Chapter 11

Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) for Suspension

11.1 Computer Use in Suspension Design and Engineering
Broadly speaking, design and engineering for suspensions have become sep arate activities, served respectively by computer aided design (CAD) and computer aided engineering (CAE). Computer design packages allow detailed three -dimensional modeling such that every detail of a design can be conceived and developed simultaneously. Nowadays, CAD is essential to allow designers to investigate the integration and packaging of a suspension layout into a proposed vehicle. On the other hand, CAE packages allow detailed analytical modeling to be performed on every aspect of the design, including component structural properties, vehicle dynamics, and refinement prediction. Before the design process can begin, a design brief must be generated and agreed to by all parties concerned. Typically, this will require an exchange of ideas between the management office controlling the total program and the engineering department involved, in order to determine the concept and establish the functional, weight, and cost objectives. At this stage, as part of the functional objectives, targets typically are set, such as suspension kinematic and compliance characteristics. These will be influenced by many factors, such as the intended market sector, customer demand, the engineering and manufacturing capability of the company and its suppliers, the packaging and cost constraints, and the overall timing plan. Typically, the succes' f.-l evolution of a design will involve a close relationship between CAD and CAE functions. Modern computer tools are able to communicate with each other with increasing ease, thus allowing full functional design iterations to be carried out completely and quickly on the

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computer. The more iterations, the more honed or efficient the design becomes. This can be said for any suspension attribute relating, for example, to achieving lightness of weight, desired vehicle dynamics behavior, or low noise transmission. When the design brief has been established, the concept phase can start. This begins with the use, or generation, of a fully detailed vehicle on CAD. The desired type of suspension is then included, taking into account settings given in the design brief. When a realistic three-dimensional solution has been established, the hard points, and the kinematic and mass properties, are passed to the CAE packages. Attributes and hard points then are optimized within an iterative loop between CAD and CAE. The development phases of a conventional model program usually begin with simulator, or mule, vehicles. These are based on either a previous model or a competitors vehicle, and design intent parts are grafted onto them for evaluation. Next follow the prototype phases, where vehicles built on soft tools are subjected to exhaustive testing on rigs, on proving grounds, and in world wide locations. CAE is integrated into this process to guide progress. Final evaluations are performed on pilot build vehicles (production intent vehicles built on hard tooling). Most manufacturers in the world now are investigating the feasibility of zero, or virtual, prototype engineering. A definition of zero prototype engineering is the deletion of hand-built, or soft tool, prototypes from a development program. To achieve this goal will require more reliance on CAE, as well as on hardware simulation using laboratory rigs with components, subassemblies, and whole vehicles. Thus, we see the increasing importance of CAE. An overview of its applications to suspension engineering is given in the following sections.

11.2 Structural Engineering

Stress analyses for both the supporting elements of the integral body/chassis unit and each component part of the suspension system are performed with impressive accuracy by a mesh of finite elements (FE) built up into a frame work of several thousand finely detailed interlinked struts, in turn built up into triangles, squares, and rectangles. Within the regions or elements representing the structure, simple stress (and strain) assumptions are taken to

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apply. Each element interacts with those adjacent to it, and these interrelationships are expressed as a system of linear simultaneous equations containing many different unknown variables. Without the considerable processing power of modem computers, the equations would be impossible to solve. From the first applications of FE programs used to handle only discrete parts of a full system, tools have been developed that now can simulate the considerably more complex models required to represent authentic dynamic behavior. The FE method has allowed the science of stress analysis to be extended into the realms of three dimensions. The computer can solve equations for each given load input, to satisfy the conditions of equilibrium at common points on the boundaries of each element and to give a set of displacements as the answers. From these solutions and the elemental stiffnesses, the program works backward to obtain stress levels and, if required, further processing to derive the vibration characteristics. Further discussion of this subject can be found in Appendix 1.

11.3 Computer Aided Engineering for Suspension Kinematics and Compliance (K&C)
Several software packages are available for the analysis of suspension kine matics and compliance (K&C) characteristics. Probably the best known and most widely used is ADAMS (Automatic Dynamic Analysis of Mechanical Systems), available from Mechanical Dynamics Inc. of Ann Arbor, Michigan. ADAMS is a multi-body package in which a system is built from a collection of individual elements, each representing a discrete rigid link, a spring, or a joint. Using such a package, a suspension system might be represented as in Fig. 11.1. In addition to analyzing K&C characteristics, such a software package may be used (e.g., on a MacPherson stmt-type suspension) to optimize the position of attachment of the link to the anti-roll bar (to minimize steer torque effects due to the anti -roll bar). It also might be used to optimize the lateral offset of the lower spring pan on the stmt (to minimize bending loads and hence friction in the strut). With ADAMS, if also is possible to undertake some FE analysis of compo nents and to import modal characteristics.

