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12 Mixture formation
12.1 Fuel-supply systems in spark-ignition engines
12.1.1 Functions of systems
The fuel-supply system (Fig. 1) is intended to supply the engine's mixture-formation system with sufficient fuel in all operating states. For this purpose, the system must store fuel in the fuel tank. deliver bubble-free fuel. filter fuel. generate fuel pressure and keep it constant. return excess fuel. prevent fuel vapours from escaping. and specifically directed via the regenerating (purge) valve for combustion. The fuel tank must be monitored for leaks when On-Board Diagnosis II (OBD II) comes into force.
12.1.3 Components of systems

Fuel tank
Sheet-steel fuel tanks, on account of their simple structural shape and associated problem-free manufacture, are usually used in commercial vehicles. They are coated on both the inside and the outside with anticorrosion linings. In the case of large and partially filled fuel tanks, sudden, severe weight transfers may occur when the vehicle is cornering. This is prevented by the use of perforated partitions which divide the tank into several small compartments. Steel fuel tanks are increasingly being manufactured for use in passenger cars as well. To obtain a categorisation as a low-emission vehicle (LEV) in the USA, it is necessary to limit greatly the emission of hydrocarbons, which also include vaporised fuels. (According to OBD II the evaporative losses in the fuel system must not exceed 2 g per day). These restrictive figures can be achieved more easily by using steel tanks rather than plastic tanks.
Gravity valve Vent valve Fuelling expansion tank Service expansion tank
12.1.2 Design of systems (Fig. 1)

Service expansion tank Gravity valve
Fuel pump Carbon canister Catch tank with electric fuel pump Solenoid valve Distributor for carboncanister system rail
M
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Fuel filter
Fuel-pressure regulator Fuel injector
Filler neck Fuel-supply pump
Fig. 1: Design of a fuel-supply system
The fuel is stored in the fuel tank. From there it is supplied under pressure by a fuel pump to the fuel injectors. A fuel filter is connected downstream of the fuel pump to retain any contaminants. The fuel pressure is kept constant or adapted to the intakemanifold pressure by a pressure regulator. In order to be able to provide sufficient fuel in all operating states, the system always supplies more fuel than is actually required at any time. The excess fuel returns from the pressure regulator to the fuel tank. An expensive ventilation system is required in view of the fact that neither fuel nor fuel vapours are permitted to escape into the environment and that pressure compensation must be created in the tank. The fuel vapours are temporarily stored in the carbon canister of the regenerating (purge) system
Fuel-supply sensor
Fig. 2: PE fuel tank for a passenger car
For complicated fuel-tank shapes, as are commonly found in passenger cars, the tanks are manufactured predominantly from plastic, e.g. PE (polyethylene). These provide a high level of safety against bursting. (The tanks must be able to withstand a crash at 80 km/h.) However, there is the risk of plastic deformation at high fuel temperatures (more than 120 C in diesel-injection systems) as well as the problem of heavy diffusion of the fuel vapours.
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In extreme cornering situations or driving on steep terrain and with only a small amount of fuel left in the tank, the fuel is displaced to one side. Catch tanks (Fig. 1, Page 247) are used to ensure a sufficient supply of fuel to the fuel-supply pump and to be able to empty all the branched tank compartments. There are tanks inside the fuel tank which are filled by suction-jet pumps. The fuel-supply pumps are also located in the catch tanks (see also Fuel-delivery modules).
12 Mixture formation In-tank pumps. These usually form part of fuel-delivery modules which are installed in the fuel tanks. In-tank pumps are provided with extensive corrosion protection in the fuel tank. The noises generated by the pump in the tank are also damped. The pumps are divided into positive-displacement and flow-type pumps, depending on the way in which they operate. Positive-displacement pumps (Fig. 2). These are designed as either roller-cell pumps or internalgear pumps. The fuel is drawn into the pump and delivered in a sealed chamber which decreases in size to the high-pressure side. Positive-displacement pumps facilitate system pressures of more than 4 bar and also have high delivery rates at low voltages. However, they do cause relatively strong pulsation noises. They are also subject to a marked drop in power if vapour bubbles are formed in the hot petrol. For this reason, these pumps usually have a flow-type pump as a preliminary stage for degassing.
Fuel-supply pumps
Modern fuel-injection systems exclusively use electric fuel pumps for fuel supply and delivery. The delivery quantities of such pumps at nominal voltage range between 60 l/h and 200 l/h. In the process a pressure of 3 bar 7 bar (as a presupply pump in direct-injection systems) must be achieved at 50 % 60 % of the nominal battery voltage. Because this delivery at nominal voltage results in a multiple of the required fuel quantity being delivered at idle and part load, the electric fuel pumps go over to being activated by the ECU with pulsewidth-modulated signals. In this way, the delivery quantity can be adapted to the operating conditions, which can save drive power, stop the fuel from being unnecessarily heated and extend the service life of the pumps. A pump of this type consists of the fitting cover with electrical connections, non-return valve and pump outlet electric motor with armature and permanent magnet pump section
Pump section Armature Fitting cover Non-return valve Pump outlet
A A
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a) Chamber enlargement
b) and reduction
Fig. 2: Roller-cell pump (a) and internal-gear pump (b)
Electrical connection
Flow-type pumps (Fig. 3). These are designed as peripheral or side-channel pumps. In flow-type pumps the fuel is accelerated by numerous vanes and pressure is built up by a constant exchange of pulses. Flow-type pumps operate with little noise because the pressure build-up is virtually pulsation-free and continuous. They are also insensitive to vapour-bubble formation as fuel in the vapour state can be separated via a degassing bore. However, these pumps only achieve system pressures of max. 4 bar.
Fig. 1: Design of an electric fuel pump
Two different types are used, depending on their installation locations: inline pumps and in-tank pumps. Inline pumps. These can be installed at any point in the fuel line. They are therefore easier to replace when faulty than in-tank pumps. However, they and in particular their electrical connections are exposed to increased corrosion when installed under the vehicle floor.
A B B A a) b)
Fig. 3: Peripheral pump (a) and side-channel pump (b)
12 Mixture formation Two-stage electric fuel pumps (Fig. 1). Two-stage electric fuel pumps are used if high system pressures are required. A peripheral pump is connected upstream in order to prevent vapour bubbles from forming in the pump. It assumes the fuel presupply role and separates vapour bubbles. The downstream positive-displacement pump serves to build up the system pressure.
Degassing connection Pressurelimiting valve DC motor Connecting cable
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they are protected against mechanical damage. the lines are not routed past hot parts - in order to avoid vapour-bubble formation. they are where possible laid in a steadily rising direction so that vapour bubbles can be quickly removed from the system. no fuel vapours can collect in the vehicle in the event of leaks.
Fuel filters
These are intended to protect the fuel system against contaminants because, for example, the fuel injectors of a petrol injection system can be destroyed even by tiny dirt particles.
Inlet fitting Preliminary stage, flow-type pump Main stage, positivedisplacement pump
Outlet Pressureholding valve
Fig. 1: Two-stage inline fuel pump
Fuel-pressure regulator (two-line system)

The fuel-pressure regulator must keep the fuel differential pressure in the two-line system constant under all conditions. The diaphragm-controlled fuel-pressure regulator (Fig. 3) with intake-manifold connection is located in two-line systems on the fuel rail. It consists of two chambers which are separated by a diaphragm: a spring chamber for housing the spring which acts on the diaphragm and a chamber for the fuel. When the preset fuel-system pressure is exceeded, a valve actuated by the diaphragm opens the opening for the return line, through which the excess fuel can flow back to the fuel tank. Because the spring chamber is connected via a line to the intake manifold shortly after the throttle valve, the diaphragm is deformed by not only the
Fuel return line to fuel tank Fuel injector Fuel feed from fuel pump Valve plate
Suction-jet pumps (Fig. 2)

These are hydraulically driven pumps which serve to pump fuel inside the fuel tank. Thanks to the fuel flow of an electric fuel pump, fuel is drawn at the nozzle opening of a suction-jet pump for example out of the side chamber of a fuel tank. This fuel is then delivered to the catch tank.
Feed Fuel tank Electric fuel pump Catch tank Return
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Suction-jet pump
Fig. 2: Suction-jet pumps
Fuel lines
Steel pipes or hoses made from flame-retardant, fuel-resistant rubber or plastic are used as fuel lines. Because rubber and plastic hoses change chemically (age) when used for long periods, they become hard and porous. This may result in leaks. It is important when laying fuel lines to ensure that they are able to withstand the torsion of the vehicle and the movements of the engine.
Valve holder Fuel rail System Fuel pressure chamber Diaphragm Intakemanifold pressure Control spring Spring chamber
Connection to intake manifold
Fig. 3: Fuel-pressure regulator
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fuel pressure but also by the vacuum pressure acting in the intake manifold. Thus the fuel-pressure regulator alters the system pressure in the fuel rail or at the fuel injectors in such a way that the differential pressure between the intake manifold and the fuel system remains constant. Differential pressure = system pressure intake-manifold pressure If, for example, there is a vacuum pressure of 0.6 bar in the intake manifold, the valve diaphragm is opened by fuel and intake-manifold pressure against spring force to such an extent that the system pressure drops for instance to 3.4 bar. The differential pressure p is therefore 3.4 bar ( 0.6) bar = 4.0 bar. Table 1: Examples of fuel pressures
Differential pressure Idle Part load Full load 4.0 bar 4.0 bar 4.0 bar System pressure 3.4 bar 3.7 bar 3.9 bar Intakemanifold pressure 0.6 bar 0.3 bar 0.1 bar
Fuel-delivery modules (Fig. 1) The fuel-delivery components are combined in fuel-delivery modules, which are installed in the fuel tank.
Fuel gauge. Lever sensors or submerged-tube sensors are normally used to indicate the fuel level. These sensors pick off the conductor tracks of a potentiometer via a linkage. The voltage drop at the resistor is the measure of the amount of fuel in the fuel tank. Fuel-consumption measurement. The fuel consumption is calculated by multiplying the valveopening time by a valve constant. This specifies how much fuel flows out of the nozzle at a fixed differential pressure per unit of time.
12.1.4 Fuel-tank ventilation

