Thermocouples

by Greg Passler What is a thermocouple and how does it work? Why do we use thermocouples? What is thermocouple extension cable? These commonly asked questions about thermocouples exist due to the seemingly mysterious nature of these widely used temperature sensing devices. The discussion that follows will dispel some of that mystery and provide a fundamental understanding of thermocouples. Table 1 compares the more common methods of temperature measurement against certain criteria. The devices range from the basic thermometer, which is a liquid expansion device, to more complex methods such as the use of a hand held infrared temperature sensing unit. Each device has applications for which its use is most appropriate, but thermocouples tend to be among the most popular, especially in industrial applications. Electric Signal Wide Range

Device Thermocouple RTD Infrared Bimetallic Liquid Expansion State Change

Low Cost

Passive

Accurate

Robust

Table 1 - Methods of Temperature Measurement

There are several reasons for the popularity of thermocouples. Perhaps most importantly, they are relatively inexpensive and easy to make. They can be used over a large temperature range, from about -250C up to about 1800C. Although they arent the most accurate means of measuring temperature, they have plenty of accuracy for most applications, with only one or two degrees of error across their operating range. Thermocouples are also passive devices that produce an electric signal without having to be powered. Finally, they are very robust and durable, making them ideal for harsh industrial environments. To understand how thermocouples work, we should review some basic theory of operation. In 1821, a man by the name of Seebeck discovered the phenomena behind how thermocouples work and the principle was named the Seebeck Effect. It states that a voltage is produced as a result of heating one junction of a circuit formed with two dissimilar metal conductors. This principle is depicted graphically in its most simple form in Figure 1. Two wires are connected at each end to form a circuit. One wire is an alloy of copper, and the other is iron, which is what a J type thermocouple is made from. The ends of the circuit where the wires are joined are called junctions. If we apply heat to one of the junctions, called the sensing junction, a voltage is formed and current begins to flow through the circuit. At the other end of this circuit, called the reference junction, a device is connected to measure the amount of voltage produced. The measured voltage allows us to infer the temperature at the hot, or sensing junction. The greater the temperature, the higher the voltage and vice versa. This is the basic theory behind how thermocouples operate.

Figure 1 - The Seebeck Effect produces a voltage in thermocouple circuits. July 2003

Figure 4 depicts a typical example of a thermocouple in use in an industrial application. Shown is a plastics extruder that is applying a jacket to an armoured cable as it passes through the cross head. The cross head has two thermocouples installed in it to measure and monitor the melt temperature of the plastic (note the arrows).

Figure 4 - Thermocouples monitor the crosshead temperature of this plastics extruder

Most thermocouples have some form of mechanical protection, as shown in Figure 5. The tip of one of the thermocouples that has been pulled from the cross head is protected by a stainless steel sheath and the lead wires are armoured along their length also with stainless steel.

Figure 5 - A stainless steel sheath and armour protect the thermocouple and Figure 5 - A stainless steel sheath and armour protect the its lead wire

thermocouple and its lead wire

Table 3 contains eight different materials that are used to protect thermocouples and their maximum operating temperatures and typical applications are indicated. With the stainless steel material used in our example, we can see that it is suitable up to 980C and may be used in corrosive environments. More exotic materials are used for protection at higher temperatures. Maximum Temperature (C) 650 815 980 1090 1200 1650 1650 1650

Type Wrought Iron Cast Irom Stainless Steel Nickel Inconel Corundum Carbofrax Chronium and Aluminum Oxide

Application General purpose except corrosive environments Acidic and alkaline solutions Corrosive environments Special chemical applications Used in place of nickel when sulphur present Steel industry, high thermal shock present Applications with high thermal and mechanical shock Used in brass and bronze foundries

Table 3 - A variety of materials are used to protect thermocouples from their operating environments