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Fig. 11.1 Many computer simulations, such as this mathematical model of a single wheel system, are used in the early stages of suspension design.

11.4 Computer Aided Engineering for Vehicle Dynamics

Computer packages for ride and handling predictions fall into three basic categories: dedicated programs, toolkit packages, and multi-body packages.

Dedicated Programs
A dedicated program is one in which a specific vehicle is modeled. It is a simple matter to investigate the effects of changed parameter values to represent variants or modifications to the vehicle. However, such models are rather inflexible and offer little scope to the user for development. Thus, these programs are not well suited to the exploration of design issues.

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Toolkit Packages
A toolkit package is essentially a collection of routines for processing and analyzing the equations of motion of a system. Such a package also may assist in the generation of the equations of motion. Examples of such packages are MATLAB (mathematically biased) and MATRIX-X (biased toward control engineering). An extension to the MATLAB environment (available from The Mathworks, Inc., of Natick, Massachusetts) is Simulink, which provides a block diagram notation for modeling dynamic systems. Toolkit packages are suitable only for the competent dynamicist and for sys tems of no more than fifty degrees of freedom. They have the advantages of being relatively inexpensive, of having libraries of standard models, and of being suitable for the investigation of design issues. Toolkit packages often are used to model behaviors of subsystems, especially nonlinear ones such as those of dampers or tires.

Multi-Body Packages
Examples of multi-body packages are ADAMS, as outlined, and DADS. This type of package simulates a system using many elements and is capable of building a model with hundreds of degrees of freedom. The model is solved using numerical integration. A disadvantage of this approach to the exploration of design variations is that a change to one parameter value requires the recalculation of the entire set of system equations before a simulation can be renin. However, with modem computing power, this can be accomplished quite quickly. Multi-body simulation has the following advantages: Conceptually simple definition of the model Rapid input of data Automatic generation of equations of motion Capable of solving complex systems

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Good post-processing facilities, enabling output of impressive visualizations of vehicle responses

The following are disadvantages of multi-body simulation: Detailed input data required, which is not always possible at the design stage Capable of being used by the nonspecialist, but this can be dangerous in terms of misinterpretation of output or acceptance of invalid input or output data

General
Although vehicle dynamicists and chassis engineers are well aware that ride and handling behaviors of a vehicle are interrelated, the two areas often tend to be dealt with separately. This is particularly true in computer simulation, because certain items or aspects are dealt with differently. One example of this is tires, where a completely different approach to modeling is taken, depending on whether the simulation is for ride or handling. Given good input data, a package such as ADAMS/CAR can provide simulation that correlates well with the real vehicle behavior. In general, it is possible to get the metal parts right because, providing they are being operated within their design envelopes, they exhibit elastic and linear behavior. A metal spring is a good example. If a spring is subjected to a force, then it deflects. When the force is removed, the spring returns to its original position (elastic behavior). If the spring is subjected to twice the force, it deflects twice as far (linear behavior). The behavior of the spring can be emulated (represented accurately) by a mathematical expression, the basis of an analytical model, which, providing it is supplied with accurate dimensional and material property data, can accurately predict the behavior of any metal spring. Thus, an analytical model of the assembled metal structural and linking parts can work well, although lack of knowledge of production tolerances, for example, may cause problems. However, the real difficulties are in adequately modeling the nonlinear parts, typically bushes, dampers, and tires. These components variously exhibit some or all of the following characteristics: friction, hysteresis (where, even if a component behaves essentially in an elastic fashion, when a deformation force is removed, the component does

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output of impressive visualiza-