It is necessary to ventilate the fuel tank to be able to create pressure compensation in the tank and to enable the vehicle to be refuelled without complications. Thus, it is essential under the influence of heat to ensure that expanding fuel and the increased gas pressure caused by this can be taken up in expansion tanks. On the other hand, the fuel tank must be ventilated when fuel is consumed during vehicle operation. Under no circumstances may fuel vapours be allowed to escape into the environment. The ventilation system comprises the following components (Fig. 2): Service expansion tank. This takes up the fuel that expands as a result of heat. The volume, depending on the size of the fuel tank is 2 l 5 l. The expansion tank is connected via a vent line to the carbon canister.
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In Return-Less Fuel Systems (RLFS) the almost identically designed pressure regulator is located in the fuel tank (Fig. 1). The fuel-system pressure is kept constant by the spring and the diaphragm. There is no intake-manifold connection. The excess fuel returns directly to the fuel tank, which is why there is no return line from the intake manifold. Because the injected fuel quantities change as the intake-manifold pressures change, the ECU must adapt the injection time as a function of the intakemanifold pressure. It receives information on the intake-manifold pressure from an intake-manifold pressure sensor.
Vent line Pressure regulator
Vent valve
Gravity float Regenerating Nonvalve (purge) valve return valve
Fuel fine filter Fuel-supply pump Catch tank Suction-jet pump
Tank fill-level sensor
Service expansion tank Fuelling expansion tank
Refuelling pipe Carbon canister
Throttle valve
Intake manifold Shutoff valve
Fuel tank Fuel prefilter Pressure sensor with pump Engine control unit
Fig. 1: Fuel-delivery module
Fig. 2: Ventilation system
12 Mixture formation Fuelling expansion tank. The function of this tank is to take up briefly gases in the fuel tank which are displaced when the vehicle is being refuelled and to direct these gases via a vent line to the refuelling pipe. There these vapours are drawn off by the suction device of the fuel-pump nozzle. Vent valve. This prevents fuel vapours from escaping from the service expansion tank into the environment or being drawn off. The valve is closed during refuelling. Gravity float valve (Fig. 1) (rollover valve, safety valve). When the tank is absolutely full and the vehicle is in an inclined position or if the vehicle rolls over, fuel could escape to atmosphere via the carbon canister. To prevent this from happening, the line to the carbon canister is closed by the valve in such a situation.
Gravity valve Vent valve
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Carbon canister. This filter stores gaseous hydrocarbons by adsorption on the activated carbon until they are drawn in by the vacuum pressure prevailing in the intake manifold when the regenerating valve is open and supplied for combustion in the cylinder. Shutoff valve (from OBD II). When the engine is stopped, the line supplying incoming air to the carbon canister must be closed to prevent fuel vapours from escaping to the atmosphere. When the activated carbon is regenerated and the stored fuel vapours forwarded for combustion, the solenoid valve is clocked and opened by the engine ECU parallel to the regenerating valve. Regenerating (purge) valve. This solenoid valve is clocked by the engine ECU depending on the operating status. When it opens, the fuel particles stored in the carbon canister are purged while the shutoff valve is also open by fresh air and drawn in by the intake-manifold vacuum pressure. Diagnosis pump for fuel system, pressure sensor. The fuel system must be checked for leaks in accordance with OBD II. For this purpose, the fuel tank can be subjected to a pressure generated by a diagnosis pump. A pressure sensor transmits the pressure characteristic to the engine ECU. The ECU decides whether the system satisfies the requirements with regard to leaks. Pump power supply: faults in the electrical system are generally detected by self-diagnosis. Therefore the fault memory must be read out or an actuator diagnosis carried out. The positive and negative supply can be checked with a multimeter. Fault causes: (Fig. 1, Page 252) Faulty fuse in the fuel-supply pump (check continuity) Faulty fuel-pump relay (to check, jumper term. 30 term. 87) Damaged leads and corroded contacts (measure voltage drop) In addition to a faulty power supply, a fuel-supply pump which is not working may be caused by among others the following: Fuel-supply pump is faulty. Engine ECU receives no engine-speed signal after the ignition is switched on. Engine ECU receives no enable from the immobiliser. Engine ECU receives a crash-situation signal from a built-in crash-detection system (airbag).
To carbon canister
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To tank compensating volume
Refuelling pipe
Fig. 1: Gravity and vent valve
WORKSHOP NOTES Notes on servicing/maintenance: Regularly change the fuel filters (follow manufacturer's instructions). Visually inspect the system for leaks. Visually inspect the electrical connection (for corrosion, damage). Faults and possible causes: Engine fails to fire: No fuel in the tank Pump not running Insufficient engine power: Delivery rate too low Delivery pressure too low due to kinked or crushed fuel line, lack of pump power supply, clogged filters, faulty pump (wear), vapour-bubble formation Diagnostic options: Checking the delivery rate: measurement at the pressure regulator (in the return line). Checking the delivery pressure: measurement at the fuel rail (in the feed line).
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30
Fuse
15
12.2 Mixture formation in spark-ignition engines

30 85
Fuel-pump relay Electric fuel pump

31
87
86
Airbag Rotational speed ECU
12.2.1 Basic principles

Spark-ignition engines can be run on petrol, methanol or liquefied petroleum gas. The compressed fuel-air mixture is ignited at the end of the compression stroke by a spark-ignition system.
Fig. 1: Circuit diagram of fuel-supply pump
Safety instructions Petrol has a flash point of < 21 C and therefore comes under danger class AI in accordance with the Directive on Combustible Liquids. It is highly inflammable. It is therefore absolutely essential to follow the relevant safety precautions when welding, soldering or grinding. Fuel vapours are heavier than air. They can therefore form hazardous mixtures in pits or drainage shafts.
Function of mixture-formation systems

They should for each engine operating state form a fuel-air mixture which is sufficient in quantity and is combusted in the engine as fully as possible. Complete combustion of a fuel-air mixture This is understood to mean that all the carbon atoms and all the hydrogen atoms of the fuel are oxidised by the oxygen in the air into carbon dioxide (CO2) or water (H2O) under heat dissipation. Because fuels, depending on the structure and size of their molecules, have differing amounts of carbon and hydrogen atoms, a quite specific air mass is needed for complete combustion of the fuel. Combustion deteriorates as the amount of deficient or excess air increases. The fuel will only combust incompletely. Combustion will not take place at all if specific limit values for the mixture ratio (ignition limits) are undershot or exceeded.
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Fuels contain benzene, methanol, toluene and xylene. These substances are toxic and must not be inhaled. Contact with the skin and mucous membranes must be avoided. Petrol should therefore never be used for cleaning purposes. REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 2 3 4 3 6 7 8 9 Which components make up the fuel-supply system? Which types of fuel pump are used in a motor vehicle? In what way do they differ? What is the function of the fuel-pressure regulator in a 2-line system? Why do 1-line systems require an intake-manifold pressure sensor? What are the functions of the intake-manifold pressure sensor? What do you understand by a fuel-delivery module? What important factors must be borne in mind when laying fuel lines? Which components make up the ventilation system of a fuel-supply system? What is the function of the service expansion tank?
Mixture ratio
The mixture ratio describes the composition of the fuel-air mixture. There are two different types of mixture ratio: the theoretical and the practical. Theoretical mixture ratio (stoichiometric ratio = theoretical air requirement). This specifies how many kg of air are required for the complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel. To burn 1 kg of petrol, this figure is roughly 14.8 kg or 10,300 l of air. Practical mixture ratio. This deviates from the theoretical mixture ratio, depending on the engine operating state. A mixture with a larger proportion of fuel, e.g. 1 : 13, is known as a "rich" mixture (air deficiency). A mixture with a smaller proportion of fuel, e.g. 1 : 16, is known as a "lean" mixture (excess air).
10 For what purpose is a gravity float valve needed? 11 Why must fuels not be used for cleaning purposes?
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(Ignition point 30 before TDC)
Air ratio ( = lambda)

The air ratio is the ratio of the actual air mass supplied for combustion to the air mass theoretically required for complete combustion. Supplied air mass in kg Air ratio = Theoretical air requirement in kg With a theoretical mixture ratio of 1 : 14.8 the air ratio = 1 for petrol. Here the engine receives precisely the right amount of air that is needed for complete combustion of the fuel. If, on the other hand, 16 kg of air are supplied in the combustion of 1 kg of fuel, the air ratio is 16 .0 kg Luft = = 1.08 14.8 kg Luft i.e. a lean fuel-air mixture is formed containing more air than is needed for complete combustion. The excess air here is 8 %.
110
Rich Nm
100
Lean
660
580
Torque M
90 80 70 beff 60 50 0.8 1.0 Air ratio l 1.2 1.4 340 420 500
Fig. 2: Influence of air ratio
If engines with manifold injection are to be operated with an exhaust-gas catalyst, an air ratio of = 1 must be adhered to as closely as possible in order to obtain favourable exhaust-gas values.
Mixture composition
kg of fuel kg of air 1:23.7 1:22.2 1:20.7 1:19.2 Mixture ratio Rich Lean 1:17.8 1:16.3 1:14.8 1:13.3 1:11.5 1:10.4 1: 8.9 1: 7.4 Mixture too rich Ignition limit rich Lean mixture Part-load range Theor. correct mixture Maximum power Idle range kg supplied air quantity kg theor. air requirement Ignition limit for lean-burn engines Ignition limit lean 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 Air deficiency Excess air Air ratio (excess-air factor) l 1.5
1:3 0 Idle Maximum speed Engine speed rpm
0.2
Homogeneous mixture. The mixture composition is the same in the entire combustion chamber. In order to achieve a homogeneous mixture composition, sufficient time must be made available for a uniform and thorough mixing of the fuel-air mixture. This is achieved by an advanced injection point during induction or by injection of fuel into the intake manifold. Heterogeneous mixture. The combustion chamber has areas of differing mixture composition (stratified charge). A retarded injection of fuel into the cylinder during the compression stroke and precisely matched air turbulence facilitate a nonuniform mixture composition. There must be an air ratio of approximately equal to 1 to ensure safe ignition of the mixture in the spark-plug area in spark-ignition engines. The mixture is lean in the marginal areas of the combustion chamber.
Spec. fuel consumption beff
g/kWh
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Mixture formation
Fig. 1: Mixture ratios, air ratios for petrol
Consumption, power and exhaust-emission behaviour are dependent on the air ratio in the respective operating state of the spark-ignition engine. The basic relationship between air ratio, torque and specific fuel consumption is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 3: Exterior mixture formation
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Exterior mixture formation (Fig. 3, Page 253). Here the fuel is injected into the intake manifold shortly before the engine inlet valve, which is still closed at the start of injection. As a result of the admission process during the induction stroke and the subsequent compression of the fuel-air mixture, there remains sufficient time to create a homogeneous mixture in the combustion chamber. Interior mixture formation (Fig. 1). In engines with interior mixture formation the fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber. If this takes place shortly before the fuel-air mixture ignites, fuel and air cannot mix uniformly. The mixture is heterogeneous.
12 Mixture formation condenses on the cold intake-manifold and cylinder walls. Thus these proportions of the fuel cannot be combusted or are only incompletely combusted. In order nonetheless to create an ignitable mixture in the combustion chamber, it is necessary to inject a very large amount of fuel (up to = 0.3). The amount of fuel injected is dependent here on the engine temperature. More power must be generated in view of the fact that the frictional-resistance values are very high when the engine is cold, for instance due to the engine oil being cold. This is achieved by a greater amount of mixture. Warming-up. This refers to the period from when the engine is started up to the point when normal operating temperature is reached. The fuel quantity is reduced as a function of temperature during the warming-up period. Enrichment of the mixture is reduced in stages as the condensation losses in the intake manifold and on the cylinder walls decreases as the engine warms up. Transition, acceleration. The mixture is briefly leaned when the throttle valve is opened. More fuel must be injected briefly in order to prevent a momentary dip in power.
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Fig. 1: Interior mixture formation
Power regulation
Quantity regulation. In engines with exterior mixture formation and a homogeneous mixture power regulation takes the form of the throttle valve being opened more or less depending on the load state. In this way, the amount of air inducted (quantity) is altered. The composition of the mixture must remain virtually the same here ( = 1). Quality regulation. In engines with interior mixture formation and a heterogeneous mixture power regulation takes the form of differing amounts of fuel being injected while the throttle valve is open. The amount of air inducted remains virtually the same here. In this way, the composition (quality) of the mixture in the combustion chamber changes depending on the load state.
Full load. The operating condition in which the throttle valve is fully open is known as full load. In order to achieve maximum engine power in this operating state, the mixture is normally enriched to = 0.85 0.95 (Fig. 2, Page 253). Overrun fuel cut-off. Here the throttle valve is closed and the engine runs with increased revs. This occurs, for example, in downhill-driving situations or when the driver takes his/her foot off the accelerator pedal at high speed (overrun). In order to save fuel, no petrol is injected until the engine speed drops below a preprogrammed level or the throttle valve is reopened. REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What do you understand by the theoretical mixture ratio? 2 Explain the air ratio . 3 What are the consequences in each case of a lean, a rich and a stoichiometric mixture?
12.2.2 Adaptation of mixture to operating states

