantity of drugs. This code was found in 13 songs with a total of 16 mentions (see Table 2). There were no mentions of any amount of drugs in the years 2001, 2008, 2009, and 2010. Years 2000, 2003, 2004, and 2011 all contained one mention of a quantity of drugs (see Figure 9). Year 2002 contained the most number of mentions (N = 4).

Amount of Drugs

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

FIGURE 9. Amount of drugs mentions from 2000 to 2011.

Tobacco Mentions Tobacco was coded as any tobacco product found in the lyrics. Ten mentions of tobacco were identified in nine songs (see Table 2). Although no mentions were found in 2000, 2001, 2004, 2006,2007 and 2008, there was one mention each in of the years 2003, 2005, and 2010; and two separate mentions were found in 2002 and 2009 (see Figure 10). The most mentions in one year occurred in 2011 with three.
57

Tobacco
3 2.5
2

1.5

1
0.5

0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

FIGURE 10. Tobacco mentions from 2000 to 2011.

Smoking Mentions Smoking was coded as any type of smoking the artists were describing without a clear indication of what they were smoking. This category, as stated before, was mutually exclusive because if the smoking material was clear, it was coded in the proper tobacco or drug categories. Smoking mentions were found a total of 39 times in 31 songs (see Table 2). Only 2003 and 2011 did not contain at least one reference to smoking (see Figure 11). The smoking code pattern seemed to increase and decrease in general clusters of years. From 2000-2002, either two or three mentions occurred in each year. Years 2004, 2005 and 2006 had eight, seven, and nine (respectively) smoking mentions. In the years that followed, 2007 through 2010, there were three mentions followed by one mention, with a fluctuation back and forth between those four years. The most number of smoking references occurred in 2006 (N= 9) and the least, zero, in 2003 and 2011.
58

Smoking
(nonspecific)
10
8

1 I

6 4
2

0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

FIGURE 11. Smoking (nonspecific) mentions from 2000 to 2011.

Two or More Combined Mentions The two or more combined mentions category included two separate types of references, either alcohol/drugs or drugs/tobacco when a substance containing both was found in the lyrics. There were 26 combined alcohol/drug references in 21 songs and three drugs/tobacco references found in three songs (see Table 2). Two or more combined mentions were more prevalent in the first half of the millennium than in the second half (see Figure 12). The years 2008, 2009, and 2011 did not have any mentions of two or more combined, but every other year contained at least one. Years 2001 and 2005 contained the most references with six each, and 2004 and 2007 contained the least references with one each. Partying/Clubbing Mentions

59

Partying/clubbing was defined as any indication or description of partying, dancing all night, or clubbing. There were 202 partying/clubbing mentions found in 139

Two or More Combined

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

FIGURE 12. Two or more combined mentions from 2000 to 2011.

songs (see Table 2). This code appeared consistently with at least eight mentions in every year (see Figure 13). Mentions climbed steadily from 2000-2005 (starting with nine and ending with 27), then a sharp drop, with every year after that fluctuating between an increase and a decrease. The largest number of partying/clubbing mentions was found in 2010 ( N = 29) and the least amount of partying/clubbing mentions was found in 2009 (N= 8). Interestingly, the two years with the least and most partying/clubbing mentions were consecutive years. Genre and Mentions Pop music contained the most number of songs on the Top 40 in the millennium with 201, while dance/house had the least with only eight songs of the 472 songs in the 12-year time span (see Table 3). As far as the other genres, rap/hip-hop was the next
60

most predominant genre with 114 songs; R&B had 80 songs; rock had 57 songs; and country only had twelve songs on the Top 40 throughout the millennium.

Parlying/Clubbing

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

FIGURE 13. Partying/clubbing mentions from 2000 to 2011.

TABLE 3. Number of Mentions by Genre Any substance Total songs Crack/cocaine

Any drugs

Marijuana

RX drugs

Tobacco

Alcohol

Country 12 8 Dance/house Rap/hip-hop 114 Pop 201 R&B 80 Rock 72 Total 472

7 2 262 66 21 22 380

6 2 154 52 11 19 244

0 0 1 3 4 2 10

1 0 107 11 6 1 126

0 0 69 6 2 0 77

1 0 17 1 2 0 21

Meth

0 0 2 0 0 0 2

0 0 11 2 0 0 13

0 0 7 1 2 1 11

61

Heroine 0 0 1 1 0 0 2

Ecstasy

When looking at the detailed breakdown of the genres by year, pop was the only genre with a consistent number of songs every year (see Figure 14). Rap/hip-hop songs had a clear increase in number from 2003-2007, whereas the earlier and later years of the millennium stayed below ten rap/hip-hop songs per year. After pop and rap/hip-hop, no other genre had more than ten songs in one year aside from R&B with 11 in 2008. Country and dance/house were the only genres that did not have at least one song in the Top 40 every year. Country music was not represented at all in 2002, 2005, 2008, and 2011 while dance/house was not represented in 2001, 2003, 2007, 2008, 2010, and 2011. General mentions. When looking at the breakdown of the general mentions of alcohol, drugs, and tobacco in the lyrics as they are classified by genre, there is a discernible correlation with these mentions and the number of songs in each genre, aside from rap/hip-hop (see Table 3). Although pop contained the most number of songs altogether (N = 201), rap/hip-hop had the most number of illicit substances (N= 107) and alcohol mentions (N= 154). Therefore, rap/hip-hop surpassed all other genres with 262 mentions of alcohol, drugs, or tobacco in only 114 songs (see Figure 15). Pop music's ratio of mention to songs was the most skewed of the genres. However, this genre had 52 alcohol references and eleven drug references. R&B music, however, led all other genres in tobacco references; with four total mentions following pop, rock, and rap/hip-hop with three, two, and one mention, respectively (see Figure 15). However, the total number of smoking mentions (N= 39) could have been attributed to either smoking tobacco or an illicit substance, but this detailed information could not be accurately discerned from the context of the lyrics.

62

gL iapLs A. 3 o

aj 83 o ac
ill

rs

sS a

tT
- - -;^

__-*

J/3 <L>

G
CL) 5/3 m ts 2

iilllllllll

MMHH

:M

SI

m m

o fM

in ^i4

in

FIGURE 14. Number of music genres from 2000 to 2011.

63

Genres by General Mentions

140
160

i2o -
100

j.:
Alcohol Drugs Tobacco

80 YWM

FIGURE 15. Genres by general mentions of alcohol, drugs, and tobacco.

