Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.

(TESOL)

The Effect of Induced Anxiety on the Denotative and Interpretive Content of Second
Language Speech
Author(s): Faith S. Steinberg and Elaine K. Horwitz
Source: TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 20, No. 1 (Mar., 1986), pp. 131-136
Published by: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL)
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TheEffectof Induced Anxietyon the
Contentof
Denotativeand Interpretive
Second Language Speech
FAITH S. STEINBERG
Texas
Austin,
ELAINE K. HORWITZ
of Texasat Austin
The University
N Previousresearch on anxietyand foreign languagelearning (see Scovel,
1978,fora fullreviewoftheliterature) hasfocusedprimarily ontheeffects
of anxietyon overallproficiency in a secondlanguage,whichis typically
measuredby discrete-skills tasksor end-of-course grades.However,such
measuresof proficiency are likelyto obscuresome of the moresubtle
effectsofanxietyon secondlanguageperformance. For example,anxiety
mightaffectthecontent andelaboration ofsecondlanguagespeechas well
as overallfluencyand grammaticality.
Indeed,researchon theeffectsof writing apprehension has foundthat
native-speakingstudents withhigherlevelsofwriting anxietywriteshorter
compositions, use lessintensewords,and qualifytheirwriting less (Daly,
1977;Daly & Miller,1975). If nonanxious secondlanguagestudentsare
moreapt to attemptambitioustopicswhichrequiremorecomplicated
explicationthantheirlevel of proficiency permits,theymay actually
appearto be lessproficient thanstudents whoseanxietyrestricts themto
safertopics.Yetthenonanxious students may be theones communicating
at thehigherlevel.
Sourceof variationin thecontentof secondlanguageperformance is,
however,a relatively unexploredtopic.For instance,Kleinmann(1977)
foundthatthegrammatical structures used by ESL learnersvariedwith
theirlevel of facilitating anxiety;the informational contentof their
languagewas notexamined, however.
This study(Steinberg, 1982)exploredtheeffectof inducedanxietyon
thecontentoforaldescriptions, ina secondlanguage,ofstimulus pictures.
It was hypothesized thatsubjectsundergoing an anxietytreatment and
thoseundergoing a nonanxiety treatment wouldbe differentiated by the
proportion ofinterpretive to denotative contentin theirdescriptions, with
theanxietygroupresponding lessinterpretively.
Sincethestudydealtwith
environmentally manipulatedanxiety,it addressed an area readily
susceptibleto the intervention of the classroomteacher,that is, the
atmosphere providedforstudent communication.

METHOD
Subjects
TwentySpanish-speaking youngadultsenrolledin an intensiveESL
programat the University of Texas at Austinvolunteeredto serve as
researchsubjects.All were studentsat the low-intermediate
level who
BRIEF REPORTS AND SUMMARIES 131

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agreed to participatein a studyof "the way people speak in another
language."Theywerenotinformed thatthestudywould focuson their
responsesto anxiety.
To controlforproficiency biases,evaluationsof each subject'scurrent
oralabilityinEnglishwereobtainedfromthesubject'sclassroomteacher.
On thebasisoftheseevaluations, subjectswereplaced in eithera high-or
low-proficiencycell and werethenrandomly assignedby cell to thetwo
treatment conditions.

