ISSN 2191-1150

Transcience Journal Vol 2, No 1 (2011)

Human Trafficking in the era of Globalization: The case of Trafficking in the Global Market Economy
by Majeed ! "a#$an

Introduction %u$an &ra''ic(in) is a #u$an *#eno$enon &#a& #as been and con&inues &o be *rac&iced 'or cen&uries no+ ( li e& al 2001)! ,i(e &#e )lobal econo$ic crisis, #u$an &ra''ic(in) is a )lobal crisis &#a& is ine-&ricably lin(ed &o &#e curren& $o.e o' )lobali/a&ion in &#e se- indus&ries in.ol.in) +o$en and c#ildren (%o0ue, 2010)! %o0ue e-a$ines &#e *ain'ul reali&y o' 'e$ale se- +or(ers in 1an)lades# and ar)ues &#a& &#e curren& ra&e o' )ro+&# in se- &rade in 1an)lades# is 'os&ered by social and econo$ic .ulnerabili&ies &#a& i$*el youn) +o$en &o en)a)e in co$$ercial se- +or(! 2onse0uen&ly, +#a& #as e$er)ed in 1an)lades# and across &#e borders in India, Malaysia, 3a(is&an and o&#er Middle 4as&ern coun&ries is &#e cul&ure o' c#ild &ra''ic(in) bo&# in&ernally and across borders (%o0ue 2010)! In &#is *a*er, I +ill e-*lore &#e di$ensions o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) by dis&in)uis#in) be&+een di''eren& &y*es o' &ra''ic(in)! T#e dis&inc&ion is based on &#e in&er*re&a&ion o' &#e &ra''ic(ed .ic&i$ as a co$$odi&y! T#ereby, se.eral $ar(e&s accordin) &o consu$er needs can be dis&in)uis#ed! I +ill e-*lain &#ese consu$er needs and &#e su**ly c#ains ai$ed a& sa&is'yin) &#ese needs! T#ese c#ains #a.e beco$e increasin)ly )lobali/ed, +#ic# $eans &#a& +e #a.e &o unders&and &#e issue in &#e 'ra$e+or( o' con&e$*orary )lobali/a&ion and es*ecially )lobal ca*i&alis$! Definition of Human Trafficking 1ales (2005) de'ines con&e$*orary sla.ery as a 6social and econo$ic rela&ions#i* in +#ic# a *erson is con&rolled &#rou)# .iolence or *aid no&#in), and econo$ically e-*loi&ed!7 In &#e old 'or$ o' sla.ery, 'ricans +ere s*eci'ically &rans*or&ed &o &#e Ne+ 8orld based on &#eir race and s*eci'ic ca*abili&ies! T#e ne+ 'or$ o' sla.ery )oes beyond racial lines! s 1ales ar)ues, bo&# &#e ne+ and old 'or$s are c#arac&eri/ed by .iolence used &o $ain&ain &#e sla.e! No& only is .iolence used, bu& .ic&i$s are subju)a&ed and s&ri**ed o' &#eir 'ree +ill! Sla.es +ere o'&en $ar)inali/ed and e-*loi&ed by &#eir sla.e $as&er! In o&#er +ords, blac( sla.es could no& buy &#eir 'reedo$! l&#ou)# a sla.e in &#is ca&e)ory could usually be ensla.ed 'or li'e, $odern sla.ery #o+e.er, is &ransien& and occasionally &e$*orary! 1ales asser&s &#a& &ra''ic(ers9 $ini$u$ #old-u* (*eriod o' ca*&i.i&y) is usually be&+een
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"a#$an: %u$an Tra''ic(in) in &#e era o' ;lobali/a&ion

&#ree &o si- $on&#s, or lon)er, de*endin) on &#e si&ua&ion and &#e circu$s&ance! Today, #u$an &ra''ic(in) in.ol.es &#e $o.e$en& o' .ic&i$s, usually +o$en and c#ildren, across borders le)ally or ille)ally! T#ese .ic&i$s $ay be ei&#er docu$en&ed or +i&#ou& docu$en&a&ion as &#ey #ead in&o an un(no+n des&ina&ion, and in $os& cases &#e *erson bein) &rans*or&ed is una+are o' &#e conse0uences &#ereo'! nd so$e&i$es .ic&i$s $ay be obli.ious o' unin&ended conse0uences suc# as arres&s and de*or&a&ion +#ile in &ransi& &o &#e ne+ des&ina&ion! Many o' &#e 'or$s o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) in.ol.e &#e $o.e$en& o' *eo*le 'ro$ one *lace &o ano&#er o'&en un(no+n &o &#e .ic&i$! In $any cases, &#is in.ol.es .ic&i$s bein) lured by be&&er o**or&uni&ies in &#e 'or$ o' jobs else+#ere! %o0ue (2010) ar)ues &#a& +#a& clearly de'ines #u$an &ra''ic(in) &oday is s&ill un(no+n des*i&e .arious de'ini&ions by in&erna&ional )o.ern$en&al and non)o.ern$en&al or)ani/a&ions! l&#ou)# sla.ery #as been abolis#ed 'or a cen&ury no+, &#e *rac&ice o' sla.ery s&ill e-is&s albei& in di''eren& 'or$s! In &oday9s li&era&ure, $odern day sla.ery is #u$an &ra''ic(in)! l&#ou)# $os& o' &#e discussions on #u$an &ra''ic(in) &end &o 'ocus on 'orcin) and &rans*or&in) +o$en 'or labor and se-ual e-*loi&a&ion, &#e $ajori&y o' $odern day &ra''ic(in) cases can be 'ound in 'ac& e.ery+#ere in our co$$uni&ies and socie&ies! <n&il 2000 &#e de'ini&ion o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) +as .aried and re'lec&ed )eo)ra*#ical and re)ional locale! In order &o consolida&e &#ese re)ional de'ini&ions, &#e <ni&ed Na&ion in 2000 *ro$ul)a&ed &#e *ro&ocol &o end #u$an &ra''ic(in) in &#e +orld! T#is *ro&ocol +#ic# ca$e in&o 'orce in =ece$ber 200> see(s a$on) o&#ers &o su**ress, *unis#, and &o *re.en& &#e &ra''ic(in) o' +o$en and c#ildren +orld +ide! & &#e sa$e &i$e, &#e <ni&ed Na&ion 'or &#e 'irs& &i$e de'ined #u$an &ra''ic(in) as 6&#e recrui&$en&, &rans*or&, &rans'er, #arborin), or recei*& o' *ersons by $eans o' &#e &#rea& or use o' 'orce or o&#er 'or$s o' coercion o' abduc&ion, o' 'raud o' dece*&ion o' &#e abuse o' *o+er or o' a *osi&ion o' .ulnerabili&y or o' &#e )i.in) or recei.in) o' *ay$en&s or bene'i&s &o ac#ie.e &#e consen& o' a *erson #a.in) a con&rol o.er ano&#er *erson 'or &#e *ur*oses o' e-*loi&a&ion! 4-*loi&a&ion s#all include a& a $ini$u$, &#e e-*loi&a&ion o' &#e *ros&i&u&ion o' o&#ers or o&#er 'or$s o' se-ual e-*loi&a&ion, 'orced labor or ser.ices, sla.ery or *rac&ices si$ilar &o sla.ery, ser.i&ude or &#e re$o.al o' or)ans! T#e consen& o' a .ic&i$ o' &ra''ic(in) in *ersons &o &#e in&ended e-*loi&a&ion se& 'or&# (abo.e) s#all be irrele.an& +#ere any o' &#e $eans se& 'or&# (abo.e) #a.e been used!7
1

T#is co$*re#ensi.e de'ini&ion o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) no& only se&s o'' &#e )oals and *ara$e&ers u*on +#ic# na&ions can 'i)#& #u$an &ra''ic(in),
<ni&ed Na&ion 2on.en&ion )ains& Transna&ional ?r)ani/ed 2ri$e (2000): II, Sec&ion r&icle >, *!52-5>
1

nne-

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Transcience Journal Vol 2, No 1 (2011)