R&B and rock music had a comparable number of general references with 21 and 22 mentions in all three categories, respectively (see Figure 15). In regards to alcohol, R&B had 11 references while rock had 19. However, when looking at the number of mentions in the drugs category, R&B contained six, while rock only had one. Tobacco was mentioned four times in R&B songs and only twice in rock songs. As noted earlier, certain genres, such as country and dance/house, were expected to have a low number of references since they both contained fewer than 13 songs each out of the 472 songs. Country music only contained six alcohol mentions, and one drug mention, with no mentions of tobacco (see Figure 15). Dance/house music had neither a drug nor a tobacco mention and only had two alcohol mentions in all 12 years (see Figure
15),

64

Specific drug type mentions. As previously mentioned, rap/hip-hop music contained the most number of illicit substance mentions (see Figure 16). The breakdown of the types of drugs is as follows: marijuana (N = 69), crack/cocaine (N = 17), RX drugs (N = 11), ecstasy (N = 7), meth (N = 2), and heroin (N = 1; see Table 3 for specific drug type mentions). It is important to note that a vast majority of the prescription drugs mentioned in the rap/hip-hop songs were describing a recent drug trend known as "lean" that is a combination of prescription strength cough syrup, which contains codeine and promethazine hydrochloride, and soda (Herd, 2008; Peters et al., 2007). Although pop music contained the next highest number of drug mentions (TV = 11), it is not easily comparable to rap/hip-hop's 107 mentions (see Figure 16). Pop had six marijuana references, two prescription drug references, one ecstasy, one heroin, and one crack/cocaine reference. Marijuana, crack/cocaine, and ecstasy were each mentioned twice in R&B songs. Rock music only had one ecstasy reference and country only had one crack/cocaine reference. Dance/house was the only genre that did not contain at least one illicit substance reference (see Figure 16).

65

Specific Drug Mentions by Genre

70
60 f I

SO - Rap/Hip Hop Pop

40 30
20

R&B/Soul

Country

+1

- Rock Dance/House

10

AX o

c& \V

v* ,<y

&?

.4

&

FIGURE 16. Specific drug mentions by genre.

66

CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The purpose of this study was to examine the manifest content of music from the top 40 of Billboard Hot 100's year-end charts. This was to discover when, how often, in what context, and in which genres the most references to alcohol, tobacco, and illicit substances were found. Many of today's concerned parents and policymakers blame media and its influence on adolescents as the reason for youth's deviant behavior. The objective of this study was to assess if such a fear and society's concerns are still warranted. The study's goal was to discover if the use of said substances, which enacted this fear, are prevalent in popular music and if so, in which genres. In this discussion, a rudimentary comparison of substance mentions in lyrics to national drug use trends among young people is examined as an additional observational tool. This study demonstrates that explicit mentions of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit substances are mentioned in almost half of the most popular songs from the millennium. The findings from this study were similar to that of previous studies. Specifically, songs with alcohol references were most prevalent and marijuana was by far the most mentioned illicit substance in music. Primack, Dalton, and colleagues (2008), although only looking at popular music in 2005, found 23.7% of songs had at least one mention of alcohol and 2.9% had a mention of tobacco. The current study had similar results;

67

approximately 25% of popular songs from 2000-2011 had an alcohol mention and almost 2% had a mention of tobacco. Other findings in the current study are also comparable to past content analyses (e.g., Christenson et al., 2012; Herd, 2008; Markert, 2001; Miranda & Claes, 2004; Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008; D. F. Roberts et al.,1999). This study and Christenson et al. (2012), Herd (2008), Markert (2001) and Primack, Dalton, et al. (2008) all identified marijuana as the most mentioned illicit substance, regardless of genre. Both the current study and D. F. Roberts et al.'s (1999) study of substance use in popular movies and music determined that crack/cocaine was the second most mentioned illicit substance while heroin and meth were the least mentioned illicit substances. Furthermore, the current study found that rap/hip-hop music contained the most mentions of alcohol and drugs as many previous studies have found (Gruber et al., 2005; Herd, 2008; Miranda & Claes, 2004; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999). Previous research on content analyses of popular music and rap music spanning the last few decades found that illicit substance mentions more than doubled between 1988 and 2008 in popular music (Christenson et al., 2012) and alcohol mentions in rap music in 1997 were more than five times those in 1979 (Herd 2008). Additionally, more drug references, especially those favorable to marijuana use were found in the 1990s than in the 1960s (Markert, 2001). This study shows that this trend in alcohol and drug mentions shifted by the turn of century. In comparison to past decades, music throughout the millennium contains fewer substance mentions. Although the longitudinal overview of all types of mentions did not show a clear steady increase or decrease of these drug and alcohol references, many of the specific
68

coded categories gradually grew until 2006 and have since declined in mentions. This bell curve formation from 2000-2011 applied to other categories, aside from alcohol and specific illicit substances, such as dealing/selling drugs and partying/clubbing (see Figures 17 and 18). This may be because rap/hip-hop songs were most popular from 2003-2007, in comparison to other years, according to the Billboard Hot 100 charts.

General Mentions

1 Alcohol 1 Drugs 1 Tobacco

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

FIGURE 17. General mentions of alcohol, drugs, and tobacco from 2000 to 2011.

Discussion This discussion chapter will examine how the results of the content analysis of this study correspond, if at all, to the national survey data about youth's use of alcohol, drugs, and tobacco from 2000 to 2011. Taking into consideration the inability to identify a causal relationship between substance mentions in music and actual use statistics, the

69

surveys are used as a comparative guide to understanding the overall framework of drugs and music.

Illicit Drug Mentions

18 16

14

- Marijuana -Heroin

12
10
8

RX drugs **Meth
"Crack/Cocaine Ecstasy

6 4
2

FIGURE 18. Illicit drug mentions from 2000 to 2011.

Given the prevalence of alcohol and marijuana mentions in music, this section focuses particularly on use trends and statistics of those substances among youth. Additionally, in this section, the researcher postulates that the popularity of substances among the American public can explain the popularity of substances in popular American music. For example, cigarette smoking has decreased in popularity among Americans, which is reflected in the prevalence of both tobacco use among youth and tobacco mentions in popular music. Likewise, the growing acceptance of marijuana use and the continued high rates of alcohol use among the American public may also explain the prevalence of marijuana and alcohol mentions in music. Thus, it is increasingly likely that youth, regardless of music preference, will come into contact with peers who condemn cigarette smoking but condone marijuana smoking. Since peers are the
70

strongest predictors of substance use, music may have little to no affect on use, and the fear about music-lyric content may not be necessary. In sum, this discussion elaborates on the complexity of the relationship between substance use and music. It also provides future research ideas to better understand this complex relationship and outlines some policy implications based on the findings. It concludes with the limitations of the current study. This complex relationship cannot be verified by this thesis and so a discussion of the usage statistics will hopefully lead the reader to fully recognizing how and why the moral panic continued to exist. Illicit Substances The results of this content analysis of music in the millennium are compared to the National Survey of Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) covering 2000-2010 and the Monitoring the Future (MTF) study covering 2000-2011. This was to assess if the years with many mentions of alcohol, drugs, and tobacco in the lyrics paralleled actual usage statistics in those same years. The NSDUH is an annual nationwide survey involving interviews with approximately 70,000 randomly selected individuals ages 12 and older (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [SAMHSA], 2010). Although the survey has yet to populate data from 2011, the information from 2000-2010 was compared to the findings of the content analysis. For this analysis, past year use data among those 12-17 years old were used. From 2000-2010, all illicit substance use went from 18.6% in 2000 to a slight increase of 19.4% in 2010, with a rise in use from 2001 to 2004 (see Figure 19).

71

NSDUH 2000-2010 Illicit Substance Use in Past Year

2000 2001

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

FIGURE 19. National Survey on Drug Use and Health: 2000-2010, illicit substance use in past year by youth ages 12-17 (SAMHSA, 2010).