Depending on the operating state, engines require quite specific mixture amounts (quantity) and mixture compositions (quality). Cold start: In a cold engine only the low-boiling fuel constituents evaporate. The majority of the fuel
4 Up to what mixture ratio or air ratio is a petrol-air mixture ignitable? 5 What characterises an interior mixture formation? 6 What do you understand by a homogeneous/ heterogeneous mixture? 7 What characterises an exterior mixture formation? 8 Why must the mixture be greatly enriched during cold-starting?
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where low installation heights are required and are installed below the cylinder head. The following different types may be used based on the number and function of mixing-chamber bores: Single-barrel carburettors (Fig. 2) and two-stage carburettors (Fig. 3) (staged carburettors with stages opening in succession) for one intake manifold
Main-air inflow Mainmixture outlet Choke tube Throttle valve Stage 1 Stage 2
12.3 Carburettor
The carburettor is intended to atomise the fuel and mix it with air in the correct proportion. It must adapt the required amount of mixture to the respective engine operating state.
12.3.1 Basic operating principle

The air flow is drawn into the carburettor by the engine piston during the induction stroke. The velocity of the air flow is increased by narrowing the cross-section of the streamlined choke tube (venturi tube, Fig. 1). The highest flow velocity and the greatest vacuum (suction) occurs at the narrowest point, which is why the fuel outlet tube is located at this point. The fuel is carried by the air flow, atomised and mixed with the air flow in the mixingchamber area. Fine atomisation is achieved by foaming the fuel with a supply of air through the air jet below the fuel level into a fuel-air mixture (preliminary mixture). The throttle valve serves to control the fuel-air mixture quantity (quantity control) and with it the engine power and speed.
Choke tube (venturi tube) Mixing chamber Throttle valve
Fig. 2: Single-barrel carburettor
Fig. 3: Two-stage carburettor
Staged dual-barrel carburettors (Fig. 4) Dual-barrel carburettors (Fig. 5) Multiple carburettors are used for separate intake manifolds
Mixing chamber
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Air flow Vacuum
Air inlet
Foamed fuel Atmospheric pressure
Air jet
Plastic jet Fuel
Fig. 4: Staged dual-barrel carburettor
Fig. 5: Dual-barrel carburettor
Constant-vacuum carburettors (Fig. 6) operate with a variable choke-tube cross-section and virtually constant vacuum Constant-vacuum slide carburettors (Fig. 7) are used in motorcycles
Plunger Piston diaphragm Throttle slide Needle jet Nozzle needle
Fig. 1: Carburettor operating principle
12.3.2 Carburettor types

The following different types may be used, depending on the layout of the intake manifold on the engine and the direction of the suction flow in the carburettor itself: down draught, side draught and semi-down draught carburettors. Down draught carburettors are normally used because here the fuel-air mixture descends into the cylinder in the direction of gravitational force. They are installed above the cylinder head. Side draught and semi-down draught carburettors have very short intake paths. They are also used
Needle jet Nozzle needle Main jet
Fig. 6: Constant-vacuum carburettor
Fig. 7: Constant-vacuum slide carburettor
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12.3.3 Design of a single-barrel carburettor

Carburettors usually consist of three main components: throttle-valve assembly, carburettor housing and carburettor cover. The following devices are housed in the main carburettor components (Fig. 1):
Idle-fuel air jet Float needle valve Fuel-supply connection Carburettor cover Enrichment tube Additional-fuel air jet Air correction jet Mixing tube for additional mixture Choke valve Main-mixture outlet Boost venturi Injection tube Pump push rod Carburettor-cover gasket Carburettor housing Float Mixing tube Sealing plug (pressed in) Mixing-tube channel Main jet Additional-mixture adjustment screw Idle-mixture adjustment screw Choke tube Pump seal Pump spring Strainer Pump suction valve Pump pressure valve Mixing chamber Outlet channel, idle mixture Bypass bores Throttle valve Pump piston Accelerator pump
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Idle cut-off valve (supplementary device)
Fig. 1: Solex down draught carburettor 1B3, schematic section
Float device
The float device consists of the float housing, float and float needle valve. It is intended to regulate the fuel supply to the float chamber and keep the fuel level in the carburettor constant in all operating states.
sition from the idle system to the main-injector system and good running performance in the lower part-load range.
Main-jet system
This consists of the main jet, air correction jet and mixing tube. It is intended to draw in and atomise fuel, mix it with air and supply the correct mixture ratio in the entire part-load range.
Starting device
This is intended to induce a very rich fuel-air mixture of up to 0.2 to be formed in the carburettor during cold-starting. This ensures that an ignitable mixture of approx. = 0.9 is available in the combustion chamber.
Supplementary devices
Supplementary devices can be used in mixture preparation in order to have a beneficial effect on drive comfort and fuel consumption.
Idle device
This is intended to deliver the correct idle fuel-air mixture, ensure the correct idle speed and safeguard the transition from the idle system to the main-jet system.
Acceleration device
When the throttle valve is opened suddenly, leaning of the mixture must be prevented and additional fuel must be made available.
Transition device
The idle mixture is briefly leaned when the throttle valve is opened. Additional fuel is therefore added to the air. This is intended to ensure a sound tran-
Enrichment device
This is intended to bring about the enrichment of the lean part-load mixture at full load and/or part load in order to obtain the greatest possible engine power.
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preparation of the fuel-air mixture. Routes and manifolds of different lengths cause the fuel not to be distributed uniformly to all the cylinders. Peripheral turbulence and wall-applied film moistening especially in cold engines result in unequal mixture compositions. The have a negative effect on mixture formation. Single-point injection systems are much simpler in design than their multipoint counterparts.
Air cleaner Air Fuel injector Fuel-air mixture Air Fuel Fuel-air mixture
12.4 Petrol injection

12.4.1 Basic principles of petrol injection
Functions of petrol-injection systems
The function of petrol-injection systems is to spray fuel in finely atomised state into the inducted air. The required mixture quantity in each case and the mixture ratio must be adapted to the respective operating state in the process. In fuel-injection systems the fuel is sprayed into the air in finely atomised state with the aid of nozzles and the pressure built up by the fuel pump. This increases the surface area of the injected fuel. This causes the fuel to carburate more quickly, which in turn leads to improved mixing with air, more complete combustion and better exhaust-gas values. In the case of indirect injection (exterior mixture formation), the fuel injectors are arranged in such a way as to inject into the intake manifold or into the throttle-valve housing. In the case of direct injection (interior mixture formation), the fuel injectors are arranged in such a way as to inject into the combustion chamber. Electronic control of the systems is intended optimally to adapt the fuel-air ratio (quality) and the amount of the mixture created (quantity) to the respective engine operating state. The following objectives should be achieved: High engine torque High engine power Favourable engine performance curves Low fuel consumption Favourable exhaust-gas values
Fuel Throttle valve Intake manifold
Fig. 1: Single-point injection
Multipoint injection (Fig. 2). Each cylinder is assigned a fuel injector. These injectors are situated in the intake manifold usually directly before the inlet valves. The mixture is therefore subject to intake paths of equal length and uniform distribution. An arrangement close to the inlet valves reduces the formation of wall-applied film when the engine is cold and reduces the build-up of noxious exhaust gases.
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Air cleaner Throttle valve Fuel Intake manifold
Air Fuel rail Fuel injector Fuel-air mixture Air Fuel Fuel-air mixture
Types of injection
Indirect injection With this type of injection, fuel and air already start to be mixed outside the combustion chamber. A uniformly distributed, homogeneous fuel-air mixture should be created in the whole combustion chamber during the induction and compression strokes. The following different types of injection are used: Single-point injection (SPI) and Multipoint injection (MPI) Single-point injection (Fig. 1). Here the fuel is injected centrally into the throttle-valve housing before the throttle valve. Atomisation in the throttlevalve gap and evaporation on hot intake-manifold walls or additional heater elements improve the
Fig. 2: Multipoint injection
Direct injection (Fig. 1, Page 258) Systems with direct injection are always multipoint systems. The fuel is sprayed by the electrically actuated nozzles under high pressure (up to 120 bar) directly into the combustion chamber (interior mixture formation). There, depending on the engine layout and on the operating state, a homogeneous or heterogeneous mixture is formed with the inducted air.
258
Direct injection eliminates disruptive influences such as the formation of wall-applied film or unequal fuel distribution. This process, however, places very high demands on the electronic control of fuel-injection systems.
360 Cyl. 1 Cyl. 3 Cyl. 4 Cyl. 2 Inlet valve open 0 TDC Cyl. 1 360
720 1,080 CA
Air cleaner Throttle valve Intake manifold Intake pipe Fuel rail Fuel injector
Injection
Ignition
Fig. 2: Simultaneous injection
Group injection (Fig. 3) The fuel injectors of cylinder 1 and cylinder 3, and of cylinder 2 and cylinder 4, are opened once per power cycle. In each case the entire fuel quantity is injected before the closed inlet valves. The times for vaporising the fuel vary in length.
360 Cyl. 1 Cyl. 3 Cyl. 4 Cyl. 2 0 TDC Cyl. 1 360 720 1,080 CA
Air
Fuel
Mixture
Fig. 1: Direct injection
Opening of fuel injectors

The fuel injectors are hydraulically opened by the fuel pressure or electromagnetically opened.
Fig. 3: Group injection
12
Continuous injection (see KE-Jetronic). The injectors are forced open by the fuel pressure and remain open for the entire time that the engine is in operation. They inject fuel continuously. The fuel is apportioned by a variable system pressure. Intermittent injection. The injectors are electromagnetically opened for a brief period only and, once the calculated injection quantity has been injected, closed again. They are therefore only intermittently opened. The fuel is apportioned by a variable opening time of the fuel injectors. Depending on how the fuel injectors are actuated by the ECU, there are four different types of intermittent injection: Simultaneous injection Group injection Sequential injection Cylinder-specific injection
Sequential injection (Fig. 4) The fuel injectors inject into the intake manifold the same entire fuel quantity in succession in firing sequence directly before the start of the induction stroke. This encourages optimal fuel-air mixture formation and improves internal cooling.
Fig. 4: Sequential injection
Cylinder-specific injection (Fig. 5) This type of injection is a sequential-injection arrangement. Thanks to improved sensor technology and increased control sophistication, the ECU is able to apportion a specific fuel quantity to each individual cylinder.
Simultaneous injection (Fig. 2)

All the engine fuel injectors are actuated simultaneously. The time available for vaporising the fuel varies greatly for the individual cylinders. In order nonetheless to achieve as uniform a mixture composition as possible and good combustion, half of the fuel quantity required for combustion is injected in each case per crankshaft revolution.
Fig. 5: Cylinder-specific injection
12 Mixture formation Table 1 shows the classification of electronic fuel-injection systems with intermittent injection Table 1: Distinguishing features of electronic fuel-injection systems
System External features Central injection Central injection unit L-Jetronic LH-Jetronic Intake-manifold pressure-controlled injection Intake-manifold pressure sensor Direct injection High-pressure fuel pump, pressure sensor and actuator
259
Fuel rail with electrically actuated fuel injectors and Air-flow sensor Air-mass meter
Injection type Injection location Number of fuel injectors Intermittent injection Main controlled variables Before throttle valve One fuel injector single-point Clocked Throttlevalve angle Speed
Indirect injection Before inlet valve According to number of cylinders, multipoint Simultaneous or group injection Air flow Speed Sequential or cylinder-specific Air mass Speed Sequential Intake-manifold pressure Speed
Direct injection Cylinder
Cylinder-specific Requested torque (air mass, speed)
12 12.4.2 Design and function of electronic petrol injection