bu& also #as been ra&i'ied by u* &o 11@ na&ions +orld +ide! ?n &#e basis o' &#ese de'ini&ions, i& can be discerned &#a& #u$an &ra''ic(in) in.ol.es &#e &rans*or& o' indi.iduals usually c#ildren $ale and 'e$ale ali(e under dece*&i.e circu$s&ances 'or &#e $o&i.e o' *ro'i&in) o' &#eir labor ei&#er in&ernally or across borders! T#is de'ini&ion is also consis&en& +i&# 3ennin)&on e& al! (200A) +#en &#ey ar)ue &#a& #u$an &ra''ic(in) enco$*asses &#e &rans*or& o' #u$an bein)s across borders 'or &#e *ur*ose o' usin) &#e$ as sla.es! T#ey 'ur&#er$ore added &#a& con&e$*orary #u$an &ra''ic(in) can be 'ound in se- &rade, coerce labor, e-&rac&ion o' body *ar&s, and o&#er 'or$s o' e-*loi&ed labor or deb& bonda)e! ?n &#e basis o' &#ese de'ini&ions +e +ould li(e &o as( +#o &#en are #u$an &ra''ic(ersB 8#y do &#ey *urc#ase, +#o$, and 'or +#a& *ur*oseB s I re.ie+ &#e .arious li&era&ures on &#e subjec& o' #u$an &ra''ic(in), I as( $ysel', +#y does #u$an &ra''ic(in) occurB nd +#o *ays 'or all &#isB ?n &#e basis o' &#e 3aler$o *ro&ocol, a %u$an &ra''ic(er is so$eone +#o &rans*or&s, #arbors, e-*loi&s, and lures so$eone 'or ei&#er #i$sel' or &o be &rans*or&ed &o so$eone else 'or a *ro'i&! ;enerally &#e $o&i.es 'or &#ese &ransac&ions are $oney! Money is &#e dri.in) 'orce &#a& (ee*s &#e 'la$es o' &#is cri$inal o''ense burnin) li(e a +ild 'ire! Since &ra''ic(in) in.ol.es cri$inal )an)s, &#ey a.oid arres& by cons&an&ly $o.in) .ic&i$s 'ro$ *lace &o *lace un&il #e or s#e is co$*le&ely +arned o''! Majori&y o' .ic&i$s are used in &#e se- &ouris$ indus&ry, *orno)ra*#y, and bro&#els, as c#ea* labor (3ennin)&on e& al! 200A: 5)! =unn (200@) ar)ues &#a& &#e *roble$ o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) is )ro+in) a& a 'as&er ra&e annually! bou& 12!> $illion *eo*le are &ra''ic(ed e.ery $o$en& o' &#e &i$e! In 2001 'or ins&ance, abou& 55,000-50,000 +ere &ra''ic(ed in &#a& year (ibid!)! T#is su''ices &o underline &#a& #u$an &ra''ic(in) is a lucra&i.e business, in +#ic# +o$en and c#ildren are $os& .ulnerable! Ja#ic (2009) e-a$ines &#e econo$ic and social 'ac&ors &#a& are associa&ed +i&# #u$an &ra''ic(in) )enerally +#en #e ar)ues &#a& )ender and de$o)ra*#ic in'or$a&ion *lays a si)ni'ican& role in &#e recrui&$en& *rocess! %is analysis also e-a$ines &#e )ender roles .is-C-.is &#e socio-econo$ic s&a&us o' .ic&i$s $os&ly &ra''ic(ed! T#is *a*er builds on &#e in&er*re&a&ion o' &#e na&ure o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) &#rou)# &#e econo$ic lens o' 6de$and7 and 6su**ly7 in order &o unders&and &#e o*era&ion o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) )lobally! ddi&ionally, +#a& I see( &o do is &o e-*lica&e and elucida&e &#e rise o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) in &#e )lobal $ar(e& econo$y &#rou)# &#e co$bina&ions o' s&ruc&ural and *ro-i$al 'ac&ors as es*oused by 2a$eron and Ne+$an (200A)! 2a$eron and Ne+$an, de*ar&s 'ro$ &#e &radi&ional no&ions o' 6o*era&ional7 issues o' dealin) +i&# &#e #u$an &ra''ic(in), +#en &#ey ar)ue on &#e in&ersec&ionali&y o' &#e o&#er 'ac&ors &#ey called 6s&ruc&ural7 and 6*ro-i$al7 +i&#in &#e con&e-& o' ecolo)ical locale! 2a$eron e& al! (200A) #a.e 'ocused on &#e econo$ic as*ec& o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) +#en &#ey ar)ued &#a& s&ruc&ural 'ac&ors suc# as social,
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"a#$an: %u$an Tra''ic(in) in &#e era o' ;lobali/a&ion

econo$ic, *oli&ical and cul&ural also 'os&ers and sus&ains &#e business o' #u$an &ra''ic(in)! Global Dimensions of Human Trafficking T#e 'or$s o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) are .aried and &o a lar)e e-&en& $ul&i'ace&ed in di$ension callin) 'or an in&e)ra&ed a**roac#! In $os& cases, &#e s&ruc&ural 'ac&ors o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) are si$ilar &o one ano&#er suc# as &#e underlyin) econo$ic and social con&e-& bu& in &#e la)er con&e-& i&s *a&&erns are .aried and de*end on )eo)ra*#ical and re)ional loca&ions (2a$eron e& al! 200A)! ;lobally, an es&i$a&ed 12!> $illion *eo*le are ensla.ed (In&erna&ional ,abour ?r)ani/a&ion (I,?) 2005)! ?u& o' &#is nu$ber, an es&i$a&ed 2!5 $illion *eo*le are in 'orced labor (coerced *ros&i&u&ion and se-ual e-*loi&a&ions)! ?u& o' &#e 2!5 $illion $en&ioned abo.e, an es&i$a&ed 1!5 $illion *eo*le cons&i&u&in) a**ro-i$a&ely 5DE o' .ic&i$s in 'orced labor co$e 'ro$ sia and &#e *aci'ic! 250,000, cons&i&u&in) abou& 10E, co$e 'ro$ ,a&in $erica and &#e 2aribbean, 2>0,000 or 9!2E co$e 'ro$ &#e Middle 4as& and Nor&#ern 'rica, 1>0,000 or abou& 5!2E co$e 'ro$ Sub Sa#aran 'rica, 2@0,000 or abou& 10!AE are 'ro$ indus&rial coun&ries suc# as &#e <S and 8es&ern 4uro*e! nd 200,000 or abou& AE co$e 'ro$ coun&ries in &ransi&ions or +ea(ened s&a&es *lun)ed by con'lic&s! & leas& abou& 1D1 coun&ries are en)a)ed in #u$an &ra''ic(in) as source, &ransi& and des&ina&ion *oin&s! ccordin) &o &#e <NI24F c#ild &ra''ic(in) in'or$a&ion s#ee& 200>, an es&i$a&ed 1!2 $illion c#ildren are &ra''ic(ed eac# year! T#e $ajori&y are be&+een &#e a)es o' 1A-25, ou& o' +#o$ an es&i$a&ed 95E o' &#ese .ic&i$s #a.e e-*erience *#ysical or se-ual .iolence +#ile bein) &ra''ic(ed! ?u& o' &#is *ercen&a)e, abou& 5>E o' .ic&i$s are used 'or 'orced co$$ercial se-ual e-*loi&a&ion, &#e $ajori&y o' +#o$ in.ol.es +o$en and c#ildren! T#e <S =e*ar&$en& o' s&a&e (200D) re*or&s &#a& &#e $os& co$$on 'or$s o' sla.ery are *ros&i&u&ion in ad.anced coun&ries, cons&i&u&in) abou& 5DE! 2@E in do$es&ic ser.i&ude, 10E in a)ricul&ural and 5E in s+ea& s#o*s! %u$an &ra''ic(in) &oday is a #u)e business )enera&in) #u)e *ro'i&s annually! 2010, accordin) &o &#e in&erna&ional labor or)ani/a&ion, an es&i$a&ed G>1!D billion in *ro'i&s +as accu$ula&ed &#rou)# e-*loi&a&ion, ei&#er se-ually or &#rou)# coerced labor! ?u& &#is nu$ber, abou& 15!5 billion, cons&i&u&in) abou& 59E, +ere )enera&ed in indus&rial coun&ries! 9!@ billion bou& >0!DE +ere )enera&ed in sia 3aci'ic!1!> billion or abou& 5!1E +as 'or ,a&in $erica and &#e 2aribbean! 1!D billion or abou& 5E +ere )enera&ed in Sub Sa#aran 'rica, and 1!5 billion or a**ro-i$a&ely 5!@E +ere )enera&ed in &#e Middle 4as& (1esler 2005)! 2 In&erna&ional ,abour ?r)ani/a&ion, Forced ,abour S&a&is&ics Fac&s#ee& (200@) 3 <ni&ed Na&ions ?''ice on =ru)s and 2ri$e, Tra''ic(in) in 3ersons: ;lobal 3a&&erns
(Vienna, 200D) (1999-200D)
5 > 2

4 In&erna&ional ?r)ani/a&ion 'or Mi)ra&ion, 2oun&er-Tra''ic(in) =a&abase, @A 2oun&ries

5@

Transcience Journal Vol 2, No 1 (2011)