The MTF is an ongoing study of the behaviors, attitudes, and values of American secondary school students, college students, and young adults in both public and private schools (Johnston et al., 2011). Approximately 50,000 students are surveyed annually and additional follow-up questionnaires are mailed to a sample of these participants (Johnston et al., 2011). In this survey, the annual prevalence of drug use was utilized. Between 2000 and 2011, 8th graders had a decrease of 4.8%, 10th graders had a decrease of 5.3%, and 12th graders had a decrease of 0.9% for use of illicit substances (see Figure 20). For 8th, 10th, and 12th graders combined, there was an overall decrease of all illicit drug use by 11% between 2000 and 2011.

72

MTF 2000-2011 Illicit Substance Use in Past Year

45 40

8th graders 10 th graders 12 th graders

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

FIGURE 20. Monitoring the Future: 2000-2011, illicit substance use in past year by 8th, 10th, and 12th graders from 2000 to 2011 (Johnston et al., 2011). Marijuana Marijuana was the most referenced illicit substance in all genres of the Billboard "Top 40" music charts from 2000 to 2011. This is not surprising given the recent legislation and debate regarding medical marijuana, decriminalizing marijuana possession offenses, and marijuana legalization (Office of National Drug Control Policy, 2010). Currently, 16 states and the District of Columbia have active legislation and an additional six have pending legislation regarding the legal medical use of marijuana (ONDCP, 2012). In addition, a few states such as California and Washington are currently seeking to legalize, regulate, and tax marijuana; whereas a handful of others have already decriminalized the drug, treating possession similarly to a minor traffic violation (ONDCP, 2012).

73

According to the NSDUH survey conducted in 2010, 41.9% of those 12 and older have tried or are regular users of marijuana (SAMHSA, 2010). However, according to the NSDUH and MTF surveys, marijuana use among adolescents has declined in recent years. Specifically, the percentage of youth using marijuana in the past year from 2000 to 2010 only increased by 0.6% (SAMHSA, 2010). In the MTF survey, there was a 3.1% decrease for 8th graders, a 3.4% decrease for 10th graders, and a 0.1% decrease for 12th graders use in the past year, averaging a 2.2% decrease for all three grade levels between 2000 and 2011 (Johnston et al., 2011). Still, the American population is concerned that marijuana use is increasing (Roffman, Hall, Kleiman, Reuter & Stamper, 2009). Perhaps the widespread fear regarding marijuana is associated with the representation of marijuana in popular music rather than actual use patterns. Even though the prevalence of marijuana in music has fluctuated over time, marijuana, after alcohol, was the most commonly mentioned substance with the peak of mentions in the middle of the decade. Prescription Drugs Marijuana According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, prescription drug abuse is the fastest growing drug problem in the United States (Paulozzi & Baldwin, 2011). A particular class of prescription drugs, opioid analgesics (painkillers), has been responsible for more overdose deaths than heroin and cocaine combined (Paulozzi & Baldwin, 2011). This information parallels the fact that more than 12 million people used these painkillers for nonmedical reasons in 2010 alone (Paulozzi & Baldwin, 2011). Prescription painkillers are the second most commonly used illicit substance; marijuana is first, among youth (12-17) and young people [18-25 (SAMHSA, 2011)]. This growing

74

concern over the use of prescription drugs was clearly not reflected in the minute (N = 13) number of prescription drug mentions in the music of the past decade. According to the NSDUH, the rate of nonmedical use of prescription drugs among youth ages 12-17 declined from 9.2% in 2002 to 7.4% in 2010 (SAMHSA, 2011). The MTF only began asking about general prescription drug use in 2005 and only to 12th graders. This survey found a 2.3% decrease in use from 2005 to 2011 (Johnston et al., 2011). In addition, the MTF recorded the percentage of 12th graders who specifically used nonprescription diet pills in the past year, which declined from 11.1% in 2000 to 4.3% in 2010 (Johnston et al., 2011). Alcohol and Tobacco While illicit substances (e.g., cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine) are illegal for individuals of all ages, alcohol and cigarettes are still illegal to purchase and consume in the United States for those under 21 and 18, respectively. Additionally, alcohol and cigarette use among youth remains a cause for concern (Harrison, Fulkerson, & Park, 2000). The use of alcohol and cigarettes precedes the use of most illicit substances (Merrill, Kleber, Shwartz, Liu, & Lewis, 1999), and binge drinking has been identified as the third most prominent cause of preventable death in the United States (Courtney & Polich, 2009). The anti-smoking campaign that has targeted young people ages 12-17 spent over $324 million from 2000-2002 to prevent the onset and persistence of cigarette smoking (Holtgrave, Wunderink, Vallone, & Healton, 2009). Although the NSDUH and MTF show different trends in substance use over short periods of time, the two surveys have shown very similar long-term trends in prevalence of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit substances (SAMHSA, 2011). In a comparison between 75

both surveys' data between 2002 and 2010, the percentage of youth who used alcohol and cigarettes in the past year has declined (SAMHSA, 2011). Furthermore, the use of alcohol and tobacco by youth is at its lowest point in the past 30 years (SAMHSA, 2011). The MTF data show an 8.7% decrease of 8th and 10th graders (12th graders were excluded for comparison purposes because of the age range utilized) who drank alcohol in the past year between 2002 and 2010 while the NSDUH data show a 6.1% decrease for 12-17 year olds in the same time frame (SAMHSA, 2011). The rates of binge and heavy alcohol use among underage people have also declined between 2002 and 2010. The binge-drinking rate declined from 19.3% to 17.0% and the heavy drinking rate declined from 6.2% to 5.1% for those aged 12-20 years (SAMHSA, 2011). Regarding cigarette use in the past year, NSDUH percentages declined from 20.3% to 8.3%, while the MTF only asks about past month and lifetime cigarette use (SAMHSA, 2011). Additionally, females aged 12-17 who had never smoked prior to the past year saw a significant decrease in initiation to smoking between 2002 and 2010, whereas males did not see any statistically significant changes in the same time frame (SAMHSA, 2011). The trends in general tobacco product use (e.g., cigars and smokeless tobacco) as opposed to smoking cigarettes specifically have declined 3% since 2002. However, these data only provided about current (past month) use (SAMHSA, 2011). Hence, as with illicit substance use, the percentage of American youth who engage in underage drinking, binge drink, initiate smoking, and routinely smoke has declined since the beginning of the millennium. This seems to also be reflected in popular music. The number of alcohol mentions in the music declined after the middle of the decade. Tobacco mentions remained relatively low (range from 0-3 mentions) 76