Electronic petrol-injection systems (Fig. 1, Page 260) consist of at least three subsystems: Air-intake system Air cleaner, intake manifold, throttle valve, individual intake pipes Fuel system Fuel tank, fuel pump, fuel filter, pressure regulator, fuel injector Open- and closed-loop control system Sensors, e.g. temperature sensor ECU and Actuators, e.g. fuel-pump relay The open- and closed-loop control system operates according to the IPO concept. This means: Input: Sensors record and transmit information in the form of electrical voltage signals to the ECU. Processing: The ECU processes the information contained in the voltage signals and compares the determined actual values with setpoint values usually stored in program maps. It calculates the actuation of the corresponding actuators. Output: The relevant actuators, e.g. the fuel injectors, are supplied with power by the ECU. The desired system operating state is established. Electronic petrol injection follows the sequence (function) below: In the case of systems with homogeneous mixture formation, the engine draws in a quantity of air filtered in the air cleaner and regulated by the throttle valve. This air quantity is electronically recorded by a sensor. The ECU uses stored program maps to calculate the basic injection quantity from the engine speed and the air quantity (main controlled variables). If mixture adaptation to special operating states, e.g. cold-starting, is required, the conditions (correction quantities) must be recorded by additional sensors and transmitted to the ECU again in the form of electrical signals. The ECU adapts the opening time of the fuel injectors to the changed operating conditions and supplies the injectors with power for the calculated time period. The electromagnetic fuel injectors open and the fuel is injected at the pressure set by the pressure regulator. When the ECU terminates the supply of power, the injectors are closed by the closing spring. The injection process is completed.
260
Carbon canister
Air-temperature sensor
Fuel tank Fuel filter
Air-mass sensor
Throttle-valve potentiometer
Tank vent valve
Pressure regulator
Fuel rail
Electric fuel pump
Reference-mark sensor Air cleaner Idle-speed actuator Fuel injector Enginespeed sensor Lambda oxygen sensor
ECU
Exhaust-gas recirculation valve
Engine-temperature sensor
Fig. 1: Design of an electronic petrol-injection system
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What is the function of petrol injection? 2 What are the characteristic features of indirect injection and direct injection respectively? 3 Describe intermittent and continuous injection. 4 How does simultaneous injection differ from sequential injection?
5 A petrol-injection system consists of which subsystems? Name the main components. 6 What do you understand by the main controlled variables for electronic petrol injection? 7 What do you understand by the correction quantities of electronic petrol injection? 8 How can the ECU alter the injected fuel quantity for intermittent injection?
12
12.4.3 Operating-data acquisition

The ECU requires information from various sensors in order to correctly actuate the actuators contained in the fuel-injection system. Load and engine speed are used to form the basic injection quantity. These quantities are known as main controlled variables. The signals from further sensors are required for the purpose of adapting the mixture to the respective operating states. These are known as correction quantities.
during induction and moved into a specific angular position. This position is transmitted to a potentiometer. The ECU detects the sensor-flap position from the voltage drop at the resistor and calculates the inducted air quantity or flow with the aid of stored characteristic values. The compensation flap, which is permanently joined to the sensor flap, compensates mechanical vibrations acting from the outside in combination with the air cushion of the damping chamber.
Compensation flap Potentiometer
Main controlled variables

Load sensing. This can be performed by various sensors: Airflow sensor Hot-wire air-mass meter Hot-film air-mass meter Hot-film air-mass meter with return-flow detection Intake-manifold pressure sensor Throttle-valve potentiometer Airflow sensor (Fig. 2). This incorporates the sensor flap, which is under coil-spring tension. The sensor flap is deflected against spring force by the air flow
Intake-air temperature sensor Sensor flap
Fig. 2: Airflow sensor
Hot-wire air-mass meter (Fig. 1, Page 261). A hot wire tensioned in the air duct acts as the sensor. This wire is kept by electric current at a constant temperature of 100 C above the intake-air temper-
12 Mixture formation ature. More or less air mass is inducted in different driving states. This air mass cools the hot wire. The heat dissipated to the air must be compensated by the heating current. The magnitude of the required heating current is regulated by the corresponding voltage. Thus the heating current or the voltage required for the heating current is the measure of the air mass. The air mass is measured approximately 1,000 times per second. If the hot wire breaks, the ECU switches to emergency operation. The vehicle can continue to be driven under restricted conditions. Because the hot wire is situated in the intake passage, deposits may form which can distort the measurement result. Every time the engine is switched off, therefore, the ECU sends a signal to heat the hot wire briefly to approx. 1,000 C and thereby burn off any deposits.
PCB Hybrid circuit Inner pipe (measurement channel) Precision resistor Hot-wire element Hot wire
261
This sensor is made up of three electrical resistors (NTC) (Fig. 3). Heating resistor RH (platinum-film resistor) Sensor resistor RS Temperature resistor RL (intake air) The resistors, which are combined to form an electrical bridge circuit, are each attached as a thin film to a ceramic layer.
Measurement channel Intake air RL RH RS
Housing
Electrical connection
Electronics
Fig. 3: Bridge circuit of hot-film sensor
Protective grille
Temperature compensation resistor
Intake passage
Protective grille
Retaining ring
Fig. 1: Hot-wire air-mass meter
Hot-film air-mass meter (Fig. 2). A hot-film sensor is installed in the measurement channel situated in the intake passage.
Electronics housing Electrical connection Hot-film sensor
The electronics in the hot-film air-mass meter regulates the temperature of the heating resistor RH via a variable voltage in such a way that it is 160 C above the intake air. The intake-air temperature is recorded by the temperature resistor RL for this purpose. The temperature of the heating resistor RH is determined by the sensor resistor RS. The heating resistor is cooled to a greater or lesser extent in the event of an increased or reduced air-mass flow. The electronics regulates the voltage at the heating resistor by comparing the sensor resistor RS and temperature resistor RL in order to obtain the temperature difference of 160 C again. From this control voltage the electronics generates a signal for the inducted air mass (air throughput). Because this sensor is largely insensitive to contaminants, it is not necessary to burn off deposits as is the case with the hot-wire air-mass meter. Hot-film air-mass meter with return-flow detection (Fig. 1, Page 262). Hot-film air-mass meters with return-flow detection are installed in order to minimise errors caused by the pulsating air column in the intake manifold. These sensors prevent the measurement result from being distorted by return flow. This enables the fuel to be apportioned more precisely (error max. +/ 0.5 %). The sensors each contain a heating zone, which heats the inducted air flowing past. Thus, a higher temperature is measured at measuring cell M2 than at measuring cell M1. When air flows back from the engine side, measuring cell M2 is cooled and measuring cell M1 is heated. Both flows, suction flow
12
Housing Measurement channel Protective grille
Intake air Inner pipe
Fig. 2: Hot-film air-mass meter
262
Measuring cell 2 Heating zone
Measuring cell 1
Pressure cell
Evaluating circuit
Intake air
Fig. 3: Intake-manifold pressure sensor
Measurement pipe with air-mass meter
Intake air
Each sensor element consists of a diaphragm which contains a reference-pressure chamber with a specific internal pressure. On the diaphragm are resistors the conductivity of which varies as a function of pressure when they are exposed to mechanical stresses as the result of deformation of the diaphragm.
Intake-manifold pressure p Reference-pressure chamber Diaphragm Ceramic layer (ceramic substrate)
Fig. 1: Signal generation, hot-film air-mass meter
Piezoelectric resistors
and return flow, thus have an effect on the measuring-cell temperatures. The temperature difference T is converted in the evaluating circuit into a voltage, from which the ECU determines the inducted air mass.
12
V
Fig. 4: Sensor cell of intake-manifold pressure sensor

Return flow Forward flow
5 Signal voltage 4 3 2 1 0
The functions of the evaluating circuit are to: Amplify the voltage change generated by the resistance change Compensate temperature influences Generate as linear a curve as possible The inducted air flow is determined from the voltage change (Fig. 5) by way of the intake-manifold pressure.
4.65 V
Air-mass flow
Fig. 2: Curve, hot-film air-mass meter with return-flow detection
Output voltage
200
400
600
kg/h
1.87
The diagram (Fig. 2) shows that the signal voltage varies as a function of load between approx. 1 V (idle) and 5 V (full load). Intake-manifold pressure sensor (Fig. 3). The function of this sensor is to record the pressure in the intake manifold. It can be mounted directly on the intake manifold or housed in the ECU. In the latter case, it is connected to the intake manifold by way of a hose. The sensor contains an evaluating circuit and a pressure cell with two sensor elements.
100 Compression
kPa
250
Fig. 5: Curve of intake-manifold pressure sensor
Throttle-valve potentiometer (Fig. 1, Page 263). The function of this sensor is to record the position of the throttle valve. When the throttle valve is opened, the throttle-valve shaft moves the wiper
12 Mixture formation arms, which sweep the resistor paths. Due to the change in the voltage drop at the resistor paths, the ECU is able to determine the position of the throttle valve. Together with the speed and the intake-air temperature, the inducted air flow can be determined from the throttle-valve position.
Throttle-valve shaft Wiper arm Resistor path
263
Speed recording: This can be performed by various sensors: Inductive speed sensor on the crankshaft Hall-effect sensor in the distributor (with diaphragm rotor) Hall-effect sensor on the camshaft (with magnet) Hall-effect sensor on the crankshaft (with pulsegenerator wheel) Inductive speed sensor (Fig. 3). A ferromagnetic pulse-generator wheel is mounted on the crankshaft. An inductive speed sensor, which consists of a soft-iron core with copper winding (sensor coil) and a permanent magnet, scans the tooth sequence. As the crankshaft rotates, the teeth of the pulse-generator wheel generate magnetic flux changes in the sensor coil, which induces an alternating voltage (Fig. 4). The ECU can determine the engine speed from the frequency of the induced alternating voltage.
Fig. 1: Throttle-valve potentiometer
Permanent magnet Soft-iron core Sensor winding Pulse-generator wheel (incremental wheel)
If the throttle-valve signal is to be used as the main load signal, potentiometers with twin resistor paths and two wiper arms are used. This increases the accuracy and reliability of the system. The voltages falling at the two potentiometers are then usually opposing (Fig. 2).
12
Fig. 3: Inductive speed sensor with pulse-generator wheel
5 V 4 Voltage U 3 Potentiometer 2 2 Voltage U Potentiometer 1
Time t
Fig. 4: Speed signal