3ennin)&on e& al! (200A: 2) #a.e indica&ed &#a& in Israel an ensla.ed *ros&i&u&e could earn be&+een G550-2,500 a day, i' &#e .ic&i$ is +or(in) be&+een 15-1@ #ours a day *er +ee(! Market Situations %u$an &ra''ic(in) )enerally is or)ani/ed around 'i.e *ar&ici*an&s! Firs&, i& in.ol.es $i)ran& .ic&i$s +#o are &ra''ic(ed and &rans*or&ed! Second, in.ol.es &#ose +#o recrui& .ic&i$s 'or &rans*or&, and in $os& cases &a(e c#ar)e o' 'inances by *ayin) 'or all &rans*or&a&ion cos&s! T#ird, are buyers +#o clai$ o+ners#i* o' *ossession o' &#e .ic&i$! In $os& cases buyers do no& #a.e any *re-e-is&in) rela&ions#i*s +i&# &#e .ic&i$H #ence &#e buyer $ay use 'orce and coercion &o $ain&ain co$*liance o' &#e .ic&i$ in&o sub$ission! Four&#, are &#e enablers, &#ose +#o +or( be#ind &#e scenes ei&#er (no+in)ly or un(no+in)ly by assis&in) in 'acili&a&in) &#e $o.e$en& o' .ic&i$s 'ro$ one *lace &o ano&#er! T#is is i$$inen& in +ea(ened de.elo*in) coun&ries o' 'rica, sia and Sou&# $erica, +#ere #u$an &ra''ic(ers can bea& &#e sys&e$ +i&#ou& )e&&in) cau)#&! Fi'&#, consu$ers or buyers o' se- *ros&i&u&es 'ro$ *i$*s +#o o''er clien&ele ser.ices on #ourly bases a& &#e e-*ense o' &#e .ic&i$! Finally, N;?s +#o *lay a si)ni'ican& role in re#abili&a&in) .ic&i$s (i' &#ey are e.er reco.ered) 'ro$ #u$an &ra''ic(in) $enace! 3ennin)&on e& al! (200A) $en&ion &#a& researc#in) #u$an &ra''ic(in) can be .ery di''icul& because o' &#e na&ure and or)ani/a&ion o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) (clandes&ine o*era&ion)! For e-a$*le, .ic&i$s are usually #iddenH as a resul&, iden&i'yin) .ic&i$s 'or assis&ance can be a daun&in) and e-&re$ely #u)e &as(, es*ecially in de&er$inin) sa$*le *o*ula&ion o' .ic&i$s! T#e 2005 <S =e*ar&$en& o' S&a&e "e*or& *rojec&ed &#a& #u$an &ra''ic(in) is one o' &#e 'as&es& )ro+in) or)ani/ed cri$es a'&er ar$s and dru) &rade! %u$an &ra''ic(in) is *ro'i&ed by *i$*s around &#e +orld and &#ese nu$bers con&inue &o increase in #i)# *ro*or&ions +i&# de$and 'or &#e se-ual e-*loi&a&ion o' +o$en! lon) &#e border be&+een ,aos and T#ailand 'or e-a$*le, $any +o$en #a.e been sold in&o *ros&i&u&ion, and &ra''ic(ed in&o Ja*an +#ere &#ey are #eld &o +or( 'or bro&#el ser.ices and $assa)e s#o*s 'or a *eriod o' &i$e, and are usually dis*osed o' +#ene.er a .ic&i$ con&rac&s a disease! 1ales ar)ues &#a& a #u)e $ajori&y o' +o$en and c#ildren +ere rescued in I&aly $os& o' +#o$ e$i)ra&ed 'ro$ Sub-Sa#aran 'rica +#ere &#ey +ere recrui&ed and *ro$ised be&&er job o**or&uni&ies! ,i(e $any o' &#e bro&#els and s&ri* clubs in $os& ad.anced coun&ries &#e ser.ices o' +o$en are )ro+in) #i)#er and #i)#er! T#e need 'or e-o&ic +o$en in bro&#el *laces and $assa)e s#o*s $a(es &#e de$and 'or +o$en and c#ildren 'ro$ 4as&ern 4uro*e &o <S and Ja*an a .ery e-*ensi.e co$$odi&y (%u)#es 2005)! 1ales (2005) de$ons&ra&es &#a& &#e sale o' se- in Ja*an is o' #u)e 'inancial rele.ance! In 2001, &#e se- business in Ja*an )enera&ed a +#o**in) G20 billion in re.enue, +#ic# is 'our &i$es $ore &#an +#a& Toyo&a +ill $a(e! Fur&#er$ore, &#e *rice 'or se- in $os& $assa)e s#o*s, also (no+n as soa*y s#o*s, is be&+een G>00 and G500!
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%o+e.er, i& +as co$$on &o 'ind se- on &#e s&ree& 'or as lo+ as GA! T#e se- business in Ja*an is *ar& o' Ja*an9s o.erall 6en&er&ain$en& indus&ry7 &#a& e$*loys a lar)e nu$ber o' youn) 'orei)n +o$en 'ro$ de.elo*in) coun&ries li(e T#ailand and Ne*al! Demand Side of Human Trafficking In recen& &i$es &#ere #a.e been se.eral &y*es o' de$and 'or +o$en 'or co$$ercial se- +or( and *ros&i&u&ion in &#e bro&#els! 8#a& dri.es &#e de$and 'or +o$en and c#ildren 'or se-ual labor in &#ese sec&ors #as co$e &o be (no+n as &#e *ull and *us# 'ac&ors 'uellin) &#e se-ual e-*loi&a&ion o' +o$en 'ro$ $ainly de.elo*in) coun&ries &o $ore ad.anced coun&ries in 8es&ern 4uro*e and Nor&# $erica! In $os& cases, $any o' &#ese youn) )irls are recrui&ed 'ro$ less de.elo*ed coun&ries in *ro$ise o' be&&er job o**or&uni&ies o.erseas! <*on arri.al abroad, .ic&i$s9 *ass*or&s and o&#er .aluable 'or$s o' iden&i'ica&ion are &a(en a+ay, and in $os& cases .ic&i$s are abused in&o sub$ission! In a con.ersa&ion +i&# a &ra''ic(ed +o$an &o Ja*an, 1ales 'ound ou&: 6Sri +as a**roac#ed by a +o$an s#e ne+ 'ro$ #er *ro.ince, +#o I&old #er abou& a +ell *aid job o**or&uni&y in T#ai res&auran& in Ja*an! Sri decides &o &a(e u* &#e o''er because #er *aren&s needed $oney 'or #er youn)er bro&#er9s sc#oolin)! Sri a**lied 'or a *ass*or& #ersel', bu& +as called &o an o''ice &o $ee& a 6boss7 +#o #ad $any *ass*or&s a& #and and c#ose one 'or #er! S#e #ad silicon injec&ions in #er 'ace &o $a(e #er loo( $ore li(e &#e *ic&ure on &#e *ass*or&! %o+e.er, s#e barely carried &#e *ass*or& #ersel', en&erin) Ja*an +i&# a $an *osin) as #er 6Ja*anese boy'riend,7 +#o &oo( #er *ass*or& a'&er *assin) &#rou)# i$$i)ra&ion o''icers! Sri belie.ed &#e *ass*or& $ay #a.e carried a .isa 'or a Ja*anese s*ouse! & &#e air*or& in Ja*an, &#e 6boy'riend7 ran) ano&#er $an +#o ca$e &o *ic( #er u* by a car, and &oo( #er &o a bar +#ere s#e +as &old s#e #ad &o re*ay a deb& o' 5!A $illion Ja*anese Jen abou& G50,000 &o co.er &#e cos& in.ol.ed in brin)in) #er &o Ja*an!7 (1ales 200@: 110) T#is re*resen&s one o' &#e $any circu$s&ances .ic&i$s o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) under)o any $o$en& in &i$e! In India, due &o &#e cas&e sys&e$ &#a& #as been *rac&iced 'or se.eral cen&uries, &#e de$and 'or *eo*le by #i)#er social cas&e )enera&es de$and 'or ser.icesH #ence, $os& rural Indians are o'&en de$anded &o +or( in 'ar$ 'ields as sla.es usually &er$ed deb& bonda)e! In &#is 'or$ o' sla.ery &#e *erson is $ade &o +or( 'or so$e &i$e ($any years in so$e cases) in order &o re*ay loans &o &#e $as&er! T#is re*ay$en& can usually e-&end &o se.eral )enera&ions o' &#e unborn, &#ereby $a(in) *er*e&ual ensla.e$en& *ossible (1ales 2005)! 1onded labor in India is +ides*read due &o &#e enor$ous *o.er&y in &#e *eri*#eral and re$o&e *ar&s o' &#e coun&ry! s a resul&, &#e need 'or a)ricul&ural labor in &#e
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Transcience Journal Vol 2, No 1 (2011)