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ANSI Type J Thermocouple The size of the thermocouple wire is also an important consideration. Usually the higher the operating temperature, the bigger the gauge size to slow the effects of corrosion. Table 4 demonstrates an example of this concept. For a J thermocouple to operating at its highest rated temperature, it is recommended that an 8 AWG conductor be selected, whereas much small conductors can be used at lower temperatures. The materials used to cover thermocouple wire are usually rated for high temperatures and include fluoropolymers, and glass and fibre braids. (see Figure 6). Gauge (AWG) 8 14 20 24 28 Maximum Operating Temperature (C) 760 540 480 370 370

Table 4 - Thermocouple wire size is often determined by the maximum expected operating temperature

Thermocouple Insulation/Jackets
Usually rated for high temperatures - Tefzel (150C) - Teflon (205C) - Kapton (316C) - Glass Braid with Silicome (482C) - Ceramic Fibre (1400C) Expensive relative to conventional wire and cable materials

In general, the materials used to insulate and jacket thermocouples are expensive relative to conventional wire and cable materials such as PVC and polyethylene. This is necessitated by their relatively high temperature ratings. Another circuit diagram is shown in Figure 7 to demonstrate the use of thermocouple extension cable. Similar to before, thermocouple wire is used at the sensing junction, but this time, the thermocouple lead wires are connected to thermocouple extension wire which is connected to the monitoring device.

Figure 6 - High temperature materials are usually chosen for thermocouple coverings

Figure 7 - Thermocouple extension cable is used to reduce costs on long cabling runs.

The reason we use thermocouple extension cable is to reduce costs on long cabling runs. Thermocouple extension cables, because they arent in contact with the temperature being measured (like the thermocouple itself), do not need to be designed for the same extremes in operating temperature. This equates to less expensive insulation and jacket materials. In addition, even though the extension cable uses the same metal as the thermocouple wire itself, the alloys are often a lower grade that only need to be accurate over a much smaller temperature range. It should be pointed out that different metals altogether are used for Types S, B, and R extension wire due to the very high cost of the platinum used in these thermocouple types. The extension wire for these thermocouples have similar electrothermic properties as the thermocouple itself, but over a more limited temperature range. This kind of cable is called a compensating cable. Extension cable is differentiated from thermocouple cable through the use of a X suffix, for example JX. Compensating cable has a C suffix, for example SC.
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Other than the conductors, a thermocouple extension cable isnt any different from a standard instrumentation cable with paired conductors, except for the fact that solid conductors, rather than stranded are typically used and it has a special colour code. Figure 8 is a picture of ShawFlex JX, KX and EX thermocouple extension cables (Purple = EX, Yellow = KX, and Black = JX).

Figure 8 - Examples of thermocouple extension cable

Although thermocouple extension alloy types have been standardized internationally, their colour codes have not. The most significant difference is that in North America, a red conductor is used to identify the negative polarity wire, whereas other countries usually use the red to identify the positive wire. This can cause problems when wiring equipment manufactured outside of North America. International colour codes are shown in Table 5. Getting back to the extruder example, we can see in Figure 9 a thermocouple lead wire extending from the bottom of the cross head and into a connector (note arrow). The other side of the connector is attached to a thermocouple extension cable, which is JX, as the jacket is coloured black. The extension wire then runs up to an electrical control panel where it is terminated with five other thermocouple extension cables. Figure 10 depicts the control panel.

Tabe 5 - Colour codes for thermocouple extension cable vary internationally

Figure 9 - A connector joins the thermocouple wire to an extension cable July 2003

Figure 10 - Thermocouple extension cable is typically terminated in an electrical control panel.

The signal is then sent to a programmable logic controller and computer for processing. Finally, the temperature information is projected onto a screen for the operator of the extrusion line to view (Figure 11). Numerous other examples of devices that use thermocouples exist. They include hand held thermometers, ovens, freezers, test equipment and many kinds of manufacturing equipment. Despite the variety, they all work on the same general concepts described here.

Greg Passler is an Electrical Engineer with 13 years of experience in the Wire and Cable Industry. He currently works for ShawFlex, a manufacturer of Control, Instrumentation and Power Cables, located in Toronto, Ontario

Figure 11 - Temperature data is transferred to a computer control screen

July 2003