1 0
10
20
30
40 a
50
60
70
80
90
If the crankshaft position is to be recorded by this sensor at the same time, a larger gap is incorporated on the pulse-generator wheel to act as a reference mark (Fig. 5).
Fig. 2: Signal voltages with twin potentiometers
If the load is determined by sensors other than the throttle-valve potentiometer, it serves as the sensor for the dynamic function (opening speed of the throttle valve), for range detection (idle, part load, full load) and as a limp-home signal if the main load sensor fails. The sensor housing frequently features an additional switch for detecting the idle position.
Reference mark
Pulse-generator wheel (incremental wheel)
Fig. 5: Speed and reference-mark sensor
264
Permanent magnet
Diaphragm rotor Diaphragm Hall generator Hall generator Time t Connecting cable
Reference mark Voltage U
Fig. 1: Speed signal with reference mark
Fig. 3: Hall-effect sensor with diaphragm rotor
12
The advantage of Hall-effect sensors over inductive speed sensors is that the level of their signal voltage is dependent on the speed. In this way, very low speeds can also be recorded. The main component of such a sensor is the Hall generator (Fig. 2), which consists of a semiconductor layer through which supply current IV is passed. If there is a magnetic field (B) at right angles to the semiconductor layer, the free electrons in the semiconductor are displaced by the magnetic field to one side; the Hall voltage UH is created. The level of the Hall voltage created is dependent on the strength of the magnetic field.
Semiconductor layer Free electrons Supply current I V Magnetic field B N S Hall voltage U H S IV N
Flux density B
As the gap on the induction-type pulse generator rotates past, a higher voltage is induced on account of the greater magnetic flux change (Fig. 1). Moreover, this voltage pulse has a lower frequency than the pulses generated for speed recording. It is the information for a specific crankshaft position. The reference mark indicates that the piston of cylinder no. 1 is, for example, at 108 CA before TDC.
As the diaphragm rotor continues to rotate, the magnetic field can penetrate the Hall IC and the Hall voltage is created. Because the number of diaphragms is stored in the ECU, the ECU can calculate the speed from the number of voltage changes.
Diaphragm In gap In gap In gap In gap
Hall voltage UH Sensor voltage UG
Fig. 4: Pulse shape of Hall-effect sensor with diaphragm rotor
UH
Hall-effect sensor on the camshaft (Fig. 5). The sensor consists of the Hall generator and the integrated circuit for signal conditioning.The magnetic field for creating the Hall voltage UH is generated by a magnetic plate mounted on the camshaft. When the magnetic plate moves past the sensor as the camshaft rotates, the Hall voltage UH is created.
Fig. 2: Hall generator
The Hall principle is applied in different ways. Hall-effect sensor in the distributor with diaphragm rotor (Fig. 3) This consists of the Hall generator, the permanent magnet and the integrated circuit, which amplifies and converts the Hall voltage into a square-wave signal (sensor voltage UG). The distributor rotor is designed as a diaphragm rotor which moves in the air gap between the Hall IC and the magnetic barrier. If a diaphragm slides between the Hall IC and the permanent magnet, the magnetic field is shielded and the Hall voltage UH is zero (Fig. 4).
60
Fig. 5: Hall-effect sensor on the camshaft
The signal (Fig. 1, Page 265) of this sensor is only used to calculate speed in emergency operation if the engine-speed sensor malfunctions. However, when single-spark ignition coils are used or in the case of selective petrol injection, the engine ECU
265
Hall-voltage shape Voltage U
Sensor voltage
Time t
Fig. 1: Hall voltage by sensor on CA
requires the firing TDC of cylinder no. 1 to be clearly determined in order to actuate the correct ignition coil or the correct fuel injector. For this purpose, the signals of the engine-speed sensor on the crankshaft and the signal of the camshaft sensor are combined (Fig. 2). If the reference marks of the TDC sensor and the speed sensor line up, the following TDC of cylinder no. 1 is the firing TDC. If only the reference mark of the speed sensor appears, the following TDC lies between the exhaust and induction strokes.
Reference mark TDC sensor Signal TDC sensor
Diaphragm
Window
Diaphragm
Fig. 3: Magnetic-field change by apertured diaphragms
Reference-mark signal Voltage U
Time t Firing TDC
Fig. 4: Sensor voltage UG
Hall voltage U H
Strong magnetic field
N S
Weak magnetic field
U H1 U H2
The signal of the Hall-effect sensor on the crankshaft can, like the signal of an inductive enginespeed sensor, be combined with the Hall-effect sensor on the camshaft to determine the firing TDC.
Reference mark Signal speed speed sensor sensor Exhaust TDC U =10 V/div; T=1 ms
12
Correction quantities
The following are used to record the required correction quantities: Temperature sensors (NTC) for e.g. engine temperature, intake-air temperature Pressure sensors (piezo sensors) for e.g. ambient pressure, intake-manifold pressure Lambda sensors (see Page 316)
Fig. 2: Determining firing TDC
Hall-effect sensor on the crankshaft with pulsegenerator wheel This sensor consists of two Hall generators, a permanent magnet and the evaluation electronics, which evaluates the Hall voltages of the two Hall generators and amplifies these voltages for the sensor voltage. Like the inductive engine-speed sensor, it is mounted on the crankshaft and scans a pulse-generator wheel which is designed as an apertured diaphragm. When a diaphragm rotates past the sensor, the magnetic field is amplified differently, depending on the position of the diaphragm. In this way, the magnetic fields which act on the Hall generators vary in strength at times, which causes different Hall voltages (Fig. 3). The evaluating circuit generates from the Hall voltages UH created in each case the sensor voltage UG (Fig. 4). As with the inductive engine-speed sensor, a reference-mark signal can also be generated here increasing the opening in the apertured diaphragm.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 Which sensors are used to determine the load? 2 Which signals are generated by the respective sensors? 3 Which sensors for recording speed are used? 4 Which signals are generated by the respective sensors? 5 How in the case of selective injection does the ECU identify which fuel injector is to be actuated? 6 Which sensors are chiefly used to record the correction quantities? 7 Why are Hall-effect sensors increasingly being used instead of inductive sensors?
266
12.4.4 Single-point injection

In the case of single-point injection all the cylinders of an engine are supplied with fuel by a centrally situated fuel injector. Single-point injection systems are electronically controlled petrol-injection systems with a single electromagnetically actuated fuel injector (SPI = Single-Point Injection). The injector is opened by the ECU for each power cycle in line with the number of cylinders in the engine. (See also Indirect injection, Single-point injection). The fuel is injected before the throttle valve.
cylinders. The intake-manifold walls or the inducted mixture are heated in order to counteract excessive condensate formation on the intake-manifold walls in cold engines. Finally, it passes through the opened inlet valves into the cylinder. Fuel system. An electric fuel pump delivers the fuel from the fuel tank via a fuel filter to the central injection unit. The pressure regulator installed there in the return keeps the fuel pressure constant at approximately 1 bar (low-pressure system). When the electromagnetic fuel injector is supplied with power, fuel is injected before the throttle valve into the inducted air. Regenerating system. The hydrocarbons temporarily stored in the carbon canister must be supplied for combustion in an appropriate operating state, e.g. part load. For this purpose, the regenerating valve is clocked by the engine ECU so that air and hydrocarbons can be drawn in by the vacuum pressure acting in the intake manifold. Operating-data acquisition. The main information on the engine operating state is provided by throttle-valve angle and engine speed n (main controlled variables, - n - system). From them the basic injection quantity (quantity) and thus the basic injection time can be calculated in the ECU. In order to determine the precise fuel quantity (quality), the ECU must receive further information, e.g. air temperature, engine temperature and mixture composition, from the lambda sensor.
12.4.4.1 Single-point injection subsystems

Air-intake system. The air inducted and filtered in the air cleaner flows through the central injection unit.There, the temperature of the air is recorded by the intake-air sensor, which transmits it in the form of an electrical voltage to the ECU. The throttlevalve actuator, also located in the central injection unit, regulates the required air flow rate at idle in such a way that a stored setpoint idle speed can be maintained. Fuel is injected before the throttle valve into the inducted air (exterior mixture formation). The mixture regulated in terms of quantity by the throttle valve flows through the intake manifold on account of the vacuum pressure acting in the
12
Pressure line
Fuel tank
Carbon Fuel injector canister Pressure Air Air-temperature sensor cleaner regulator Fresh air Throttlevalve actuator Central injection unit Regenerating (purge) valve ECU
Fuel screen Fuel filter Lambda oxygen sensor
Diagnosis connection
Throttle valve Throttle-valve actuator Intake manifold Intake-manifold heating +
Catalyst
Speed sensor
Relay Engine-temperature sensor Battery Ignition/starter switch
Fig. 1: Single-point injection
267
Central fuel injector (Fig. 3). This consists of the valve housing and the valve group. The valve housing accommodates the field winding with the electrical connection. The valve group consists of the valve body and the valve needle with solenoid armature guided in the body. The helical spring presses the valve needle into its seal seat with the assistance of the system pressure. When the field winding is excited, the pintle valve lifts off its seal seat by roughly 0.06 mm so that fuel can emerge from the annular orifice. The shape of the pintle nozzle provides for good atomisation together with a tapered injection jet. The fuel injector is triggered in time with the ignition pulses.
Electrical connection Intake-air temperature sensor
12.4.4.2 Single-point injection components

Central injection unit (Fig. 1). This comprises: Hydraulic section with fuel supply, return, fuel injector, pressure regulator, air-temperature sensor Throttle-valve section with throttle valve, throttle-valve potentiometer, throttle-valve actuator
Fuel-pressure regulator Poppet valve Air-temperature sensor Fuel injector Hydraulic section (upper part) Heatinsulating intermediate plate Throttlevalve housing (lower part)
Fuel supply Fuel return Throttle valve
Return to pressure regulator Solenoid coil Valve spring Solenoid armature Valve housing
Fig. 1: Central injection unit
Fuel-pressure regulator (Fig. 1). This keeps the system pressure in the return constant at 1 bar. The injected fuel quantity is therefore dependent on the fuel-injector opening time. If the fuel-pump pressure exceeds the system pressure, the springloaded poppet valve opens and releases the fuel return. The fuel flowing to the pressure regulator flows through and around the fuel injector beforehand for cooling. This ensures a good hot-start response. Throttle-valve actuator (Fig. 2). This is used for idlespeed control to a low speed level and stabilises the idle speed, for example, even when the air-conditioning system is switched on. The ECU supplies the actuating signal for positioning the throttle valve to the DC motor as a function of engine speed and engine temperature. The actuating push rod, which acts on the throttle valve, is extended and retracted by way of a screw thread.
Screw thread Worm DC motor
12
Pintle valve Supply Strainer Pintle nozzle
Fig. 3: Central fuel injector
12.4.4.3 Electronic control of single-point injection