throughout this time period until 2011, which had the most mentions of tobacco products in the Top 40 songs. Are Moral Panics About Music Warranted? The data from the NSDUH and MTF national surveys illustrate that the prevalence of average adolescent substance use in the millennium does not match the prevalence of substance mentions found in music. Rather, the trends in alcohol and tobacco past year use have been declining since the beginning of the millennium, coinciding with a decrease in alcohol mentions in music and a relatively low number of tobacco mentions in music from the same time period. Additionally, the number of drug mentions in music conflicts with the trends in the percentage of youth using illicit substances, especially marijuana. Drug mentions and actual drug use by adolescents have been on divergent paths. As the drug references in lyrics peaked in the middle years of the millennium, the drug use by youth was declining. Perhaps the fear perpetuated by moral panics and the impact of music on illicit substance use is unwarranted. Although music is an important socializing agent for youth and is used as a vehicle of self-expression, there have been no causal relationships found between the initiation of drug use and music. These moral panics, which stem from the need for a scapegoat and the fear of the unknown, are not caused by music. If anything, lyrics in music and the artists who produce them are simply reflecting their personal experiences within a society already plagued with deviance; so, behavior within the society is influencing the music (Diamond et al., 2006). Furthermore, most research has revealed that the largest influences of adolescent behavior are those of immediate relation to the adolescent, particularly peers, not the 77

media (Akers, 1973; Barcus & Jankowski, 1975; Havere et al., 2011; Klein et al., 1993; Nunez-Smith et al., 2010). Peer influences are extremely important in youth development and have been studied as a major predictor of deviant behavior for adolescents (Ashby & Rich, 2005; Christenson et al., 2012; Forsyth et al., 1997; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999). Peers' drug use or the perception that peers are using drugs is considered an important factor for the onset of use (Gruber et al., 2005; Havere et al., 2011). Through interactions with peers, as Sutherland and Cressey's (1984) differential association theory explains, individuals will learn deviant behavior and view deviant behavior as normal and rational (see also Becker 1963/1995). The mere exposure to different media outlets, which may contain negative messages, such as television, music, and movies, does not necessarily indicate that the adolescent will be influenced by those messages. Some will emulate what they see and hear, while others will not. Personality characteristics, peers, and settings, not music preferences or the amount of media consumed, makes a young person more likely to use cigarettes, alcohol and drugs (Ashby & Rich, 2005; Barcus & Jankowski, 1975; Zinberg, 1984). Thus, the high levels of fear and concern over music may not be warranted. Although it is clear that certain genres (e.g., rap/hip-hop and heavy metal) may contain a lot of drug and alcohol mentions (Christenson et al., 2012; Diamond et al., 2006; Gruber et al., 2005; Herd, 2008; Markert, 2001; Miranda & Claes, 2004; Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008; D. F. Roberts et al., 1999), those patterns are not reflected in national use data among average adolescents (Johnston et al., 2011; SAMHSA, 2011). Additionally, the effects of these panics, such as explicit warning labels, have become meaningless and 78

ineffective to shelter this age group from accessing the music (Bushman & Cantor, 2003; Chio et al., 2005). For some youth, these labels are advertisements (Bushman & Cantor, 2003). Still, the concern over the effects of media on youth may be justified; people, especially young people, should not be harmed. However, the level of concern must not be disproportionate to the actual threat. Too often, the fear that youth are being harmed has become so excessive that it provokes the implementation of irrational, serious, unwarranted and ineffective, policies. Study Limitations Several limitations, both statistical and methodological in nature, are present in this study. This study relied on secondary data-the Billboard Hot 100 List, the NSDUH, and the MTF, which each had its own limitations. Additionally, this study had flaws in its statistical analysis, mainly the lack thereof, and its coding procedures. First, the Billboard's Hot 100 Year-End charts, although encompassing the most popular music as played on the radio and through sales, are not reflective of all music genres and all music to which youth listen. Some youth choose to abstain from the mainstream types of music that Billboard classifies as pop (Christenson et al., 2012; Desmond, 1987; Forsyth et al., 1997). Those other songs and genres may not have been included in this analysis, and they may have more or fewer substance mentions. Billboard's charts that list popular songs by genre are compiled primarily on marketing factors rather than the actual sounds of the songs (T. Roberts, 2011; Sernoe, 2005). For example, if a rock song was aired frequently on a Billboard-considered country radio station, the song might be classified in the country music charts and 79

categorized as a country song, regardless of its musical rhythm and tempo (Sernoe, 2005). Though the Top 40 of the Billboard Hot 100 is considered mainstream music (D. F. Roberts et al., 1999), the sponsoring and advertising components of the music business confining the most popular charts have become more important than the sound (Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2008; T. Roberts, 2011). Second, the NSDUH and MTF surveys, which embody a significant and generalizable sample size of respondents, are self-report measures that might not be an accurate representation of youth's use of drugs. Validity concerns for all self-report measures include respondent dishonesty, forgetfulness, and poor comprehension of the questioned material (SAMHSA, 2011). Additionally, because the NSDUH is administered as a household survey and the MTF is administered as a school survey, certain populations such as the homeless population, school dropouts, hard-core drug users, and institutionalized individuals are generally not included (SAMHSA, 2011). Therefore, the continual decline in use since 2000 is only a portrayal of average use; it does not show use patterns of those most likely to use drugs and have drug problems. Third, neither a statistically causal relationship nor bivariate correlations between substance use mentions in the music lyrics and use patterns were calculated in this study. Thus, this content analyses is helpful to understand the overall framework about to what average adolescents are listening, it cannot infer a causal relationship between listening to music and using drugs (cf. D. F. Roberts & Christenson, 2000). However, the nature and frequency of these mentions still might, as claimed in cultivation theory, normalize the use of the substances (Christenson et al., 2012).

80

Fourth, the coding process employed in this thesis has two limitations. Although a repeated chorus or song title was only coded once, one song may have multiple mentions of the same substance(s). Other studies have coded a chorus with an alcohol or drug mention as often as it appears (e.g., Primack, Dalton, et al., 2008), but this study aimed to find the number of distinctive references within each song. Furthermore, songs were coded based strictly on the mention, rather than the experience or consequences surrounding it. Coding for positive or negative consequences or experiences associated with the lyrics might have brought a more thorough understanding of how the substances are portrayed in these songs. Anti-drug and anti-alcohol messages and negative substance use experiences may be considered more acceptable than pro-using and positive messages, as it is teaching the adolescent to fear these substances rather than glorify them. Future Research Future research should be dedicated to the general understanding of the psychosocial factors that affect how music influences youth. As discussed in the limitations section, content analyses, which code for the positive and negative consequences surrounding drug and alcohol use in lyrics would be helpful to determine how youth are reacting to these lyrics. Research should also acknowledge if messages within lyrics, whether discernible or not, should continue to be monitored. In the age of music downloading, the cost-effectiveness of parental advisory labels should be reconsidered since they have not prevented youth from accessing songs that contain explicit messages about drugs, sex, and violence (e.g., Chio et al., 2005). In fact, some