areas +#ere co''ee and co&&on *roduc&ions are concen&ra&ed )enera&es de$and 'or *eo*le &o +or( under .ery *ain'ul condi&ions, and in so$e cases .ery li&&le co$*ensa&ion! T#ese are &#e circu$s&ances in India &#a& .ic&i$s o' deb& bonda)e #a.e been )oin) &#rou)# 'or )enera&ions no+! T#e 0ues&ion is +#a& dri.es &#is business o' bonded laborB T#e si$*le underlyin) ans+er is *o.er&y! 3o.er&y is &#e $os& sin)le 'ire &#a& i)ni&es &#e 'la$e o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) )lobally! T#e de$and 'or a)ricul&ural labor in &#e +orld is enor$ous es*ecially &#e de$and 'or c#ea* labor in cer&ain areas o' a)ricul&ural *roduc&ion $a(es &#e de$and 'or #u$an labor #i)#! In I.ory 2oas& 'or e-a$*le, Kielland (200A) ar)ues #o+ c#ildren +ere bein) recrui&ed &o &#e cocoa 'ar$s in &#e I.ory 2oas&! c#ild in Mali accordin) &o Kielland could be *urc#ased 'or as lo+ as G55! In &#e sa$e .ein, c#ildren in ;#ana are en)a)ed in cocoa and *al$ oil *roduc&ion as +ell as in &#e $ines! T#e 'is#in) indus&ry in ;#ana #as also +i&nessed &#e recrui&$en& o' c#ildren 'or o''s#ore 'is#in)! 2#ildren due &o &#eir li)#& +ei)#& +ere o'&en &ied u* +i&# #ea.y loads in order &#a& &#ey can sin( &o &#e bo&&o$ o' &#e sea &o *ull and re$o.e 'is#in) ne&s and o&#er )ad)e&s! T#e In&erna&ional ,abor ?r)ani/a&ion *oin&s ou& &#a& abou& 12 $illion c#ildren +orld +ide are en)a)ed in all 'or$s o' 'orced labor! Mos& o' &#ese c#ildren in $any ins&ances are #idden in our socie&ies &o &#e bene'i& o' cri$inals +#ose annual *ro'i&s in 2009 +ere *rojec&ed a& G>2 billion, a**ro-i$a&ely G1>,000 *er *erson annually (1ales 2005)! In recen& &i$es &#e )lobali/a&ion o' econo$y #as also i$*elled cor*ora&ions &o ou&source business o.ersea in order &o en)a)e in &#e ser.ices 'or c#ildren and $inors 'or &#e *ur*ose o' e-*loi&a&ion! T#e co$*any Ni(e 'or e-a$*le ou&sourced &#eir $ajor *roduc&ions &o ,ebanon and Indonesia &o en)a)e &#e ser.ices o' +o$en 'or jus& a dollar a day 'or &#e *roduc&ion o' Ni(e *roduc&s &#a& are bein) sold 'or e-orbi&an& *rices in &#e <S! T#is 'or$ o' e-*loi&a&ion is necessi&a&ed by $oney dri.en cor*ora&ions +#o see( &o $a(e billions o' dollars as 0uic(ly as *ossible! Kno+in) &#e bac()round o' &#ese $a&erial )oods $ay #el* in &#e lon) run in a.oidin) &#ese cor*ora&ions ensla.in) and e-*loi&in) &#e $ajori&y o' &#e +orld i$*o.eris#ed +o$en and c#ildren! In Me-ico 'or ins&ance, Vic&oria Secre& #as been na$ed a$on) &#e co$*anies e$*loyin) c#ea* Me-ican labor 'or &#e *roduc&ion o' cos$e&ics *roduc&s! T#is 'or$ o' labor e-*loi&a&ion is no di''eren& 'ro$ earlier 'or$s o' sla.ery! l&#ou)# $odern 'or$s o' sla.ery a& leas& earn so$e +a)es, &#ese +a)es are e-*loi&a&i.e! For e-a$*le, co$*anies +#o #ire 'orei)n +or(ers &a(e ad.an&a)e o' &#eir si&ua&ion by o''erin) e-&re$ely lo+ +a)es &#a& +ill be unacce*&able in any de.elo*ed coun&ry! T#e na&ure o' )lobali/a&ion #as also e-acerba&ed &#e de$and 'or #u$an &ra''ic(in) all o.er &#e +orld! ;lobali/a&ion +i&# i&s in#eren& )lobal &ec#nolo)y #as 'ur&#er con&ribu&ed &o &#e ensla.e$en& and &o&al e-*loi&a&ion o' *eo*le across &#e +orlds! Mos& o' &#ese e-*loi&a&ions #a.e usually )one unno&iced due &o &#e sub&le na&ure o' &#eir o*era&ion!
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"a#$an: %u$an Tra''ic(in) in &#e era o' ;lobali/a&ion

For e-a$*le, &#e )lobal &ec#nolo)y #as $ade i& *ossible 'or &ec#nolo)y based cor*ora&ions in &#e <S &o ou&source i&s *roduc&ion ser.ices &o India and &#e 3#ili**ines 'or c#ea* labor! No&ably, &#e cus&o$er ser.ice indus&ry 'or ins&ance #as been ou&sourced &o India +#ere .ery lo+ +a)es are *aid! T#e o.erall resul& is e-*loi&a&ion o' &#e *eo*le! ?ne $ay ar)ue &#a& &#ese cor*ora&ions are o''erin) jobs, bu& &#e *oin& is &#a& #u$an &ra''ic(in) in.ol.es e-*loi&a&ion i' &#e *ur*ose o' en)a)e$en& is &o &#e bene'i& o' &#e one +#o en)a)es &#e o&#er in &#e ser.ices! ;lobali/a&ion &ec#nolo)y #as also increased &#e ser.ices o' se- +or(ers all o.er &#e +orld! T#e de$and 'or clien& ser.ices in &#e se- indus&ries in $any de.elo*ed coun&ries in 8es&ern 4uro*e and Nor&# $erica, #a.e increased as a resul& o' &ec#nolo)y! Today sian )irls cons&i&u&e &#e $ajori&y o' +o$en and c#ildren &ra''ic(ed annually! ccordin) &o &#e <ni&ed Na&ions Ini&ia&i.e &o Fi)#& %u$an Tra''ic(in) an es&i$a&ed 2!5 $illion *eo*le are 'orced in labor! ?u& o' &#is nu$ber abou& 1!5 $illion *eo*le or abou& 5DE co$e 'ro$ sia and &#e 3aci'ic! T#e $ajori&y co$e 'ro$ de.elo*in) coun&ries and are &ra''ic(ed 'or se-ual e-*loi&a&ion, es*ecially +i&# &#e e$er)in) )lobal &ec#nolo)ies suc# as &#e in&erne& and +eb resources! T#e +ide s*read o' &#e in&erne& and +ebca$s #as 'acili&a&ed &ra''ic(in) 'or se-ual *ur*oses! 1ales (2005) a)ues &#a& $ajori&y o' se- +or(ers in Ja*an co$e 'ro$ T#ailand and ,aos as +ell as 2#ina and i&s surroundin)! 2lien&s 'or &#ese +o$en and c#ildren o'&en bac( &#eir de$and by 'orce in &#e des&ina&ion coun&ries! In &#e 'orei)n coun&ry, &#ese +o$en and c#ildren are *ac(a)ed (#air cu&s, clo&#es) in order &o a&&rac& clien&s +#o de$and &#ese )irls 'or se- *ur*oses! 1ales also ar)ues &#a& li(e $any consu$er *roduc&s, #u$an bein)s &ra''ic(ed 'or se-ual e-*loi&a&ion are $ana)ed and branded &o $ee& &#e e-*ec&a&ions o' &#eir clien&s! 2lien&s and *i$*s are &#e ones +#o buy and sell &#ese )irls 'or a *eriod o' &i$e and &#en dis*ose o' &#e$ +#en &#ey are no lon)er *roduc&i.e or con&rac& a disease! 8o$en and c#ildren in $os& cases are &#e ones usually sold se.eral &i$es 'or *ros&i&u&ion by bouncin) 'ro$ one *i$* &o &#e o&#er un&il &#ey are bein) dis*osed o'! Supply Side Trafficking ?n &#e su**ly side, 1ales (1999) ar)ues &#a& social, econo$ic as +ell as *oli&ical reali&ies in &#e source coun&ries $a(e &#e &ra''ic(in) in *erson easy! Ne+$an (200A) e& al de$ons&ra&e &#a& bo&# 6s&ruc&ural7 and 6*ro-i$al7 'ac&ors in &#e #o$e coun&ries #a.e con&ribu&ed in 'os&erin) &#e $o.e$en& o' *eo*le 'ro$ &#e source, &o &#e des&ina&ion coun&ries! s already no&ed on &#e de$and side, &#e su**ly side 'or e-a$*le in.ol.es in $os& cases &#e $o.e$en& o' *eo*le 'ro$ &#eir coun&ries or *laces o' ori)in o'&en *la)ued +i&# se.eral social, econo$ic, *oli&ical as +ell as cul&ural 'ac&ors &#a& $a(e &#e .ic&i$s &o &#e ad.anced coun&ries .ulnerable!
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Transcience Journal Vol 2, No 1 (2011)