>dy simulation: >t always possible at the design

not recover fully to its original position), and amplitude- and frequency- dependent nonlinearities. Although an analytical approach to modeling dampers has been proposed, 1 at present, the most common way to model the nonlinear components is with empirical models. An empirical model simulates, rather than emulates, the behavior of a com ponent. It is constructed around data measured from testing the real item, and it returns appropriate outputs for given inputs. At its simplest, an empirical model might be a lookup table; this has been the typical approach for bushes and dampers. It could be a mathematical expression, such as a polynomial; this has been the most successful approach to modeling tires for handling. The Magic Formula, developed by Pacejka, 2 is now widely used. For this, the force and moment characteristics of the candidate tire are measured (using expensive, puipose-built facilities), and then curve fitting to the data is effected using equations with trigonometric coefficients. Many tire companies are able to supply these Pacejka coefficients to their customers. ADAMS incorporates the Magic Formula, and the coefficients are part of the input data to the car model. However, the major limitations of an empirical model are twofold. First, the simulation is for the item whose characteristics were measured. If the dimen sional or material property data are changed, then the model is invalid. Thus, unli ke an analytical model, an empirical model cannot be used to predict the behavior of a component before it exists. (However, it could be used to define desired or target behavior.) Second, while a traditional type of empirical model may be able to represent the amplitude nonlinearities of a component, it cannot replicate friction, hysteresis, or frequency dependency. Recently, in a project supported by Mechanical Dynamics Inc. and the MTS Corporation of Minneapolis, MIRA obtained encouraging results using the MTS Empirical Dynamic Modeling (EDM) system 3 for dampers. The EDM system, which also is applicable to bushes, uses neural networks to characterize force versus displacement data obtained from testing components using random signals. This system has the advantages, over the conventional approach, of using data from a wider spread of frequencies and displacements and producing a model that accurately reproduces the frequency dependency, hysteresis, and nonlinear characteristics of the real item. The disadvantage is that, while neural networks can interpolate within the range of test data, they cannot extrapolate outside that range. Therefore, engineers must be sure to train the neural networks over a realistic performance range.

ist, but this can be dangerous in jptance of invalid input or output

igineers are well aware that ride related, the two areas often tend rly true in computer simulation, ith differently. One example of approach to modeling is taken, ide or handling. 'AMS/CAR can provide simulabehavior. In general, it is possiividing they are being operated elastic and linear behavior. A ; is subjected to a force, then it ring returns to its original posited to twice the force, it deflects r of the spring can be emulated expression, the basis of an ana- l with accurate dimensional and the behavior of any metal spring. letal structural and linking parts production tolerances, for exam- il difficulties are in adequately les, dampers, and tires. These if the following characteristics: >nent behaves essentially in an ; removed, the component does

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For handling simulations, the Magic Formula was used. For ride and dura bility simulations, FTire, a flexible ring tire model, was employed. FTire, developed by Cosin Consulting of Esslingen, Germany, is a three-dimensional empirical model for which vibration modal data and rubber friction and hardness properties can be collected using relatively simple laboratory facilities.

11.5 Computer Aided Engineering for Noise Analysis and Refinement Prediction
A clear appreciation of the modal behavior of vehicle subsystems is essential in understanding the low- and mid-frequency noise characteristics of the complete vehicle. The mode frequencies and shapes also can have a significant bearing on secondary ride and on shake in convertible vehicles. Finite element packages such as NASTRAN or PAFEC can be used to derive the modal parameters of a structure, enabling the construction of a modal model. This model then can be used to assess the effects of design modifications through alterations to the modal mass and stiffness matrices. Where physical components or subsystems are available, modal test and analysis techniques can be used to extract modal parameters from measured vibration data. Comprehensive packages such as those from LMS (of Leuven, Belgium) and from MTS simplify the generation of a modal model and enable the mixing of experimental and analytical data.

For a compliant component such as a suspension bush, an accurate represen tation of its vibration characteristics is important when predicting vehicle interior noise. However, as discussed, a conventional empirical model based on lookup tables, for example takes no account of the potential frequency dependence in the behavior of the component. Neural networks based on the multilayer perceptron (MLP) are being used increasingly to incorporate all nonlinear aspects of vibration characteristics of a component. When created and trained on appropriate data sets, these provide compact and mathematically simple representations that can be implemented using packages such as MATLAB and Simulink.

It is possible to create a complete vehicle noise model covering the approxi mate frequency range 0-250 Hz by combining modeling techniques. For example, a multibody dynamics model of the suspension could be combined with a finite element or boundary element body model, linked through appro priate compliant components and driven by a rigid-ring tire model, allowing

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the prediction of low-frequency road noise. At higher frequencies, where the modal density becomes greater, statistical-based techniques such as statistical energy analysis (SEA) are required, although this is applied mainly to airborne road noise.

11.6 References
1. Duym, S.W.R., Simulation Tools, Modeling and Identification, for an Automotive Shock Absorber in the Context of Vehicle Dynamics, Tenneco Automotive, Monroe European Teclinical Center, Sint-Truiden, Belgium, circa 1998. Pacejka, H.B., Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, England, 2002. Barber, A.J., Accurate Models for Complex Vehicle Components Using Empirical Methods, SAE Technical Paper No. 2000 -01-1625, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 2000.

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