81

studies indicate that the labels were not only unnecessary due to youth's open access to music, but have the opposite effect by piquing their curiosity (Bushman & Cantor, 2003). Cross-cultural analyses of both youth's drug use in other countries as well as content analyses of substances in music would enlighten the body of research to identify if young people are affected by the United States' media-saturated environment. This could allow researchers to discover the level of desensitization American adolescents have in regards to these substances compared to other youth. Although cross-sectional content analyses of illicit substances in the media are important to add to the body of literature, the difficulty of understanding the broader context cannot be achieved this way. Ongoing content analyses, which span decades and observe multiple themes in music, are necessary to detect how the rise and fall of said substances compare to usage statistics (see D. F. Roberts & Christenson, 2000; Strasburger & Donnerstein, 1999). These analyses of themes in music should be paired with self-reported listening habits and health risk behaviors among adolescents. Furthermore, content analyses of illicit substances in music should distinguish between different types of drugs. The distinct trends and potential dangerousness of each drug varies widely; therefore, it is important to recognize how these trends are reflected in music, if at all. Policy Implications Although the media will continue to shape how policy is discussed and debated, efforts to maintain critical awareness based on drug research is imperative. Drug research, and research in general, should be considered part of the active and ongoing debate regarding new policy implementation. Organizations that conduct research and
82

oversee how technological advancements in society are affecting youth should be developing ways to inform the public, and more importantly, policymakers, on what messages are actually affecting youth's behaviors, attitudes, and values. The need for parental advisory labels should be reassessed in light of the decline in alcohol, tobacco, and illicit substance use by youth. However, it can only be beneficial for society to be knowledgeable or aware of youth's consumption of the media and potential effects on behavior. Even though an absolute correlational relationship between drug use and music cannot be established within this thesis and the moral panic regarding this relationship might not be warranted, there is still a need to protect the nation's youth. Music resonates with individuals differently, and many, even though not all youth can and will be affected by negative messages in music. Ashby and Rich (2005) claimed, "If adolescents become media literate and aware of how media can manipulate them, they will have the tools to protect themselves" (p. 387). Providing youth and policymakers alike with these tools that can help ensure informed and rational decision-making and may reduce the level of drug and alcohol abuse. Perhaps curriculum could be designed to educate parents, instructors and youth about how to be responsible consumers of media.

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APPENDICES

84

APPENDIX A TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2000

85

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

Song Title Breathe* Smooth* Maria Maria* I Wanna Know* Everything You Want* Say My Name* I Knew I Loved You* Amazed* Bent* He Wasn't Man Enough Higher* Try Again Jumpin Jumpin'* Thong Song Kryptonite* There You Go* Music Doesn't Really Matter What A Girl Wants* Back At One* Bye Bye Bye* You Sang To Me* I Need To Know* Get It On Tonite* Incomplete* I Try* It's Gonna Be Me* That's The Way It Is* (Hot S**T) Country Grammar* Bring It All To Me* Show Me The Meaning Of Bei ng Lonely Hot Boyz* Back Here* It Feels So Good* Absolutely (Story Of A Girl) With Arms Wide Open

Artist Faith Hill Santana feat. Rob Thomas Santana feat. The Product GandB Joe Vertical Horizon Destiny's Child Savage Garden Lonestar matchbox twenty Toni Braxton Creed Aaliyah Destiny's Child Sisqo 3 Doors Down Pink Madonna Janet Jackson Christina Aguilera Brian McKnight 'N Sync Marc Anthonv Marc Anthony Montell Jordan Sisqo Macy Gray 'N Sync Celine Dion Nelly Blaque Backstreet Boys Missy Elliott feat. Nas, EVE and Q-Tip BBMak Sonique Nine Days Creed
86

Genre Country Pop Pop R&B Pop Pop Rock Country Rock Pop Rock Pop Pop Pop Rock Pop Pop Pop Pop R&B Pop R&B Pop R&B R&B R&B Pop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop R&B Rap/Hip-Hop R&B Dance/House Rock Rock

37 38 39 40

Be With You* Come On Over Baby (All I Want Is You) No More All The Small Things*

Enrique Iglesias Christina Aguilera Ruff Endz Blink 182

R&B Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Rock

* = Song was released in an earlier year than the year it appears on the Hot 100 Chart ** = Song was in the Top 40 of the Hot 100 in more than one year

87

APPENDIX B TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2001

88

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Song Title Hanging By A Moment* Fallin' All For You Drops Of Jupiter (Tell Me) I'm Real* If You're Gone* Let Me Blow Ya Mind* Thank You* Again* Independent Women Part I* Hit 'Em Up Style (Oops!)* It Wasn't Me* Stutter* It's Been Awhile U Remind Me Where The Party At* Angel Ride Wit Me* Follow Me Peaches & Cream* Drive* What Would You Do?* Survivor* Lady Marmalade Ms. Jackson* Love Don't Cost A Thing The Way You Love Me* He Loves U Not* Butterfly* Put It On Me* Family Affair** I Hope You Dance*

Artist Lifehouse Alicia Keys Janet Jackson Train Jennifer Lopez feat. Ja Rule matchbox twenty Eve feat. Gwen Stefani Dido Lenny Kravitz Destiny's Child Blu Cantrell Shaggy feat. Ricardo "RikRok" Ducent Joe feat. Mystikal Staind Usher Jagged Edge With Nelly Shaggy feat. Rayvon Nelly feat. City Spud Uncle Kracker 112 Incubus City High Destiny's Child Christina Aguilera, Lil' Kim, Mya and Pink Outkast Jennifer Lopez Faith Hill

Genre Pop R&B Pop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Pop Pop R&B Pop R&B Pop R&B Rap/Hip-Hop Pop R&B Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Country

Pop Dream Pop Crazy Town Rap/Hip-Hop Ja Rule feat. Lil' Mo and Vita Pop Mary J. Blige Lee Ann Womack and Sons Country Of The Desert
89

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

South Side* Don't Tell Me* Get Ur Freak On Crazy* Fill Me In* Someone To Call My Lover* With Arms Wide Open* Case Of The Ex (Whatcha Gonna Do)*

Moby feat. Gwen Stefani Madonna Missy "Misdemeanor" Elliott K-Ci and JoJo Craig David Janet Creed Mya

Pop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop R&B Pop Pop Rock R&B

* = Song was released in an earlier year than the year it appears on the Hot 100 Chart ** = Song was in the Top 40 of the Hot 100 in more than one yea

90

APPENDIX C TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2002

91

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

Artist Nickelback Ashanti Nelly Nelly feat. Kelly Rowland The Calling Vanessa Carlton Link in Park Fat Joe feat. Ashanti Usher Puddle Of Mudd Avril Lavigne Ja Rule feat. Ashanti Jennifer Lopez feat. Ja Rule Jimmy Eat World P. Diddy feat. Usher and Loon Usher U Don't Have To Call Mary J. Blige Family Affair** I Need A Girl (Part Two) P. Diddy and Ginuwine feat. Loon, Mario Winans and Tammy Ruggeri Eve feat. Alicia Keys Gangsta Lovin' Creed My Sacrifice* Eminem Without M e Enrique Iglesias Hero* Michelle Branch All You Wanted* Pink Get the Party Started* Chad Kroeger feat. Josey Hero* Scott Default Wasting My Time* Creed One Last Breath* Shakira Whenever, Wherever* Jennifer Lopez feat. Nas I'm Gonna Be Alright Cam'ron feat. Juelz Santana Oh Bov* DJ Sammy and Yanou feat. Heaven* Do No Doubt feat. Bounty Hey Baby* Killer 'N Sync feat. Nelly Girlfriend* Mario Just A Friend 2002 Sheryl CrowSoak Up The Sun Pink Don't Let Me Get Me*
92