In &#e social con&e-&, Ne+$an (200A) e& al! ar)ue &#a& $os& o' &#e .ic&i$s are dri.en in&o #u$an &ra''ic(in) because o' &#e *ro$ise o' be&&er jobs and be&&er social a$eni&ies in &#e in&ended des&ina&ions! T#e Ibos o' 4as&ern Ni)eria in (+a Ibo$ S&a&e 'or e-a$*le #a.e beco$e a source 'or &ra''ic(ers &o recrui& +o$en in searc# o' be&&er condi&ions o' li'e &o +or( as se- sla.es in 4uro*e! In &#is co$$uni&y, &#e *ro$ise o' +eal&# by &ra''ic(ers is used &o en&ice &#e you&# o' &#e area &o $i)ra&e &o I&aly +#ere $ajori&y o' Ni)erians #a.e been iden&i'ied and rescued by an&i-#u$an &ra''ic(in) )rou*s (Fo-cro'& 2009)! T#e social $ilieu in &#is con&e-& o' crea&in) a su**ly o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) is 0ui&e di''eren& 'ro$ &#e #is&orical *rac&ice o' sla.ery! l&#ou)# &#e 'or$s are si$ilar suc# as &#e in.ol.e$en& o' so$e 'or$ o' social rela&ions#i* be&+een &#e e-*loi&er and &#e e-*loi&ed in &#e old 'or$ o' sla.ery, &#is rela&ions#i* is o'&en $ar(ed by .iolence, &#e use o' 'orce o' &#rea& o' &#e use o' 'orce in order &o $ain&ain and subju)a&e &#e .ic&i$! 8#ile &#e social con&e-& in $os& de.elo*in) coun&ries usually in.ol.es a #i)# de)ree o' i)norance, Killeand (200A) ar)ues &#a& social boredo$ i$*els Malian you&# &o &ra.el &o I.ory 2oas& in searc# o' +or( on cocoa 'ar$s! 4cono$ic 'ac&ors are &#e $os& rele.an& 'ac&or &#a& 'os&ers #u$an &ra''ic(in) )enerally! In 'ac& &#e econo$ic dri.e o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) is double ed)ed and *lays ou& in bo&# &#e de$and and su**ly side o' &#e #u$an &ra''ic(in) *roble$! Fro$ &#e su**ly side in +#ic# .ic&i$s are u*roo&ed &o *ar&ici*a&e in #u$an &ra''ic(in) are usually 'ro$ coun&ries +#ere *o.er&y is +ide-s*read! 3o.er&y in $os& de.elo*in) coun&ries o' 'rica and Sou&# 4as& sia as +ell as 4as&ern 4uro*e e-acerba&es li.in) condi&ions o' *eo*le &#ereby $a(in) .ic&i$s .ulnerable &o &ra''ic(ers! no&#er 'ac&or &#a& is lin(ed &o &#e *o.er&y o' &#ese coun&ries is une$*loy$en&! ?ne canno& rule ou& &#e 'ac& &#a& une$*loy$en& &o a lar)e e-&en& con&ribu&es &o *o.er&y o' de.elo*in) coun&ries! Since &#e disin&e)ra&ion o' &#e 'or$er So.ie& <nion, $any eas& 4uro*ean coun&ries #a.e no& been able &o reco.er econo$ically! T#is is e.iden& in &#e recen& u*sur)e o' une$*loy$en& ra&es in 3oland, ,a&.ia, and 1ul)aria and "o$anian econo$ies! 8i&# &#e )lobal econo$ic crisis o' &#e day, $any na&ions #a.e rolled bac( &#eir econo$ies due &o &#e )lobal econo$ic crunc#, and &#e resul& is $assi.e une$*loy$en& a$on) &#e you&#! In ;#ana and Ni)eria, +#ere &#e you&# cons&i&u&e abou& 50E o' &#e *o*ula&ions, i& is no& unco$$on &o 'ind &#a& &#ese $en and +o$en +ill see( a.enues 'or *o&en&ial e$*loy$en& else+#ere (I,? 2005 "e*or&)! s a resul&, #u$an &ra''ic(ers +ill use any $eans necessary &o lure and en&ice *eo*le in&o &ra''ic(in)! T#e bi))es& *roble$ dri.in) &#e su**ly side o' &#e #u$an &ra''ic(in) *roble$ is &#e .ulnerabili&y! I' *eo*le are no& .ulnerable &o be lured, &#en &ra''ic(in) is no& *ossible! In bu&&ressin) &#is *oin& 1ales (2000) ar)ues on &#e *laces +#ere recrui&$en& usually occurs and concludes &#a& *o.er&y and une$*loy$en& no& only cause #u$an &ra''ic(in) in essence, bu& 'os&er i&! 2on'lic&s in sub-Sa#aran 'rica and in so$e *ar&s o' sia #a.e been e-*loi&ed by #u$an &ra''ic(in) )an)s! ,iberia and Sierra ,eone 'or
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e-a$*le, +#ere con'lic&s #a.e #i& in &#e las& decades, #a.e i$*elled &#eir *o*ula&ion &o $o.e a+ay 'ro$ &#e con'lic& /ones +#ile o&#ers #a.e been s$u))led by #u$an &ra''ic(ers &o o&#er areas +#ere &#ey can +or( as *ros&i&u&es! 2on'lic&s 'or &#a& $a&&er crea&e condi&ions *ossible 'or &ra''ic(ers &o recrui& and &rans*or& *eo*le usually +i&# &#e 'alse in&en&ions o' dise$bar(in) in a sa'e loca&ion +i&# *ro$ises o' job o**or&uni&ies! In &#e case o' ;#ana, 'or ins&ance, $os& *ros&i&u&ion arres&s #a.e been youn) +o$en 'ro$ &rouble and con'lic& coun&ries, +#o due &o lac( o' job s(ills are unable &o secure jobs in &#e labor $ar(e&, bu& in'or$ally +or(in) as *ros&i&u&es in &#e slu$s o' ccra 'or *i$*s and cri$inal or)ani/a&ions! ?r)ani/ed cri$e suc# as *ros&i&u&ion in ;#ana is on &#e rise +i&# *olice crac(in) do+n *i$*s on a daily basis, es*ecially cases in.ol.in) &rans*or&a&ion o' +o$en in c#ildren across s&a&es and re)ions!
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2#ildren 'ro$ des&i&u&e 'a$ilies #a.e also been &#e $os& .ulnerable &o &#e su**ly o' &#e #u$an &ra''ic(in) *roble$! 1ales *oin&s &o &#e case in Mauri&ania +#ere c#ildren are recrui&ed &o be) on *rinci*al s&ree&s +i&# con&ainers 'or coins &#ey $a(e and send &o &#eir $as&ers! T#ese be))ars barely $a(e any &#ree s0uare $eals a day, bu& &#eir $as&ers ensure &#eir +el'are and u*(ee* so lon) as &#ey )o ou& &o be) daily! =es&i&u&e 'a$ilies are 'ound al$os& e.ery+#ere in de.elo*in) coun&ries suc# as India and 'rica as +ell as Sou&# $erica! %u)#es (2005) *oin&s ou& &#a& &#e inabili&y o' )o.ern$en& &o bee' u* securi&y $easures &o de&ec&, su**ress and con&rol &#e ac&i.i&ies o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) escala&es &#e *roble$! s an or)ani/ed cri$e, i& is co$$on &#a& $any o' &#ese &ra''ic(ers +ill #ide under &#e co.er o' &#e la+ &o en)a)e in &#eir ne'arious ac&i.i&ies! In &#e coun&ries +#ere #u$an &ra''ic(in) cases are increasin), na&ional )o.ern$en&s are o'&en bro(en loose $a(in) i& *ossible &o recrui& and &rans*or& .ic&i$s, #ence &#e su**ly and sale o' #u$an bein)s 'or labor e-*loi&a&ions! T#e le)al e.asion by &ra''ic(ers also $a(es &#e s$u))lin) o' *eo*le &o de.elo* and ad.ance coun&ries easy and less di''icul& &o de&ec&! T#e Me-ican and &#e <S border 'or e-a$*le co$*rises se.eral ille)al border crossin)s in&o &#e <S! ?r)ani/ed cri$inals s$u))le *eo*le ille)ally &o &#eir clien&s in &#e $ajor ci&ies in &#e <S 'or se-ual e-*loi&a&ion in &#e bro&#els! 2orru*& )o.ern$en&s in de.elo*in) coun&ries #a.e also bro(en loose $a(in) i& easy 'or &ra''ic(ers &o be able &o su**ly &#eir *i$*s +i&# &ra''ic(in) .ic&i$s! In 'rica, es*ecially sub-Sa#aran 'rica +#ere corru*& *oli&ical leaders can be easily $ani*ula&ed i& is di''icul& i' no& i$*ossible &o *rosecu&e &ra''ic(ers en)a)ed in #u$an &ra''ic(in)! In so$e cases because o' &#is loose le)al a&&i&ude, &ra''ic(ers #a.e concen&ra&ed in so$e de.elo*in) coun&ries &o su**ly +o$en and c#ildren abroad 'or &ra''ic(ers in 8es&ern 4uro*e and &#e <S! 8ea(enin) o' s&a&es and &#e colla*se o' &#e So.ie& 1loc in&o inde*enden& na&ions in &#e 1990s led &o a *eriod o' econo$ic s&a)na&ion
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Transcience Journal Vol 2, No 1 (2011)