The single-point injection system is electronically controlled in accordance with the IPO concept, i.e. the different operating states are recorded by sensors and transmitted to the ECU in the form of electrical signals. The ECU calculates the required starting values with the aid of various stored program maps and actuates the corresponding actuators by means of electrical signals (see block diagram, Fig. 1, Page 268 and circuit diagram, Fig. 1, Page 269). The single-point injection ECU thus demonstrates the following functions: starting, warm-up, acceleration and full-load enrichment, overrun fuel cutoff, lambda closed-loop control, hot-starting control, engine-speed limitation, adaptive idle-speed control, fuel-pump-relay activation, regeneratingvalve activation, limp-home-mode function, selfdiagnosis.
Worm gear Actuator shaft Damping spring Actuating push rod Housing
Fig. 2: Throttle-valve actuator
268
Engine speed (Hall generator) Throttle-valve pos. (potentiometer) Idle (idle switch) Air temperature (NTC-air) Engine temperature (NTC-engine) Residual oxygen (lambda sensor) ECU
Fuel-pump relay/ fuel pump
Fuel injector
Throttle-valve actuator
Tank vent valve
Relay for intake-manifold preheating
Diagnosis
Fig. 1: Block diagram of single-point injection system
12
Engine speed. This is transmitted to the ECU by a Hall-effect sensor located in the distributor. The ECU uses the engine speed together with the throttle-valve position to calculate the length of time during which the fuel injector is supplied with power and thus the basic fuel quantity to be injected. If sensor B5 fails, engine operation is no longer possible because the ECU is unable to calculate either the required injected fuel quantity or the number of injection operations. B5 can be checked at pin 26 (terminal 7), pin 27 (terminal 8h) of the ECU and terminal 31 (terminal 31d). Throttle-valve position. This is recorded by the throttle-valve potentiometer located in the central injection unit and transmitted to the ECU in the form of electrical voltages. From the level of these voltages the ECU is able to calculate with the aid of stored program maps the opening angle and together with the speed the inducted air quantity. If the voltages assume extreme values, the ECU detects full load from these values. In this case, lambda closed-loop control is shut down and the mixture to be formed is enriched. From the voltage change per unit of time the ECU is able to detect the driver's acceleration command. If a stored value is exceeded, it cuts out lambda closed-loop control and enriches the mixture. If sensor B3 fails, limphome operation can be maintained by the lambda sensor under certain circumstances. B3 is checked at pin 7, pin 8, pin 18 of the ECU and terminal 31. Idle position. The ECU receives this information from idle switch Y2, which is attached to the throttle-valve actuator. When the throttle valve is in the idle position, idle-speed control or overrun fuel cutoff is activated. If the signal fails, no idle-speed con-
trol or overrun fuel cut-off is possible because the idle position is no longer being detected. Component check Y2: pin 3, terminal 31M. Intake-air temperature. This is recorded by an NTC resistor B1 located in the central injection unit. The voltage drop at the resistor gets smaller as temperature increases. The signal is required so that more fuel (up to 20 %) can be injected at low temperatures. Increased contact resistances at e.g. corroded plug connections may result in an incorrect mixture formation. If the signal fails completely on account of an open circuit or a short circuit, the ECU can switch to a stored default value. The signal from B1 can be checked at pin 14 and terminal 31. Engine temperature. The signal from the enginetemperature sensor (NTC) is required so that the fuel quantity can be adapted as a function of the engine temperature when the engine is cold (correction quantity). Extending the injection time by up to 70 % prevents the mixture from leaning heavily as a result of condensation losses in the intake manifold and cylinder. As with the air-temperature sensor, an increased contact resistance at a plug connection can also result in an incorrect mixture formation here. The ECU can switch to a stored default value in the event of an open circuit or a short circuit. Component check B2: pin 2, terminal 31M. Fuel-pump relay. The function of this relay is to supply the electric fuel pump with power. The relay control current flows if the ECU connects pin 17 to earth/ground. In this way, the operating current for the fuel-supply pump can flow from terminal 30 to the pump. If the ECU receives no signal from the
30 15 30 15
269
K3
30 85
X1
29 13
TD
1 14 2 15 3 23 16 24 25
Special functions B 6 K4 8 7 18 5 20 10 12 11 17 22 4 9 B A 28 26 27 A 7 8h O 1 L 15 4
87
86
K1
87 30 86 87 85
K2
30 86 85
Y5
F1
8A
t0 t0
M
F2
8A
M
B5
31d P Q
LL
t0 t0
31M 31
Y1 B1
B2
Y2 B5 F1 F2 K1 K2
B3 Hall generator Fuse 8A Fuse 8A Fuel-pump relay Main relay
B4 Y3 R1
Y4
31M 31
B1 Air-temperature sensor B2 Engine-temperature sensor B3 Throttle-valve potentiometer B4 Heated lamdba sensor
K3 Relay for intake-manifold preheating K4 ECU R1 Series resistor Y1 Fuel injector
Y2 Throttle-valve actuator with idle contact switch Y3 Regenerating (purge) valve Y4 Fuel pump Y5 Intake-manifold heating
Fig. 1: Circuit diagram of single-point injection system
engine-speed sensor for a period of three seconds, it interrupts the relay control current and the pump is deactivated. This feature is intended to prevent fuel from getting into the engine or escaping into the environment when the engine is stopped and the fuel injector is open (safety cut-out). Fuel injector. The fuel injector sprays the fuel in finely atomised state before the throttle valve. The fuel is injected in each case on two crankshaft revolutions in accordance with the number of cylinders in the engine. The valve opens when fuel-pump relay K1 is closed and current flows from terminal 30 via the relay and the series resistor to the valve. the ECU connects pin 13 to earth/ground. The length of time during which power is supplied determines the injected fuel quantity. Throttle-valve actuator. The ECU uses this actuator to control the idle speed in such a way that a setpoint value dependent on the engine temperature is maintained. When the ECU detects the idle position, it activates the throttle-valve actuator via pin 23 and pin 24 so that the throttle valve, depending on the actual value, is opened or closed further. For correct idle-speed control the ECU requires the signals from Hall-effect sensor B5, from engine-temperature sensor B2 and from idle contact switch in throttle-valve actuator Y2. Intake-manifold heating. This has the function of heating the intake-manifold walls when the engine
is cold. In this way, condensation of the fuel on the cold intake-manifold walls should be reduced or prevented. The intake-manifold heating relay closes if the ECU connects pin 29 to earth/ground. Thus current can flow from terminal 30 via relay K3 to the intake-manifold heating (positive supply). The heating receives earth/ground from terminal 31.
12
12.4.4.4 Diagnosis
Whereas in older systems the stored faults were read out in the form of flashing codes, in newer systems stored faults can be read out by way of fault readout devices (engine testers). Actuator diagnosis is also possible for the throttle-valve actuator, for the intake-manifold preheating relay and for the regenerating valve.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 List the essential features of a single-point injection system. 2 Describe the fuel system of the single-point injection system. 3 From which subassemblies is the central injection unit made up? Explain their functions and effects. 4 Which sensors are required by the single-point injection system? Which variables/quantities do they record? 5 Which actuators are activated by the ECU? 6 Explain the function of the throttle-valve actuator.
270
12.4.5 LH-Motronic
The LH-Motronic injection system is an electronically controlled fuel-injection system with multipoint injection, in which the air mass is used as one of the main controlled variables. LH-Motronic is a further developed variant of LJetronic. The electromagnetic fuel injectors are sequentially actuated by the ECU. The fuel is injected into the intake manifold shortly before the engine inlet valves, which are still closed at the start of injection. Engine speed and inducted air mass are used as the main controlled variables (m/n-system). The latter is determined by a hot-wire or hotfilm air-mass meter, which is also the external feature of LH-Motronic.
from the fuel tank via a fuel filter to the fuel rail. All the fuel injectors are supplied with fuel from the fuel rail. At the end of the fuel rail is a pressure regulator, which keeps the differential pressure constant at approx. 3.5 bar. The excess fuel returns from the pressure regulator to the fuel tank. Regenerating system. The hydrocarbons temporarily stored in the carbon canister must be supplied for combustion in an appropriate operating state, e.g. part load. For this purpose, the regenerating valve (tank vent valve) is clocked by the engine ECU so that air and hydrocarbons can be drawn in by the vacuum pressure acting in the intake manifold. Exhaust-gas recirculation. An exhaust-gas recirculation system can be used to improve the exhaustgas values.
12.4.5.1 LH-Jetronic subsystems (Fig. 1)

Air-intake system. The air filtered by the air cleaner and inducted by the engine flows into the intake manifold. There the air mass is recorded by the airmass meter and transmitted to the ECU in the form of a voltage signal. An NTC resistor, which can also be integrated in the air-mass meter, is used as the air-temperature sensor. The voltage drop at the thermistor is the measure of the intake-air temperature. Fuel system. Two-line systems are usually used in LH-Jetronic. An electric fuel pump, which is located either in the fuel tank (in-tank pump) or on the vehicle underbody (inline pump), delivers the fuel
Idle-speed control
Its function is to keep the engine speed constant with the throttle valve closed at a setpoint value dependent on the engine temperature. The internal-resistance levels of the engine when the engine is cold are greater than when it is hot on account of the viscous engine oil and increased friction. In order to overcome this resistance and facilitate stable idle speeds, the engine must generate more power. This is achieved by an increased amount of mixture. Furthermore, idle-speed fluctuations must be compensated by a loaded vehicle electrical system or by a cut-in A/C compressor.
12
Carbon canister Airtemperature sensor Fuel filter Pressure regulator
Fuel tank
Air cleaner Air-mass meter
Throttlevalve potentiometer
Tank vent valve
Fuel rail
+
Referencemark sensor Electric fuel pump
Lambda oxygen sensor Fuel injector ECU Idlespeed actuator
Enginespeed sensor
Enginetemperature sensor
Fig. 1: LH-Jetronic
12 Mixture formation The ECU requires the signals from the following sensors for idle-speed control: Engine-speed sensor (actual speed) Engine-temperature sensor (determination of the setpoint speed) One of the following actuators is used for speed control. Idle-speed actuator (Fig. 1). This permits additional air depending on the requirement to flow in a bypass around the closed throttle valve. For this purpose, it is actuated by the ECU by means of pulsewidth-modulated signals, a process which opens the air duct to a lesser or greater extent.
Diaphragm Adjustable stop Air duct Air outlet Air inlet Rotary slide
271
The ECU requires the following information for overrun fuel cut-off: Throttle-valve position from the throttle-valve switch or throttle-valve potentiometer Engine speed from the engine-speed sensor Acceleration, full-load enrichment The mixture is enriched in order to facilitate maximum engine power output. Engines with three-way catalysts are operated as far as possible in the = 1 range on account of exhaust-gas regulations.To be able to output the maximum engine power, the inducted mixture is enriched, depending on the engine, to lambda 0.85 to 0.95. Lambda closed-loop control must be cut out for this purpose. Enrichment begins when the throttle-valve potentiometer signals full load to the ECU or the voltage change per unit of time at the potentiometer exceeds a specific stored value. Extremely powerful engines do not necessarily require fullload enrichment.
Fig. 1: Idle-speed actuator (rotary actuator)
Altitude adaptation
There is no need for special altitude adaptation in non-supercharged engines because the air-mass meter takes into account a reduced air density, for instance at greater altitudes.
Throttle-valve actuator (Fig. 2). This subassembly consists of an electric motor, a gearing and the throttle valve. At idle the electric motor is actuated by the engine ECU in such a way that it opens or closes the throttle valve depending on the actual speed so that a prespecified setpoint speed is maintained.
12
Engine-speed limitation
The function of this facility is to prevent the engine from overrevving.
Gearing
Servo-motor
Fig. 2: Throttle-valve actuator
Engine-speed limitation is activated when the ECU receives from the engine-speed sensor a signal from which it detects that the stored maximum speed has been reached. The moment of ignition is moved in the retard direction to limit the power and with it the maximum speed and also the top roadspeed. Fuel injection is cut out in exceptional cases only.
Overrun fuel cut-off LH-Jetronic as Motronic

No fuel is injected when overrun fuel cut-off is active. When the engine is running with increased revs and with the throttle valve closed (overrunning, e.g. in downhill-driving situations), overrun fuel cut-off prevents fuel from being injected. Fuel injection resumes when the throttle valve opens or when the engine speed drops below a stored threshold, e.g. 1,200 rpm. All LH-Jetronic systems (fuel-injection systems) are essentially designed as Motronic systems, i.e. both mixture formation and ignition of the fuel-air mixture is controlled by a common engine ECU. Here, depending on the manufacturer's requirements and year of manufacture, different ignition systems can be combined with LH-Jetronic. By using Motronic systems, it is possible to reduce design complexity, increase operational reliability and improve the efficiency of the systems.
272
12.4.5.2 LH-Motronic fuel injectors