Song Title How You Remind Me* Foolish* Hot In Herre* Dilemma Wherever You Will Go* A Thousand Miles* In The End* What's Luv?* U Got it Bad* Blurry* Complicated Always On Time* Ain't It Funny* The Middle* I Need A Girl (Part One)

Genre Pop R&B Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Rock Pop Rock Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Rock Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Rock R&B Pop Pop R&B

Rap/Hip-Hop Rock Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Pop Pop Rock Rock Rock Pop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Dance/House Pop Pop R&B Pop Pop

37 38 39 40

Nothin' Oops (Oh My)* A Moment Like This Addictive

N.O.R.E. Tweet Kellv Clarkson Truth Hurts feat. Rakim

Rap/Hip-Hop R&B Pop R&B

* = Song was released in an earlier year than the year it appears on the Hot 100 Chart ** = Song was in the Top 40 of the Hot 100 in more than one year

93

APPENDIX D TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2003

94

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Song Title In Da Club* Ignition* Get Busy Crazy in Love* When I'm Gone* Unwell* Right Thurr Miss You* Picture* Bring Me To Life* Get Low* Baby Boy Shake Ya Tailfeather* 21 Questions* All I Have* Beautiful* I Know What You Want* I'm With You* Drift Away Magic Stick* P.I.M.P.* Bump, Bump, Bump* Into You Can't Let You Go Mesmerize* Where Is The Love? The Game Of Love* Lose Yourself5 Rock Wit U (Awww Baby) Cry Me A River* How You Gonna Act Like That

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Artist 50 Cent R. KellySean Paul Beyonce feat. Jay-Z 3 Doors Down matchbox twenty Chingy Aaliyah Kid Rock feat. Sheryl Crow Evanescence feat. Paul McCoy Lil Jon and The East Side Boyz feat. Ying Yang Twins Beyonce feat. Sean Paul Nelly, P. Diddy and Murphy Lee 50 Cent feat. Nate Dogg Jennifer Lopez feat. LL Cool J Christina Aguilera Busta Rhymes and Mariah Carey feat. The Flipmode Squad Avril Lavigne Uncle Kracker feat. Dobie Gray Lil' Kim feat. 50 Cent 50 Cent B2K and P. Diddy Fabolous feat. Tamia Fabolous feat. Mike Shorey and Lil' Mo Ja Rule feat. Ashanti Black Eved Peas Santana feat. Michelle Branch Eminem Ashanti Justin Timberlake Tyrese
95

Genre Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Rock Rock Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Country Rock Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop R&B Pop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop

Pop Rock Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop R&B R&B Rap/Hip-Hop R&B Pop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Pop R&B

32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

Rock Your Body* No Letting Go* Front in* Landslide* Work It* '03 Bonnie & Clyde* Don't Mess With My Man* So Gone Air Force Ones*

Justin Timberlake Wayne Wonder Pharrell feat. Jay-Z Dixie Chicks Missy "Misdemeanor" Elliott Jav-Z feat. Bevonce Nivea feat. Brian and Brandon Casey Monica Nelly feat. Kyjuan, Ali and Murphy Lee

Pop Pop R&B Country Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop R&B Rap/Hip-Hop/HipHop

* = Song was released in an earlier year than the year it appears on the Hot 100 Chart ** = Song was in the Top 40 of the Hot 100 in more than one year

96

APPENDIX E TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2004

97

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

Song Title Yeah!* Bum* If I Ain't Got You This Love The Way You Move* The Reason I Don't Wanna Know Hey Ya!* Goodies Lean Back Tipsy* Confessions Part II* Slow Motion* Freek-a-Leek* Here Without You* Slow Jamz* Someday* Naughty Girl* My Immortal* Sunshine* Dirt Off Your Shoulder* Move Ya Body Dip It Low My Boo One Call Away* Me, Myself, and I* Turn Me On* The First Cut Is The Deepest* You Don't Know My Name* My Place* Overnight Celebrity Hotel* Numb* Diary She Will Be Loved*

Artist Genre Rap/Hip-Hop Usher feat. Lil Jon and Ludacris Usher R&B Alicia Keys R&B Pop Maroon5 OutKast feat. Sleepy Brown Rap/Hip-Hop Rock Hoobastank Mario Winans feat. Enya and R&B P. Diddy Pop OutKast Rap/Hip-Hop Ciara feat. Petey Pablo Rap/Hip-Hop Terror Squad Rap/Hip-Hop J-Kwon Usher Pop R&B Juvenile feat. Soulja Slim Rap/Hip-Hop Petey Pablo Rock 3 Doors Down Twista feat. Kanye West and Rap/Hip-Hop Jamie Foxx Rock Nickelback Pop Bevonce Rock Evanescence Rap/Hip-Hop Lil' Flip feat. Lea Rap/Hip-Hop Jay-Z Dance/House Nina Sky feat. Jabba Pop Christina Miliajn R&B Usher and Alicia Keys Rap/Hip-Hop Chingy feat. J. Weav Pop Bevonce Pop Kevin Lyttle feat. Spragga Benz Country Sheryl Crow Alicia Keys Nelly feat. Jaheim Twista Cassidy feat. R. Kelly Linkin Park Alicia Keys feat. Tony! Toni! Tone! Maroon 5
98

R&B Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop Rock R&B Rock

36 37 38 39 40

White Flag* Heaven It's My Life* Pieces Of Me Leave (Get Out)*

Dido Los Lonely Boys No Doubt Ashlee Simpson JoJo

Pop Dance/House Rock Pop Pop

* = Song was released in an earlier year than the year it appears on the Hot 100 Chart ** = Song was in the Top 40 of the Hot 100 in more than one year

99

APPENDIX F TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2005

100

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Song Title We Belong Together Hollaback Girl* Let Me Love You* Since U Been Gone* 1,2 Step* Gold Digger** Boulevard Of Broken Dreams* Candy Shop* Don't Cha Behind These Hazel Eyes Disco Inferno* You And Me Don't Pliunk With My Heart* Lose Control Shake It Off Mr. Brightside* Just A Lil Bit* Pon de Replay* How We Do* Beverly Hills* Oh* Lonely No More* Drop it Like It's Hot* Hate It Or Love It* Lovers and Friends*

Artist Mariah Carey Gwen Stefani Mario Kelly Clarkson Ciara feat. Missy Elliott Kanye West feat. Jamie Foxx Green Day 50 Cent feat. Olivia The Pussycat Dolls feat. Busta Rhymes Kelly Clarkson 50 Cent Lifehouse The Black Eyed Peas Missy Elliott feat. Ciara and Fat Man Scoop Mariah Carey The Killers 50 Cent Rihanna The Game feat. 50 Cent Weezer Ciara feat. Ludacris Rob Thomas Snoop Dogg feat. Pharrell The Game feat. 50 Cent Lil Jon and The East Side Boyz feat. Usher and Ludacris Destiny's Child feat. T.I. and Lil Wayne Kelly Clarkson Will Smith Bow Wow feat. Omarion Bow Wow feat. Ciara Gwen Stefani feat. Eve The Black Eyed Peas
101