in 4as&ern 4uro*e! T#e <ni&ed S&a&es =e*ar&$en& o' S&a&e ca&e)ori/es &#ese 4as&ern 4uro*ean coun&ries as so$e o' &#e bi))es& su**liers o' .ic&i$s o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) &o 8es&ern 4uro*e 'or *ros&i&u&ion and se-ual e-*loi&a&ion! T#is classi'ica&ion by &#e =e*ar&$en& o' S&a&e is no doub& lin(ed &o &#e s&alled and +ea(ened econo$ic )ro+&# in &#ese coun&ries in &#e 1990s (Free$an 200A)! 4cono$ic con&rac&ions due &o ca*i&al and credi& crunc# in &#e las& cou*le o' years #as a''ec&ed &#e 'inancial $ar(e& in &#e <ni&ed S&a&es and #as &ric(led do+n &o o&#er *o+er'ul econo$ies li(e Ja*an and 2#ina leadin) &o a )lobal econo$ic crisis! T#e crisis #as a''ec&ed econo$ic *ro)ress in de.elo*in) coun&ries and 'orced )o.ern$en& and local s&a&e a)encies &o lay o'' +or(ers in &#e indus&rial sec&or leadin) &o une$*loy$en& (8#i&ney 2010)! 8#ile &#e une$*loy$en& nu$bers are soarin) )lobally, i&s rela&ions#i* +i&# #u$an &ra''ic(in) canno& be ruled ou&! s or)ani/ed cri$inals, &ra''ic(ers are able &o assess coun&ries9 econo$ic *ro'iles and +#ere *eo*le can be .ulnerable due &o &#e lac( o' jobs caused by econo$ic crisis o' &#e &+en&y-'irs& cen&ury! 8#i&ney (2010) 'ur&#er$ore ar)ues &#a& &#e 'inancial $ar(e& #as s&ri**ed o'' u* &o G1> &rillion in e0ui&ies 'ro$ #ard +or(in) 'a$ilies and &#e +or(in) *oor! Fur&#er$ore, dis*osable inco$e *lu$$e&ed 'or &#e 'irs& &i$e since &#e 1990s +i&# li&&le or no $oney &o *urc#ase essen&ial co$$odi&ies! 8#y is &#is i$*or&an& &o &ra''ic(ersB Tra''ic(ers s&ri.e on .ulnerable econo$ic condi&ions! T#is *oin& is also consis&en& +i&# de- indus&riali/a&ions and &#e ado*&ion o' s&ruc&ural adjus&$en&s *olicies by coun&ries a&&e$*&in) &o re.erse &#eir econo$ies, e!)! 'rican coun&ries9 s&ruc&ural adjus&$en& *olicies in &#e 19A0s, and &#eir conco$i&an& re*ercussions on econo$ic )ro+&# (8#i&ney 2010)!

Modes of roduction T#e $odes o' *roduc&ion o' #u$an labor or #u$an &ra''ic(in) are .aried and uni0ue &o e.ery )eo)ra*#ic loca&ion or re)ion! In &#e +orld sys&e$, 8allers&ein ar)ues on .arious 'orces o' in&erac&ions &#a& occur +i&#in &#e core and &#e se$i- *eri*#ery! 8allers&ein indica&es &#a& &#e *eri*#ery9s dyna$ic o' c#an)e in &#e )eo*oli&ical *oli&ical sys&e$ cul$ina&es in &#e or)ani/ed in&errela&ions#i* be&+een &#e core and &#e *eri*#ery! In #is deba&e +i&# 8allers&ein, &#e ,a&in $erican #is&orian S&e.e S&ern rejec&s 8allers&ein9s +orld sys&e$ &#eory usin) a cri&ical &o accuse 8allers&ein as o.ers&a&in) &#e #is&orical i$*or&ance o' ,a&in $erican 'eudalis$ and i&s
*ro)ression &o ca*i&alis$ &#rou)# coerced labor recrui&$en& by Mita 'ro$ &#e *eriod be'ore 1500 &o .olun&ary +a)e labor acco$*anied +i&# s(illed and uns(illed labor 'orces in &#e sil.er $inin) as +ell as su)ar *roduc&ion in &#e ei)#&een&# and nine&een&# cen&uries (8allers&ein 19AA)! 8allers&ein )enerali/es &#e 4uro*ean
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Mi&a re'eres &o *ublic ser.ices in ,a&in $erica and &#e 2aribbean! T#e ar)u$en& #ere is +#e&#er &#e labor o' &#e Mi&a used by &#e )o.ern$en& circa 1500 cons&i&u&ed 'orced labor or e-*loi&a&ion o' &#e Mi&a 64

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e-*erience and ne)lec&s &#e re)ional circu$s&ances! T#is rejec&ion *oin&s &o labor recrui&$en& in &#e 2aribbean su)ar *lan&a&ions +#e&#er &#is recrui&$en& is ei&#er .olun&ary or in.olun&ary! Si$ilarly, in &#e case o' 1an)lades#, %o0ue (200A) enu$era&es &#e (ey $odes o' *roduc&ion o' #u$an labor and se-ual e-*loi&a&ion bo&# in&ernally or e-&ernally! %u$an &ra''ic(ers are usually 'ro$ &#e co$$uni&ies in +#ic# &#ey recrui& &#eir .ic&i$s (I,?2005 "e*or&)! Tra''ic(ers in $any coun&ries o'&en use 'orce &o ca*&ure .ic&i$s and coerce &#e$ in &o sub$ission +i&# li&&le resis&ance! T#is sor& o' (idna**in)s #as been docu$en&ed in $any sc#olarly li&era&ures in .arious areas and re)ions (%o0ue 2010)! %o0ue 'ur&#er ar)ues &#a& 'alse *re&ense suc# as &#e *ro$ise o' $arria)e and lo.e in $os& *laces o' 1an)lades# are a$on) &#e &#in)s &ra''ic(ers use &o en&ice des*era&e +o$en +#o are ea)er &o )e& $arried! T#is asser&ion by %o0ue (200A) is also consis&en& +i&# cer&ain cul&ural *rac&ices in sub-Sa#aran 'rica +#ere +o$en under cer&ain circu$s&ances are be&ro&#ed &o $en u*on *ay$en& o' a s$all 'ee &o &#eir *aren&s! Domestic Trafficking '&er ar$s and dru) &rade, #u$an &ra''ic(in) is &#e &#ird lar)es& or)ani/ed cri$e on an a )lobal scale, $os&ly +or(in) 'ro$ de.elo*in) &o de.elo*ed coun&ries (I,? "e*or& 2005)! %o+e.er, &#ere also is a considerable de)ree o' &ra''ic(in) &#a& is nei&#er )lobal nor in&erna&ional! =o$es&ic #u$an &ra''ic(in) re'ers &o &#e in&ernal 'or$s o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) in a socie&y or coun&ry! 8#ile coun&ries di''er 'ro$ one ano&#er in &er$s o' si/e and de.elo*$en&, &#e *roble$s associa&ed +i&# #u$an &ra''ic(in) in &#ese re)ions re$ain &#e sa$e! T#e $os& co$$on *roble$s are: cul&ural &ra''ic(in), reli)ious &ra''ic(in), c#ild soldiers, *a+nin) and deb& bonda)e, a)ricul&ural and 'orced labor, cul&is$ and 'orced $arria)es (1ales 2005)! Cultural Trafficking I' cul&ure is a +ay o' li'e and a +ay o' doin) &#in)s as &radi&ional an&#ro*olo)is&s suc# as Malino+s(i and 4.ans-3ri&c#ard belie.e, &#en surely &#e .ic&i$s o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) #a.e &#eir +ay o' li'e! Vic&i$s o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) are s&ri*ed o'' &#eir belie's, &radi&ions and cul&ural *rac&ices and 'orced &o ado*& &#e li'e o' &#e o**ressor! T#e los& o' one9s 'reedo$ and sense o' jud)$en& are &a(en a+ay reducin) .ic&i$s &o a 6#e+er o' +ood and a dra+er o' +a&er!7 I' a .ic&i$ is &a(en a+ay &o a 'orei)n coun&ry #e or s#e #as &o ada*& &o ne+ +ays o' li'e suc# as ne+ 'ood, lan)ua)e, clo&#s e&c in cer&ain cases .ic&i$s 'ro$ cer&ain re)ions o' &#e +orld are )i.en #aircu&s or #air s&yles in order &o blend in &#e #os& coun&ry, 1ales (2005) called &#ese ada*&a&ions &#e uni0ue sellin) *oin& (<S3)! T#e $ain *oin& #ere is &#a& so$e cul&ures condone and conni.e +i&# cul&ural *rac&ices o' &#e *eo*le &o ensla.e i&s o+n! T#e Trokosi9s in ;#ana 'or e-a$*le, is a case in *oin&, +#ere *aren&s send &#eir youn) dau)#&ers &o 'e&is# *ries&s &o a&one 'or &#eir e.ils in &#e
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socie&y! T#ese )irls ran)in) be&+een 10 and >0 years old li.e and ser.e &#e *ries&! nd in so$e cases &#ese youn) +o$en #a.e been ra*ed by *ries&s resul&in) in un+an&ed c#ildren (Fo-cro'& 2009)! T#is (ind o' *rac&ice in &#e na$e o' cul&ure #as no $oral basis in our socie&y, and &#ere'ore .iola&es &#e 'unda$en&al #u$an ri)#&s and 'reedo$! <nder 'orced $arria)es or be&ro&#als, $any sub Sa#aran socie&ies in nor&#ern ;#ana allo+ +o$en &o be 'orced in &o un+an&ed $arria)es! $on) &#e Ko$(o$bas in ;#ana 'or e-a$*le, $en &end &o bid 'or unborn babies s#ould &#a& baby &urn ou& &o be a )irl! T#is cul&ural *rac&ice no& only de*ri.es #u$an di)ni&y, bu& also under$ines &#e #u$an ri)#&s o' innocen& babies in &#e #ands o' &ra''ic(ers o' youn) c#ildren in &#e socie&y! In &#e case o' $arria)es, a +o$an is )i.en ou& 'or $arria)e, i' s#e is dee$ed ready and #as reac#ed *uber&y! 8o$en under &#is *rac&ice usually canno& resis&, bu& si$*ly co$*ly +i&# any decisions &#a& arri.e un&il &#e 'inal $arria)e ri&es are concluded! T#e 0ues&ion one ou)#& &o as( is i' &ra''ic(in) is de'ined in so$e cases as &#e use o' 'orce and coercion, +#a& &#en are 'orced or arran)ed $arria)esB ?&#er areas in sub Sa#aran 'rica, +#ere coerced $arria)es +ere *rac&iced include 1enin and To)o, +#ere i& is o'&en s#rouded under &#e Voodoo *rac&ice! ,i(e &#e cul&ural cases o' &#e Trokosi9s o' ;#ana, &#e Voodoo o' 1enin and To)o are o'&en 0ui&e si$ilar, e-ce*& &#a& +o$en li.e under di''eren& cul&ures and en&irely se*ara&e socie&ies! T#e Voodoo *ries&s are also (no+n &o be .ery in'luen&ial $e$bers in &#e socie&y and are o'&en consul&ed 'or .arious reasons, includin) issues o' barrenness and in'er&ili&y!