With LH-Jetronic each cylinder is assigned an electromagnetically actuated fuel injector (Fig. 1) which injects fuel sequentially into the intake manifold.
Valve body Solenoid Field armature winding Electrical connection
ing the injection operation on an oscilloscope (Fig. 2). The voltage peak during the closing operation is created by the switch-off induction of the field winding. Types. With LH-Motronic different fuel injectors are used for engines with two- or multiple-valve technology. They differ in the shape of the fuel jet or spray and in the angle at which the fuel is injected by the nozzle (Fig. 3).
Jet shapes a) b)
Nozzle needle
Closing spring
Filter Ring-gap metering Dual-stream injector
Fig. 1: Fuel injector
12
Function. When the valve field winding is supplied with power by the ECU, a magnetic field is generated in it which attracts the solenoid armature. This raises the nozzle needle off its seat and fuel is injected. The needle stroke, depending on the valve design, is 0.05 mm0.1 mm. When the ECU stops supplying power as a function of the operating state (after 1.5 ms18 ms), the magnetic field collapses and the closing spring forces the nozzle needle into its seat. Fuel injection is terminated. The mass of the injected fuel is dependent on the valve opening time. the injected fuel quantity per unit of time (valve constant). the fuel density. the fuel pressure. Powering of valves. The fuel injectors are switched to negative by the ECU. In this way, the ECU can be protected against being destroyed by the short-circuit current in the event of a short circuit to earth/ground. The positive supply is provided via a relay switched by the ECU from terminal 15. The valve opening time can be determined by display-
Fig. 3: Fuel injectors for two-valve technology (a) and multiple-valve technology (b)
Air-shrouded fuel injectors are used for finer atomisation of the fuel and for better mixing with air (Fig. 4). For this purpose, air is diverted before the throttle valve and routed via a line into the injector. In the narrow injector air gap the air is greatly accelerated by the pressure differential acting in the intake manifold at part load. The air emerging at high speed is mixed with the injected fuel and this process finely atomises the fuel.
Air
Fuel
30 15 F Relay IV 10 V/DIV 2.5 ms/DIV
0V ECU Valve opens Valve closes 31 Fuel-air mixture
Fig. 2: Powering of fuel injector
Fig. 4: Air-shrouded fuel injectors
12 Mixture formation When the fuel injectors are supplied with fuel from the fuel rail, this fuel is fed from the top (top-feed). The top end of the injector, sealed by an O-ring, is integrated in the fuel rail while the bottom end, also sealed by an O-ring, is integrated in the intake manifold. In the interests of saving space, the fuel injectors are often integrated in fuel-rail modules. In this case, so-called bottom-feed fuel injectors are used).The fuel is supplied from the side with these injectors. These injectors have good fuel-cooling properties and thus exhibit a good hot-start response.
Contact rails Electrical connection Fuel supply Pressure regulator Fuel return
273
Hot-film air-mass meter B3.This determines the inducted air mass and transmits it in the form of a voltage signal to the ECU, which calculates the basic injection quantity (quantity) from it together with the engine speed. If the sensor fails, the system can generate a substitute signal from the throttle-valve position. The vehicle can continue to be driven under restricted conditions (limp-home operation). The air-mass meter is supplied with power from pin 10 and receives earth/ground from terminal 31. The voltage signal transmitted to the ECU can be picked off at pins 10 and 12.
Fuel injector
Fig. 1: Fuel-rail module with bottom-feed injectors
Filter strainer Electrical connection
Engine-speed sensor B1. The signal from this sensor serves first and foremost, together with the signal from the air-mass meter, to calculate the basic injection quantity. The system uses inductive speed sensors which are accommodated in the area of the crankshaft and scan a specific pulsegenerator wheel. These sensors more often than not also supply the reference mark which is needed to determine the exact TDC of cylinder no. 1. The engine cannot be operated should this sensor fail. The signal is also needed for idle-speed control, overrun fuel cut-off and engine-speed limitation. Oscilloscope readings can also be taken at pin 6 and pin 7.
12
Field winding Filter strainer Armature Valve body Valve needle Top-feed Bottom-feed
Throttle-valve potentiometer B4. This is located on the throttle valve and serves to record both the throttle-valve position and the opening speed. The integrated idle switch signals to the ECU when the throttle valve is closed. If the sensor fails, a default value stored in the ECU is taken as the basis for the minimum speed. This is usually expressed in an increased idle speed. Idle-speed control, overrun fuel cut-off and full-load and acceleration enrichment are no longer possible. The potentiometer signal can be picked off at pins 13 and 14 or pin 12. The throttlevalve switch is checked at pin 15 to terminal 31. Some systems, especially when a throttle-valve actuator is utilised, use a double potentiometer for safety and accuracy reasons.
Fig. 2: Top-feed and bottom-feed fuel injectors
12.3.5.3 Electronic control of LH-Jetronic

The block diagram on Page 274 and the circuit diagram on Page 275 show in simplified form the design of electronic control of LH-Motronic. The following sensors and actuators are used here.
Intake-air temperature sensor B7. This is an NTC resistor, the function of which is to record the temperature of the intake air. It is located in the intake manifold. The ECU needs this signal to adapt the fuel quantity. The injection time can be extended by up to 20% when the air is very cold. If the signal fails, it is possible to switch to a stored default value. The resistance of the sensor can be checked at pin 18 and pin 19.
274
Sensors Input
Engine speed Induction-type pulse generator Firing TDC of first cylinder Hall generator
Processing Output
Main relay
Actuators
ECU
Fuel-pump relay/ fuel pump
Air mass Air-mass meter Throttle-valve position Throttle-valve potentiometer Engine temperature NTC-engine
Basic adjustment via program map Starting control Post-start/full-load/ acceleration enrichment Overrun fuel cut-off Engine-speed limitation Lambda closed-loop control Idle-speed control Tank-ventilation system Exhaust-gas recirculation
Fuel injectors
Idle-speed actuator
Tank vent valve
Residual oxygen Lambda oxygen sensor
Diagnosis
12
Air temperature NTC-air
Lambda-sensor heater
Fig. 1: Block diagram of LH-Jetronic sensors and actuators
Engine-temperature sensor B5. This NTC resistor records the engine temperature. Depending on the voltage drop at the resistor, the engine ECU adapts the injected fuel quantity to the operating state as a function of temperature. Thus the injection time is extended by up to 70% when the engine is cold. In addition, the moment of ignition, idle speed, exhaust-gas recirculation and knock control are modified when the engine is cold. The ECU can switch to a stored default value in the event of a signal interruption or a short circuit. An increased resistance, for example at a plug connection, is not detected however. This fault results in an enrichment of the mixture and thus among other things in increased CO emission. The resistance of the NTC resistor can be checked at the ECU plug at pin 12 and pin 16. Reference-mark sensor B2. The signal from the inductive reference-mark sensor on the crankshaft and the signal from the Hall-effect sensor mounted on the camshaft are needed for the purpose of clearly identifying firing TDC. From both signals together with the engine speed the ECU calculates the correct moment for injection into the respective cylinder and the corresponding ignition angle. Os-
cilloscope readings of the sensor signal can be taken at pin 8 and pin 5. Terminals on the sensor: 7 (1) = signal positive; 31d (31d) = earth/ground supply. Power is supplied via pin 9 = terminal 8h (2). Lambda sensor (voltage-jump sensor) B6. This registers the residual oxygen in the exhaust gas and, by means of feedback in the form of a voltage signal to the ECU, enables the injected fuel quantity to be regulated to = 1. Because the sensor is only operated at approx. 250 C to 300 C, it is electrically heated in order to achieve the quickest possible response. If the sensor fails, regulation is no longer possible. The failure is detected by the ECU. The mixture-formation system then operates as an open-loop control system. Oscilloscope readings of the sensor signal can be taken at pin 17 and terminal 31. The sensor heater receives positive from terminal 87 of K2 and negative from terminal 31. Main relay K1. When the ignition is switched on, the main relay receives positive to terminal 85 from terminal 15 and negative to terminal 86 from ECU
30 15 31
275
K1 V V
85 30
B1
CS
B2
CA
B3
B4
B5
B6
O2
B7
K1
86 87
1 2 3 1 2
T M
K2/87
TA
1 2 34 33 32
3 31
4 30
6 7
8 9 29
10 11 12
ECU
28 27
13 14 15 26 25
16 24
17 23
18 19 22 2120
Heater Lambda sensor

86 87
K2
85
31 15 30
Y1
M
Y2
Y3
Y4
Y5
Y6
Y7 H
XD
30
Main relay Incorrect-polarity protection diode K2 Fuel-pump relay M Fuel pump B1 Speed and reference-mark sensor B2 Camshaft sensor B3 Air-mass meter B4 Throttle-valve potentiometer B5 Engine-temperature sensor B6 Heated lambda sensor B7 Air-temperature sensor H Telltale lamp/fault lamp Y1 ...Y4 Fuel injectors Y5 Idle-speed actuator Y6 Tank vent valve Y7 Exhaust-gas recirculation valve XD Diagnosis connection Sensors Actuators
Fig. 1: LH-Jetronic circuit diagram
pin 3. In this way, the relay operating circuit closes and the ECU is supplied with power to pin 4. Likewise, solenoid valvesY1 toY7 and the control circuit are supplied with power by K2 to terminal 85. Fuel-pump relay K2.This relay closes when main relay K1 terminal 85 is supplied with positive and ECU terminal 86 is supplied with earth/ground. In order to establish the earth/ground connection, pin 30 must be connected to earth/ground. The operating circuit supplies fuel pump M and the lambda-sensor heater with power. The power supply is interrupted if the speed signal from the engine-speed sensor fails. Fuel injectors Y1 to Y4. Like fuel-pump relay K2, these receive power from main relay K1. If the fuel injectors are top open, the ECU must connect in each case pins 26, 27, 28, 29 to earth/ground. Idle-speed actuator Y5. The ECU uses this actuator to regulate the idle speed as a function of engine
temperature. It is supplied with positive by K1 terminal 87. To facilitate stepless opening and closing of the bypass cross-section, the actuator is clocked by the ECU by means of pulse-width-modulated signals with negative. Tank vent valve Y6. This solenoid valve opens and closes the connecting line between the intake manifold and the carbon canister. It is opened by pulsewidth-modulated signals, during which the positive supply is provided by terminal 87 K1 and the negative supply by the ECU via pin 24. The valve remains closed if the signal fails. Exhaust-gas recirculation valve Y7. This solenoid valve for exhaust-gas recirculation opens and closes the connecting line between the exhaust manifold and the intake manifold. It is opened by a pulse-width-modulated signal, during which it receives positive from terminal 87 K1 and negative from ECU pin 23. The valve closes if the signal fails.
12
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 From which signals is the basic injection quantity calculated in LH-Motronic? 2 Which subsystems are featured in LH-Motronic? 3 Describe the various idle-speed control possibilities. 4 Which sensors does the ECU require for overrun fuel cut-off? 5 Explain the term "Motronic .
6 In terms of which features do LH-Jetronic fuel injectors differ? 7 8 9 What advantage do air-shrouded fuel injectors offer over conventional injectors? Which sensors does LH-Motronic require and for what purpose are their signals used? Which actuators are activated by LH-Motronic?
10 How is the fuel-pump relay actuated? 11 Explain the term "pulse-width-modulated signal".
276
12.4.6 ME-Motronic
ME-Motronic (Fig. 1) is a further development of LH-Motronic. A significant innovation is the replacement of mixture-formation control by socalled torque management. This has made it necessary to use electronic throttle control (ETC function). EOBD has also been integrated in the system. In previous systems the driver opened and closed the throttle valve by operating the accelerator pedal. The inducted air mass and the fuel quantity injected accordingly determined together with the engine speed (main controlled variables) the torque requested by the driver. Additional torque requests, e.g. by the A/C compressor, occurred as disturbance values and had to be corrected by the system, e.g. by idle-speed control. Because of torque management, the accelerator-pedal position is now no longer the sole deciding factor for the torque to be generated. All the systems and components which influence the drive torque, e.g. automatic gearbox, A/C compressor, catalyst heaters, TCS/ASR, ESP, are used to calculate the engine torque to be generated. Motronic generates a substitute value, on which the requirements of the individual systems have an influence with different priorities. When, for instance, the A/C compressor is switched on, the drive torque is reduced. In order to avoid this, the ECU receives a signal before the A/C compressor is cut in. This causes the torque to be generated to be modified
Carbon canister Intake-manifold pressure sensor
by the required amount by means of opening of the throttle valve, increased fuel injection and in other cases also a modified ignition angle. To facilitate this, it is necessary to isolate the throttlevalve position from the accelerator-pedal position. This is achieved by using an ETC (electronic throttle control) function. This also means that the accelerator-pedal position is from now on only to be viewed as a driver command, e.g. in the case of a TCS intervention.
12.4.6.1 ME-Motronic subsystems