Genre Pop Pop R&B Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop Rock Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Rock Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Rock Rap/Hip-Hop Dance/House Rap/Hip-Hop Rock Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop R&B

26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Soldier* Breakaway* Switch* Let Me Hold You Like You Rich Girl* My Humps

Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Pop Pop Pop Pop Pop

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

Obsession (No Es Amor)* Caught Up* Listen To Your Heart Scars* Feel Good Inc* Let Me Go* Holiday* Sugar, We're Goin' Down

Frankie J feat. Baby Bash Usher D.H.T. Papa Roach Gorillaz 3 Doors Down Green Dav Fall Out Boy

Pop Pop Dance/House Rock Pop Rock Rock Rock

* = Song was released in an earlier year than the year it appears on the Hot 100 Chart ** = Song was in the Top 40 of the Hot 100 in more than one year

102

APPENDIX G TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2006

103

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

Song Title Bad Day* Temperature* Promiscuous You're Beautiful* Hips Don't Lie Unwritten* Crazy Ridin' Sexyback* Check On It* Be Without You* Grillz* Over My Head (Cable Car)* Me & U Buttons Run It!* So Sick* It's Goin' Down* SOS I Write Sins Not Tragedies Move Along* London Bridge Dani California* Snap Yo Fingers* Lean Wit It, Rock Wit It What Hurts The Most How To Save A Life Unfaithful Chasing Cars* Lips Of An Angel* Everytime We Touch* Ain't No Other Man Dance, Dance

Artist Daniel Powter Sean Paul Nelly Furtado feat. Timbaland James Blunt Shakira feat. Wyclef Jean Natasha Bedingfield Gnarls Barkley Chamillionaire feat. Krayzie Bone Justin Timberlake Beyonce feat. Slim Thug Mary J. Blige Nelly feat. Paul Wall, Ali and Gipp The Fray Cassie The Pussycat Dolls feat. Snoop Dogg Chris Brown Ne-Yo Yung Joe Rihanna Panic! At The Disco The Ail-American Rejects Fergie Red Hot Chili Peppers Lil Jon feat. E-40 and Sean Paul Of The YoungBloodZ Dem Franchize Boyz feat. Li l Peanut and Charlay Rascal Flatts The Fray Rihanna Snow Patrol Hinder Cascada Christina Aguilera Fall Out Boy
104

Genre Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Pop Pop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop R&B Rap/Hip-Hop R&B Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop R&B Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Rock Rock Pop Rock Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop Country Pop Pop Rock Rock Dance/House Pop Rock

34 35 36

Gold Digger** Money Maker Ms. New Booty*

37 38 39 40

(When You Gonna) Give It Up To Me* Photograph Because Of You Stickwitu

Kanye West feat. Jamie Foxx Ludacris feat. Pharreli Bubba Sparxxx feat. Ying Yang Twins and Mr. ColliPark Sean Paul feat. Keyshia Cole Nickelback Kelly Clarkson The Pussycat Dolls

Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop

Rap/Hip-Hop Rock Pop Pop

* = Song was released in an earlier year than the year it appears on the Hot 100 Chart ** = Song was in the Top 40 of the Hot 100 in more than one year

105

APPENDIX H TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2007

106

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Song Title Irreplaceable* Umbrella The Sweet Escape* Big Girls Don't Cry* Buy U A Drank (Shawty Snapping* Before He Cheats* Hev There Delilah* I Wanna Love You* Say It Right* Glamorous* Don't Matter* Girlfriend* Makes Me Wonder* Party Like A Rockstar Smack That* This Is Why I'm Hot* It's Not Over* The Way I Are* Fergalicious* Crank That (Soulja Boy) Give It To Me* What Goes Around...Comes Around* Cupid's Chokeho1d/B reakfast In America* How To Save A Life* Home* My Love* Stronger* We Fly High* U + Ur Hand* Walk It Out* Beautiful Girls This Ain't A Scene, It's An Arms Race* Bartender Pop, Lock, & Drop It*

Artist Beyonce Rihanna feat. Jay-Z Gvven Stefani feat. Akon Fergie T-Pain feat. Yung Joe Carrie Underwood Plain White T's Akon feat. Snoop Dogg Nelly Furtado Fergie feat. Ludacris Akon Avril Lavigne Maroon 5 Shop Boyz Akon feat. Eminem Mims Daughtrv Timbaland feat. Keri Hilson Fergie Soulja Boy Tell'em Timbaland feat. Nelly Furtado & Justin Timberlake Justin Timberlake

Genre Pop Pop Pop R&B Rap/Hip-Hop Country R&B Rap/Hip-Hop R&B Pop R&B Pop Rock Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop Rock Pop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop R&B

23

Gym Class Heroes feat. Patrick Stump The Fray Daughtry Justin Timberlake feat. T.I. Kanye West Jim Jones Pink Unk Sean Kingston Fall Out Boy T-Pain feat. Akon Huev
107

Pop

24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

R&B Rock Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Rock Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop

35 36 37 38 39 40

Runaway Love* Rockstar* Thnks Fr Th Mmrs* What I've Done Summer Love You

Ludacris feat. Mary J. Blige Nickelback Fall Out Boy Linkin Park Justin Timberlake Lloyd feat. Lil' Wayne

R&B Rock Rock Rock Pop Rap/Hip-Hop

* = Song was released in an earlier year than the year it appears on the Hot 100 Chart ** = Song was in the Top 40 of the Hot 100 in more than one year

108

APPENDIX I

TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2008

109

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

Song Title Low* Bleeding Love* No One* Lollipop Apologize* No Air* Love Song* Love In This Club With You* Forever* Sexy Can I* Take A Bow Viva La Vida I Kissed A Girl Whatever You Like** Disturbia Don't Stop the Music* Pocketful of Sunshine* Kiss Kiss* Closer Bubbly* Touch My Body* 4 Minutes* So What Paralyzer* Clumsy* I'm Yours** * Leavin'* Dangerous* Tattoo* See You Again* Shake It* Stop And Stare* Take You There* Paper Planes* Hot N Cold** Live Your Life** Bust It Baby Part 2*

Artist Flo Rida feat. T-Pain Leona Lewis Alicia Keys Lil Wayne feat. Static Major Timbaland feat. OneRepublic Jordin Sparks Duet With Chris Brown Sara Bareilles Usher feat. Young Jeezy Chris Brown Chris Brown Ray J and Yung Berg Rihanna Coldplay Katy Perry T.I. Rihanna Rihanna Natasha Bedingfield Chris Brown feat. T-Pain Ne-Yo Colbie Caillat Mariah Carey Madomia feat. Justin Timberlake Pink Finger Eleven Fergie Jason Mraz Jesse McCartney Kardinal Offishall feat. Akon Jordin Sparks Mi ley Cyrus Metro Station OneRepublic Sean Kingston M.I.A. Katy Perry T.I. feat. Rihanna Plies feat. Ne- Yo
110

Genre Rap/Hip-Hop R&B R&B Rap/Hip-Hop R&B R&B R&B Pop R&B Pop Pop R&B Rock Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Pop Pop Pop R&B Pop Pop Pop Pop Rock Pop R&B Pop Rap/Hip-Hop R&B Pop Pop R&B Pop Pop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop

39 40

American Boy Got Money

Estelle feat. Kanye West Lil Wayne feat. T-Pain

Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop

* = Song was released in an earlier year than the year it appears on the Hot 100 Chart ** = Song was in the Top 40 of the Hot 100 in more than one year

111

APPENDIX J TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2009

112

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

Song Title Artist The Black Eyed Peas Boom Boom Pow* Lady Gaga Poker Face* Lady Gaga feat. Colby O'Donis Just Dance* I Gotta Feeling** The Black Eyed Peas Taylor Swift Love Story* Right Round Flo Rida Jason Mraz I'm Yours** Single Ladies (Put A Beyonce Ring On It)* Kanye West Heartless* The Ail-American Rejects Gives You Hell* Taylor Swift You Belong With Me Dead And Gone* T.I. feat. Justin Timberlake The Fray You Found Me* Kings Of Leon Use Somebody* Keri Hilson feat. Kanye West and Knock You Down Ne-Yo Jamie Foxx feat. T-Pain Blame It* Pitbull I Know You Want Me (Calle Ocho) Live Your Life** * T.I. feat. Rihanna Soulja Boy Tell 'em feat. Sammie Kiss Me Thru The Phone* Jay Sean feat. Lil Wayne Down Miley Cyrus The Climb Drake Best I Ever Had* Kelly Clarkson My Life Would Suck Without You* Bevonce Halo* Katy Perry Hot n Cold** * Shinedown Second Chance* Britney Spears Circus* Kid Cudi Day *n' Nite* Miley Cyrus Party in the U.S.A. 30HI3 Don't Trust Me* Jay-Z, Rihanna, and Kanye West Run This Town Kevin Rudolf feat. Lil Wayne Let It Rock* Sean Kingston Fire Burning* Jason DeRulo Whatcha Sav Lady Gaga Lovegame*
113

Genre Pop Pop Dance/House Pop Country Rap/Hip-Hop R&B Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Rock Country R&B R&B Rock Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop R&B Rap/Hip-Hop Pop R&B Pop Rock Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Rock Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Pop Pop Pop

36 37 38 39 40

Waking Up In Vegas* Birthday Sex* Sober* Womanizer* Whatever You Like** *

Katy Perry Jeremih Pink Britney Spears T.I.

Pop R&B Pop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop

* = Song was released in an earlier year than the year it appears on the Hot 100 Chart ** = Song was in the Top 40 of the Hot 100 in more than one year

114

APPENDIX K TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2010

115

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

Song Title TiK ToK* Need You Now* Hey, Soul Sister* California Gurls OMG* Airplanes* Love The Way You Lie Bad Romance* Dynamite Break Your Heart* Nothin' On You* I Like It* Bedrock* In My Head* Rude Boy* Telephone* Teenage Dream Just The Way You Are** Cooler Than Me Imma Be Empire State of Mind* DJ Got Us Fallin' in Love Billionaire* Not Afraid Replay* Sexv Chick* Breakeven* Your Love Is My Drug I Gotta Feeling** * Fireflies* Say Aah* Find Your Love Alejandro* Ridin' Solo* Just A Dream How Low*

Artist Ke$ha Lady Antebellum Train Katy Perry feat. Snoop Dogg Usher feat. will.i.am B.o.B. feat. Hayley Williams Eminem feat. Rihanna Lady Gaga Taio Cruz Taio Cruz feat. Ludacris B.o.B. feat. Bruno Mars Enrique Iglesias feat. Pitbull Young Money feat. Lloyd Jason Derulo Rihanna Lady Gaga feat. Beyonce Katy Pen') Bruno Mars Mike Posner Black Eyed Peas Jay-Z and Alicia Keys Usher feat. Pitbull Travie McCoy feat. Bmno Mars Eminem Iyaz David Guetta feat. Akon The Script Ke$ha Black Eyed Peas Owl City Trey Songz feat. Fabolous Drake Lady Gaga Jason Derulo Nelly Ludacris
116

Genre Pop Country R&B Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Pop Pop R&B Pop Rap/Hip-Hop R&B Pop Pop Pop R&B Pop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Pop Rock Pop Pop R&B Rap/Hip-Hop R&B Pop Pop R&B Rap/Hip-Hop

37 38 39 40

Like A G6 Carry Out* Haven't Met You Yet* Club Can't Handle Me

Far East Movement feat. The Cataracs and Dev Timbaland feat. Justin Timberlake Michael Buble Flo Rida feat. David Guetta

Rap/Hip-Hop Pop R&B Pop

* = Song was released in an earlier year than the year it appears on the Hot 100 Chart ** = Song was in the Top 40 of the Hot 100 in more than one year

117

APPENDIX L TOP 40 FROM THE HOT 100: 2011

118

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Song Title Rolling In The Deep* Party Rock Anthem* Firework* E.T.* Give Me Everything Grenade* F**K You (Forget You)* Super Bass Moves Like Jagger Just Can't Get Enough* On The Floor* S&M Pumped Up Kicks Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)* Just The Way You Are** * Tonight (I'm Lovin' You)* Raise Your Glass* Born This Way* F**Kin' Perfect* What's My Name?* Look At Me Now

Artist Adele LMFAO Featuring Lauren Bennett & GoonRock Katy Perry Katv Perry Featuring Kanye West Pitbull Featuring Ne-Yo, Afrojack & Nayer Bruno Mars Cee I .o Green Nicki Minaj Maroon 5 F eaturing Christina Aguilera The Black Eyed Peas Jennifer Lopez Featuring Pitbull Rihanna Foster The People Katy Perry Bruno Mars

Genre R&B Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Pop Pop R&B Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop Pop Pop Pop R&B Pop R&B Pop Pop Pop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop Rap/Hip-Hop R&B R&B Pop R&B Pop R&B Pop Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Pop

Enrique Iglesias Featuring Ludacris & DJ Frank E P!nk l ady Gaga Pink Rihanna Featuring Drake Chris Brown Featuring Lil Wayne & Busta Rhymes Jeremih Featuring 50 Cent Down On Me* Lil Wavne How To Love Someone Like You* Adele OneRepublie Good Life* Bruno Mars The Lazy Song Till The World Ends Britney Spears The Show Goes On* Lupe Fiasco Lady Gaga The Edge Of Glory Ke$ha We R Who We R* Black And Yellow* Wiz Khalifa Hot Chelle Rae Tonight Tonight
119

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

Blow Lighters If I Die Young* Stereo Hearts The Time (Dirty Bit)* Coming Home* Hey Baby (Drop It To The Floor)* Only Girl (In The World)*

Ke$ha Bad Meets Evil Featuring Bruno Mars The Band Perry Gym Class Heroes Featuring Adam Levine The Black Eyed Peas Diddy - Dirty Money Featuring Skylar Grey Pitbull Featuring T-Pain Rihanna

Pop Rap/Hip-Hop Rock Pop Pop R&B Pop Pop

* = Song was released in an earlier year than the year it appears on the Hot 100 Chart ** = Song was in the Top 40 of the Hot 100 in more than one year

120

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