Religious Trafficking In Nor&#ern Ni)eria, 'or e-a$*le, &#e Tijaniya, branc# o' &#e Shia Musli$ sec& in sub-Sa#aran 'rica, recrui&s youn) c#ildren 'or reli)ious and &rainin) *ur*ose! T#e c#ild e-*loi&a&ion and *ro&ec&ion cen&er +or(in) in nor&#ern Ni)eria ar)ue &#a& c#ildren be&+een &#e a)es o' si- and &en are recrui&ed &o ser.e *ar&icular Imams or noble sheikhs 'or &#e *ur*ose o'
reli)ious and $oral )uidance and counselin)! T#ese c#ildren are usually *re.ailed u*on &o )o and be) +i&# e$*&y cans and bo&&les on *rinci*al s&ree&s 'or se.eral #ours a day and send &#e *roceeds &o &#eir Sheikhs or Imams! T#is incidence o' 'orced labor is no doub& an as&onis#in) one, $a(in) &#ese c#ildren .ulnerable on &#e s&ree&s +#ere &#ey are o'&en &a(en ad.an&a)e o' by &ra''ic(ers +#o *ro$ise &o o''er &#e$ $ore $oney! )ain, +#ile &#ese c#ildren are said &o be under)oin) $oral and reli)ious &rainin), &#eir Imam also $a(e &#e$ read &#e Muran as +ell as *er'or$ o&#er $enial labor 'or &#e Imam, +#o is said &o be &#e )uardian and reli)ious leader in &#e co$$uni&y!
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2#ild 4-*loi&a&ion and ?nline 3ro&ec&ion 2en&er (24?3) and %o$e ?''ice, 3rojec& o' 2#ild Tra''ic(in) in&o and +i&#in &#e <K, 200@

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Pawning/Debt Bon age 3a+nin) or deb& bonda)e, a co$$on *rac&ice a$on) indi)enous cul&ures in 'rica and India 'or$s *ar& o' &#e #einous #u$an &ra''ic(in) *roble$ in con&e$*orary sla.ery (1ales 2005)! T#is *rac&ice .iola&es &#e $os& basic #u$an ri)#&s o' .ic&i$s! For ins&ance, &#e *rac&ice in.ol.es &#e use o' c#ildren as ins&ru$en&s o' le)al &ender in order &o *ay o'' deb&! In &#is case, &#e .ic&i$ is $ade &o *ay o'' deb& by +or(in) 'or a deb&or in .arious 'or$s, un&il suc# a &i$e &#a& &#e deb& +as *aid o''! T#e $os& co$$on areas +#ere *a+nin) and deb& bonda)e +ere s&ill bein) *rac&iced include Nor&#ern Ni)eria, &#e Vol&a re)ion o' ;#ana and &#e 8olo' in Sene)al! In ;#ana 'or e-a$*le, &#e *rac&ice o' *a+nin) and deb& bonda)e is co$$on in &#e socie&ies, es*ecially in &#e Nor&#ern *ar&s o' ;#ana a$on) &#e Tallensi co$$uni&ies and *ar&s o' &#e sub Sa#aran socie&ies (1ales 2005)! T#ere'ore, &#e *rac&ice o' *a+nin) or deb& bonda)e o' #u$an bein)s .iola&es &#eir na&ural and #u$an ri)#&s! !abor Trafficking )ricul&ural is one o' &#e $ain sources o' li.eli#oods 'or $any 'rican s&a&es, conse0uen&ly, as &#e de$and 'or a)ricul&ural labor )oes u* in &#e 'ar$in) seasons, &#e need 'or *eo*le &o labor on &#e *lan&a&ion A rises! T#e need 'or labor in &#e a)ricul&ural sec&ors also 'uels &#e &ra''ic(in) o' #u$an bein)s! In ;#ana9s $iddle bel& 'or e-a$*le, +#ere cocoa +as +idely cul&i.a&ed and )ro+n in lar)e scale 'or bo&# do$es&ic and 'or e-*or&, in&ensi.e labor $inin) and cul&i.a&ion $ean& #i)# labor de$ands and &#e need &o recrui& labor +#ene.er *ossible! For e-a$*le, abandoned c#ildren on (+a Ibo$ s&ree&s in Ni)eria are o'&en &ar)e&s 'or recrui&$en& in &#e a)ricul&ural labor! In (+a Ibo$ S&a&e, +#ene.er a c#ild +as *ercei.ed &o be a +i&c# or a +i/ard, #e or s#e +as abandoned on &#e s&ree&s, and beco$es .ulnerable &o &ra''ic(ers +#o 9 recrui& &#ese c#ildren &o +or( in &#e a)ricul&ural and $inin) indus&ry! T#e ;a$ba)a dis&ric&s #arbors an es&i$a&ed 1000 alle)ed +i&c#es +#o #a.e been #eld and *laced in re'u)ee ca$*s conde$ned as +i&c#es 10 +i&#ou& any o**or&uni&y o' redress! T#is is also consis&en& +i&# &#e case o' ?buasi, a dis&ric& in ;#ana +#ere )old $inin) is in abundance, and c#ildren +ere recrui&ed &o )ala$sey in &#e )old reser.es under e-&re$ely dan)erous condi&ions! 2ul&is$ and Tra''ic(in) T#e albinos in sub-Sa#aran 'rica are o'&en under a&&ac(, as a resul&, o' &#e de$and 'or albino body *ar&s! 2ri$inal )an)s in Tan/ania 'or e-a$*le, see( albinos 'or ri&ual *ur*oses! lbino body *ar&s in Tan/ania are used as &#e $ain source o' ri&ual +eal&# 'or *eo*le +#o +an& &o be +eal&#y (2arlin) 200A)! T#is *rac&ice is ra$*an& in Tan/ania and