Air-intake system. A significant, visible difference from LH-Jetronic is the introduction of the so-called ETC function. For this purpose, the driver command is recorded via an accelerator-pedal module. This is performed for safety reasons by two redundant potentiometers or Hall-effect sensors which are integrated in the module. The position and the rate of motion of the accelerator pedal are transmitted by the generated voltage signals to the engine ECU. The ECU uses stored program maps to calculate a necessary and useful torque and moves the throttle valve to a corresponding position by means of a servo-motor. This position is monitored by two potentiometers. Thus there is no longer any mechanical connection at all between the accelerator pedal and the throttle valve (drive by wire). In the event of faults within the system caused by unclear sensor signals, the throttle valve is moved into a limp-home position.
12
Pressure actuator Shutoff valve Air-mass sensor Tank vent valve Fuel injector
Ignition coil
Secondaryair pump Referencemark sensor, camshaft Secondaryair valve
Fuel filter Throttle-valve potentiometer Airtemp. sensor Exhaustgas recirculation valve
Knock sensor
ECU Speed sensor Diagnosis interface Diagnosis lamp Differentialpressure sensor
Lambda oxygen sensor Temperature sensor
Acceleratorpedal module Electric fuel pump
Lambda oxygen sensor
Fig. 1: ME-Motronic
Sensors
CAN
277
Actuators
Secondary-air system. This consists of the secondary-air pump and valve. The system is used in the cold-starting phase to reduce CO and HC. It also heats up the catalyst very quickly to operating temperature (catalyst heating). Introduction of OBD. Monitoring of all components which may cause changes in the exhaust-gas behaviour if they malfunction or are damaged must be guaranteed. Faults that have occurred must be stored and displayed.
Monitoring module
Fig. 1: ETC system
Fuel system.The fuel supply is increasingly supplied by one-line systems and delivery modules integrated in the tank. When one-line systems (Returnless Fuel Systems) are used, the fuel supply pressure is usually kept constant at 3 bar in relation to the ambient pressure. As the intake-manifold pressure varies, so the differential pressure at the fuel injector changes, which results in different injected fuel quantities. This fault is corrected by a compensation function. For this purpose, the intake-manifold pressure is recorded by an intake-manifold pressure sensor and the injection time is extended or shortened by the ECU accordingly.
12.4.6.2 Electronic control of ME-Motronic

In addition to the sensors and actuators used in LHMotronic, the following components are used (see block diagram on Page 278 and circuit diagram on Page 279). Intake-manifold pressure sensor B9. The signal from this sensor is needed to record the intakemanifold pressure and to compensate the different differential pressure at the fuel injector by adapting the injection time. This signal is also used to calculate the purging flow of the carbon canister. If the air-mass meter fails, an approximately precise substitute signal for the inducted air mass can be generated via the intake-manifold pressure sensor. The sensor is connected via pins 49, 50 and 53 (earth/ground) to the ECU. Differential-pressure sensor B10. Self-diagnosis is used to check the fuel tank for leaks by monitoring its internal pressure. The sensor is connected via pins 51, 52 and 53 (earth/ground) to the ECU. Lambda sensor II B11. The post-catalyst sensor serves to monitor the catalyst function. It is also used to adapt the pre-catalyst sensor. If the sensor fails, the fault is detected and stored by OBD. Continued lambda closed-loop control by lambda sensor I is possible, however the catalyst function is no longer monitored. Oscilloscope readings of the sensor signal can be taken at pin 10 and pin 11. The sensor is heated via pin 9 (earth/ground) and K1 (positive). Sensor for accelerator-pedal position B12. In the case of electronic throttle control, the driver command is determined from the position and rate of motion of the accelerator pedal. The necessary signal for the ECU is generated by two redundant potentiometers in the accelerator-pedal module. Potentiometer 1 is connected via pins 37, 38 and 39 and potentiometer 2 via pins 40, 41 and 42 to the ECU.
12
Pollutant-reducing systems
The increasingly stringent environmental-protection legislation passed over the years calls for pollutant-reducing subsystems to be elaborated and improved. Mixture-formation system. More precise recording of the inducted air mass by hot-film air-mass meters with return-flow detection enable the engine to be operated in a narrower lambda window. The recording of the lambda value by broadband lambda sensors enables the lambda value to be regulated more precisely than was previously possible with voltage-jump sensors. The use of rapid-starting pulse-generator wheels on the camshaft enables the firing-TDC position to be detected earlier and therefore the engine to be started more quickly. Tank-ventilation system. The fuel-supply system is outwardly sealed airtight. The carbon canister can be ventilated by a shutoff valve, which is connected in parallel to the regenerating valve. Exhaust-gas recirculation. Cooling the exhaust gases recirculated in the combustion chamber improves NOx reduction. An exhaust-gas recirculation cooler is installed for this purpose.
278
Sensor for throttle-valve position B4. The throttlevalve position must be recorded exactly by the ECU for the setpoint/actual-value comparison. As with the sensor for the accelerator-pedal position, two redundant potentiometers are also used here for safety and accuracy reasons. If the plausibility check of the four potentiometers by the ETC monitoring system reveals a deviation from the setpoint status, the system initially falls back on substitute signals. In emergency situations, e.g. two potentiometers on the throttle valve deliver different signals, the throttle valve is closed to such an extent as to permit only a low engine speed. The sensors can be checked at pins 31, 32, 33 (potentiometer 1) and at pins 31, 33, 34 (potentiometer 2) of the ECU plug. ETC servo-motor B4.The throttle-valve servo-motor is actuated by the ECU via pin 35 and pin 36. The relevant throttle-valve position is calculated as a result
Sensors Input
Engine speed Induction-type pulse generator Firing TDC of first cylinder
12 Mixture formation of the ECU determining the setpoint torque. This can be generated by a specific charge, for which in turn a quite specific throttle-valve position is necessary. If the motor fails, the throttle valve is moved into a limp-home position which only permits a low engine speed. Secondary-air pump M1. This pumps fresh air shortly after the engine exhaust valve into the exhaust manifold as a function of the engine temperature under restricted time conditions. It is supplied with power via relay K3, where the positive supply is provided by K1 and the negative supply via terminal 31. The function of the pump is monitored by self-diagnosis. Secondary-air valve Y9. This valve protects the secondary-air pump and prevents hot exhaust gases from flowing into the pump when the pump is stopped. It is opened by positive from K1 and negative from ECU pin 19.
Output
Main relay Fuel-pump relay/ fuel pump Fuel injectors
Processing
Actuators
12
Hall generator Air mass Air-mass meter Throttle-valve position Throttle-valve potentiometer Engine temperature NTC-engine Residual oxygen before cat. Lambda sensor I Air temperature NTC-air Intake-manifold pressure Pressure sensor Differential pressure Pressure sensor Residual oxygen after cat. Lambda sensor II Acceleratorpedal position Accelerator-pedal potentiometer
ECU
Basic adjustment via program map Starting control Post-start/full-load/ acceleration enrichment Overrun fuel cut-off Engine-speed limitation Lambda closed-loop control Idle-speed control Tank-ventilation system Exhaust-gas recirculation Torque management ETC function Cruise control Load-change control Secondary-air injection EOBD II CAN-bus system
ETC servo-motor
Tank vent valve Exhaust-gas recirculation valve
Shutoff valve
Heater, lambda sensor II Heater, lambda sensor II
Secondary-air valve Secondary-air pump
Diagnosis CAN bus
Fig. 1: ME-Motronic block diagram
30 15 31 K1
279
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5 S1 B6 l B11 Y6 l B3 B7Y7 Y8 Y9
c
F6
F7
F8 K4
Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4
K3
M1
M
S3 S2
+ 1 2 3 4 5 678 9 10 1 1 12 1314 16 17 18 19 20 15
32 34 37 39 41 31 33 35 36 38 40 42 43 44
+
M
K2
45 46
47 48
49 50
24 26 27 28 29 30 25 53 57 59 65 51 52 54 55 56 58 60 61 62 63 64 66 23
21
22
B5
+ U P U P c
1 2 3 4
CAN BUS H CAN BUS L
B4 M2
M
B12
B2
B1
B8
B9
B10
T1
T2 Q P
31
Fig. 1: ME-Motronic circuit diagram

Key to circuit diagram B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 Crankshaft speed sensor Camshaft TDC sensor Air-mass meter Sensor for throttle-valve position with ETC servo-motor Engine-temperature sensor Heated lambda sensor I Intake-air temperature sensor Knock sensor Intake-manifold pressure sensor Cruise-control system M1 M2 K1 A K3 K4 B10 B11 B12 Differential-pressure sensor Heated lambda sensor II Sensor for accelerator-pedal position Fuel-pump relay ME-Motronic ECU Relay, secondary-air pump Relay, output stage, ignition system Secondary-air pump Electric fuel pump Y8 Y9 14 S1 S2 S3 T1, T2 Y6 Y7 Switch for CC* Clutch-pedal switch Brake-pedal switch for CC* Twin-spark ignition coils Regenerating valve Exhaust-gas recirculation valve Shutoff valve Secondary-air valve Inputs and outputs of other systems
12
F1F8 Fuses
Y1Y4 Fuel injectors
Shutoff valve Y8. The function of this valve is to shut off the air supply to the carbon canister when regeneration is deactivated. The shutoff valve is opened by positive from K1 and negative from ECU pin 18 parallel with the tank vent valve.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 Which sensors and actuators are used in MEMotronic? 2 At which pin can sensors B4, B9, B10, B11 and B12 be checked? 3 Describe the design and operating principle of an ETC system. 4 Which systems and measures for protecting the environment are used in ME-Motronic? 5 At which pin can actuators M1, Y9 and M2 be checked? 6 Which ignition system is used in the system shown in the system diagram? 7 What happens when K1 closes?
Connection of Motronic ECU with another system by CAN bus

All the data which are needed for a precise mixture formation in every operating state and in every operating situation must be made available to the engine ECU. For this purpose, all the ECUs which can influence the vehicle drive are interconnected by means of a high-speed bus system (CAN bus).

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12.1.3 Components of systems

12.1.2 Design of systems (Fig. 1)

Fuel-pressure regulator Fuel injector

Filler neck Fuel-supply pump

Fig. 1: Design of a fuel-supply system

Fig. 2: PE fuel tank for a passenger car

Fig. 2: Roller-cell pump (a) and internal-gear pump (b)

Fig. 1: Design of an electric fuel pump

Fig. 3: Peripheral pump (a) and side-channel pump (b)

Outlet Pressureholding valve

Fig. 1: Two-stage inline fuel pump

Fuel-pressure regulator (two-line system)

Suction-jet pumps (Fig. 2)

Fig. 2: Suction-jet pumps

Connection to intake manifold

Fig. 3: Fuel-pressure regulator

12.1.4 Fuel-tank ventilation

Vent line Pressure regulator

Gravity float Regenerating Nonvalve (purge) valve return valve

Fuel fine filter Fuel-supply pump Catch tank Suction-jet pump

Tank fill-level sensor

Service expansion tank Fuelling expansion tank

Refuelling pipe Carbon canister

Intake manifold Shutoff valve

Fig. 1: Fuel-delivery module

Fig. 2: Ventilation system

To tank compensating volume

Fig. 1: Gravity and vent valve

12.2 Mixture formation in spark-ignition engines

Fuel-pump relay Electric fuel pump

Airbag Rotational speed ECU

12.2.1 Basic principles

Fig. 1: Circuit diagram of fuel-supply pump

Function of mixture-formation systems

Air ratio ( = lambda)

Fig. 2: Influence of air ratio

1:3 0 Idle Maximum speed Engine speed rpm

Spec. fuel consumption beff

Fig. 1: Mixture ratios, air ratios for petrol

Fig. 3: Exterior mixture formation

Fig. 1: Interior mixture formation

12.2.2 Adaptation of mixture to operating states

12.3.1 Basic operating principle

Fig. 2: Single-barrel carburettor

Fig. 3: Two-stage carburettor

Foamed fuel Atmospheric pressure

Plastic jet Fuel

Fig. 4: Staged dual-barrel carburettor

Fig. 5: Dual-barrel carburettor

Fig. 1: Carburettor operating principle

12.3.2 Carburettor types

Needle jet Nozzle needle Main jet

Fig. 6: Constant-vacuum carburettor

Fig. 7: Constant-vacuum slide carburettor

12.3.3 Design of a single-barrel carburettor

Idle cut-off valve (supplementary device)

Fig. 1: Solex down draught carburettor 1B3, schematic section

12.4 Petrol injection

Fuel Throttle valve Intake manifold

Fig. 1: Single-point injection

Air cleaner Throttle valve Fuel Intake manifold