8 <S I= n&i-Tra''ic(in) in 3ersons 3ro)ra$s in 'rica, a "e.ie+, *ril 200@ 9 2#ild "i)#&s In'or$a&ion Ne&+or(, (+a Ibo$ ,eads in 2#ild Tra''ic(in) 10 http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/video/2010/nov/25/witches-gambaga-ghana
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1urundi, +#ere lbinos 'ind i& di''icul& &o co$e &o &er$s +i&# &#eir *reda&ors as &#ey 'all under &#e $ercy o' &#eir (illers! In 1urundi, also in $any *ar&s o' 4as&ern 'rica, &#ere is a belie' &#a& an %IV *a&ien& can be cured by #a.in) se- +i&# an albino +o$an (2#an) e& al! 2009)! T#e bla&an& denial o' ci.il and reli)ious ri)#&s o' albinos #as been conde$ned by $any )rou*s as barbaric and *ri$i&i.e! In Tan/ania, 'or ins&ance, $any albinos are li.in) in 'ear +i&#ou& #o*e on +#o could easily a&&ac( &#e$ 'or ri&ual *ur*oses (ibid!)! no&#er reason 'or &#e #i)# de$and in albino body *ar&s in eas&ern 'rica is a&&ribu&ed &o &#e use by +i&c#doc&ors +#o o'&en used &#ese body *ar&s 'or .arious *ur*oses and 'or &ra''ic(in) a$on) &#eir co#or&s (+i&c#doc&ors)! T#e &ra''ic(in) in albinos #as also been &raced &o Ni)eria a$on) &#e Ibos 'or e-a$*le, +#o uses &#e body *ar&s o' albino 'or ri&uals (2arlin) 200A)! T#ese ri&uals a)ain ser.e .arious *ur*oses suc# as 'or +eal&#, in'er&ili&y, $adness, luc(, and drun(enness! T#ese inciden& o' and .iolen& (illin) o' albinos are no doub& or)ani/ed cri$e o' &ra''ic(in) in *erson 'or ri&ual and reli)ious *ur*oses (2#an) e& al! 2009)! T#eir #u$an ri)#&s are .iola&ed and le)isla&ion is needed &o cur&ail &#is *rac&ice!

Trafficking in Chil Sol iers Tra''ic(in) in c#ild soldiers is ano&#er $eans in +#ic# sub-Sa#aran socie&ies are .ulnerable &o #u$an &ra''ic(in)! T#e con'lic&s in "+anda, and 1urundi, be&+een &#e %u&us and &#e Tu&sis #a.e #ad a de.as&a&in) e''ec& on &#e con&inen&! In ,iberia and sierra ,eon, 'or e-a$*le, youn) $en and +o$en beco$es &ar)e& 'or recrui&$en& by &ra''ic(in)! T#is is done by lurin) .ic&i$s o' a *ro$ise land o' sa'e&y and *eace and so$e&i$es a *ro$ise o' jobs 'or a *o&en&ial res&ar& o' li'e! n e-a$*le o' &#is &y*e o' recrui&$en& is &#e ear&#0ua(e disas&er in %ai&i, +#ere a nu$ber o' c#ildren be&+een a)es o' 5 and 15 +ere s$u))led ou& %ai&i &o =o$inican "e*ublic! )ain, in &#e ,iberian ci.il +ars in &#e early 1990s, $any c#ildren +ere recrui&ed by $ili&ia $en usually a)ains& &#eir +ill &o en)a)e in ar$ed ba&&le +i&# 3ara-$ili&ia $en in co$ba& cases! In &#e case o' Sierra ,eone, c#ildren +ere recrui&ed a)ains& &#eir +ill *ar&ici*a&e in co$ba& /ones &o co$$i& bru&al ac&s o' +ar led by $ili&an& 'orces, &o resis& )o.ern$en& con&rolled areas in Free To+n (1ea# 200A)! Many o' &#ese c#ildren bu&c#ered &#eir ca*&i.es o' +ar and as(ed +#e&#er &#ey +an&ed s#or& or lon) slee.es! T#is $ean& +#e&#er or no& one +an&ed ei&#er &#e +ris& or &#e ar$ cu& o''! In &#is &ra''ic(in) 'or$, c#ildren en)a)e in co$ba& a)ains& &#eir +ill, o'&en +i&#ou& any (no+led)e o' unders&andin) +#y &#ey 'i)#&! !onclusion T#e *a*er &ried &o s#o+ &#a& #u$an &ra''ic(in) is a )lobal issue &oday &#a& needs &#e a&&en&ion o' e.eryone in order &o eradica&e i&! In order &o
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2#ild 4-*loi&a&ion and ?nline 3ro&ec&ion 2en&er 24?3 and %o$e ?''ice, 3rojec& o' 2#ild Tra''ic(in) in&o and +i&#in &#e <K, 200@

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s&o* &#e #u$an &ra''ic(in) *roble$, )o.ern$en&s includin) non)o.ern$en&al or)ani/a&ions need &o collabora&e and +or( &o)e&#er &o iden&i'y .ic&i$s and *unis# cri$inals! T#e ;#ana n&i-%u$an Tra''ic(in) c& *assed in 2005 is a s&e* in &#e ri)#& direc&ion! lso, &#e <ni&ed Na&ions *ro&ocol o' 2000 s&ren)&#ened &#e an&i #u$an &ra''ic(in) $easures by ins&i&u&in) uni&s under &#e *olice cri$inal di.ision &o rescue .ic&i$s o' #u$an &ra''ic(in)! ?&#er an&i- #u$an &ra''ic(in) or)ani/a&ions can no+ be 'ound *rac&ically in e.ery re)ional bloc +i&# an o.ersi)#& res*onsibili&y &o de&ec& and *unis# #u$an &ra''ic(ers! )ain +#ile all &#ese are laudable, no& all coun&ries in 'rica and else+#ere #a.e &#ese *olicies *u& in *lace! 4.en coun&ries &#a& boas& o' an&i-#u$an &ra''ic(in) rules are so$e&i$es under'unded $a(in) i& di''icul& &o co$ba& #u$an &ra''ic(ers! s +e e$bar( on &#e crusade &o co$ba& #u$an &ra''ic(in), &#e in&erna&ional co$$uni&y ur)es coun&ries &o reali/e and i$*le$en& &#e *ro&ocol &#a& deal +i&# #u$an &ra''ic(in) 'or labor e-*loi&a&ion, es*ecially, in $ul&i*le econo$ic sec&ors, includin) and a$on) o&#ers a)ricul&ure, cons&ruc&ion, #os*i&ali&y and do$es&ic ser.ice! ccordin) &o &#e In&erna&ional ,abor ?r)ani/a&ion (I,?), abou& 50E o' &ra''ic(in) &a(es *lace in 'orced co$$ercial se-ual e-*loi&a&ion, and abou& one &#ird in o&#er 'or$s o' coerced econo$ic e-*loi&a&ion and a 0uar&er 'or a $i-&ure o' &#e abo.e!15 %u$an &ra''ic(in) in.ol.es &rans*or&in) .ic&i$s ei&#er in&ernally or e-&ernally &o usually un(no+n des&ina&ions! In &#is case .ic&i$s are u*roo&ed and &rans*or&ed &o a di''eren& s&a&e or +i&#in &#e sa$e s&a&e! 2onse0uen&ly, as +e con&inue &o enjoy &#e )lobal econo$ic sys&e$, #u$an &ra''ic(ers #a.e been *rac&ically i)nored cul$ina&in) in enor$ous c#un( o' +eal&# accrued &#rou)# ille)al business *rac&ices! T#e in&ensi&y o' &#e *roble$ o' #u$an &ra''ic(in) #as beco$e a )lobal *ande$ic &#a& is roo&ed in e.ery co$$uni&y or)ani/ed by #u$an &ra''ic(ers +#o by o.er& and co.er& ac&i.i&ies use se.eral $eans *ossible includin) a$on) o&#ers coercion and +eal&# &o sus&ain &#e con&inues ensla.e$en& o' .ulnerable *eo*le across &#e )lobe! )ain, &#is *#eno$ena *er$ea&e e.ery na&ion s&a&e and in.ol.es &#e recrui&$en&, &rans*or&a&ion, and &o a lar)e e-&en& &#e ensla.e$en& o' &#e econo$ically .ulnerable!

Glossary Trokosi" a cul&ural *rac&ice in Vol&a re)ion o' ;#ana +#ere +o$en and c#ildren are sen& &o s#rines 'or a&one$en& o' sins co$$i&&ed by &#eir *aren&s! Fe&is# *ries&s are *ries& in c#ar)e o' $oni&orin) s#rines and o''er sacri'ices &o &#e ances&ral )ods! #ayayoo re'ers &o +o$en *or&ers in ;#ana! Sheikh is an rabic +ord $eanin) a sc#olar in rabic li&era&ure e0ui.alen& o' a *ro'essor! Tijaniya" a )rou* o' 'ollo+ers o' Isla$ in ;#ana! I$a$ is a reli)ious sc#olar +#o leads con)re)a&ion in *rayers! S#ia is &#e sec& in Isla$!
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Transcience Journal Vol 2, No 1 (2011)

$anbariaya is also a sec& or branc# in Isla$ in ;#ana! %olof is &#e lan)ua)e +idely s*o(en in Sene)al! Tallensi is a &ribe in Nor&# 8es&ern ;#ana! &alamsey is a &er$ &#a& re'ers &o &#e ille)al $inin) around &#e $ines in ?buasi and Tar(+a in ;#ana! %itch octors are *redo$inan&ly 'ound in Tan/ania &#ey are (no+n &o *ossess +i&c# *o+ers and are ca*able o' &rans'errin) &#eir *o+ers &o o&#er *ersons!

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