Procedure
Subjectswere interviewed individually by the same researcher in an
emptyclassroom;all wereinformed ofthepresenceofan audiorecorder.
The taskconsistedof describingin Englishthreepictures(Numbers2,
8BM, and 5) fromMurry's(1935-1943)ThematicApperceptionTest
(TAT). The subjectswere asked to addressthreespecificareas in their
descriptions:(a) theelementsinthepicture,(b) theactualeventsdepicted,
and (c) whatthesubjectsimaginedto be happeningin thepicture.Thus,
subjectswere to respondwith both objectiveinformation and their
subjectiveinterpretations.
The TAT pictureswerechosenbecausetheirambiguity is wellsuitedfor
theelicitation as well as denotativematerial;in addition,
of interpretive
theiravailabilitypermits by otherresearchers.
replication As a controlfor
possiblevocabularyproblems, wordsbasicto eachpicturewereprovided
on a piece of paperand theirreferents indicatedin thepicture.Subjects
could also request additional vocabulary from the researcher.All
interviewswereaudio-recorded.
A Spanishlanguageversionof the Anxietyscale of Zuckermanand
Lubin's (1960) Multiple AffectAdjective Checklist (MAACL) was
administeredas a check on the effectivenessof the experimental
conditions.Uponcompletion oftheexperimental task,subjectsweregiven
the MAACL and instructed to checkoffall adjectiveswhichdescribed
how theyfeltat thatmoment.

Treatments
Anxietycondition.To fostera stressfulenvironment, the experimenter
pointedout thepresenceof audio as well as video recorders,traineda
video cameraon thesubject,and conspicuously playedwiththecontrols
duringthe interview.The subjectwas brusquelyshownto a seat at a
narrowlecturedesk, severalfeet distantfromthe experimenter, who
maintaineda cold and officialposturetowardsubjectsin the anxiety
group. Task instructionswere stress-loadedby emphasizingthat the
interviewwas an indicatorof basic English skills and that good
performance was crucialto the successof theexperiment. However,in
accordancewithhumansubjectguidelines, all subjectswerealsoinformed

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thattheexperiment was inno wayconnectedto theiracademicinstitution
and thattheresultswouldbe confidential.
Nonanxiety condition.The subjectsreceivingthis treatment sat in a
comfortable armchair and werenotsubjectedto thepresenceof a video
camera.The warm,personalmannerof theexperimenter towardthese
subjectswas also designedto reducestress:She greetedthemat thedoor,
exchangeda fewpleasantries beforebeginning thetask,and maintained a
smilingandsupportive presencethroughout theinterview. thetask
Finally,
to thesubjectsin thenonanxiety
instructions conditionemphasizedthat
whileit was hoped thatthesubjectswouldperform to thebestof their
the was
ability, experience supposed to be and enjoyablefor
interesting
themand theywerenottoworryaboutbeingevaluated.

Analysis
The audio-recorded interviews wereevwluated bythreenativeraters, all
experiencedESL teachers.Aftera brieftraining session,theraterswere
instructedto determinethe proportionate amountsof denotativeand
information
interpretive providedin each interview and to indicatetheir
judgments along a scale (see Figure1). Denotativeresponseswerethose
referringto actionsand elementsclearlyshownin the TAT pictures;
interpretiveresponseswere those containingprojectivereferencesto
eventsnotspecificallydepictedintheinstrument.

FIGURE1
RaterInstructions

Please rateeach picturedescriptionaccordingto theamountof denotativeor

material
interpretive itcontains.
4. Performance is heavilyloaded withpersonalinterpretation
of picture,going
beyondtheelementsactually
present.
3. Performancecontains
a significant,
butnotstriking,
amount ofinterpretation.
Theamountsofdenotativeandinterpretive
material
areapproximately
equal.
2. Mostinformation
isdenotative,
witha fewinterpretive
elaborations.
1. Communication
is almost entirelydenotative;almostno interpretation
is
provided.

I I I I I I I
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

The subjectsreceiveda scorefortheirdescription

ofeachpicture;these
scoreswere added to yieldone scoreper subjectper rater.Finally,the
scoreswere convertedto z-scoresand summedacrossratersto yielda

BRIEF REPORTS AND SUMMARIES 133

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StudentResponseStylescore.Thisprocedurecontrols fordifferential
use
Thus,each subjectended up witha single
of the scales by theraters.1
compositescorereflectingperformanceon thethreecommunicative tasks
as judgedby thethreeraters.

RESULTS
Table 1 displaysthemeansand standarddeviationsof theunstandard-
ized (raw) and standardizedStudentResponseStylescores.A t testof
significancewas applied to the groupmeans;theresulting t value was
t (18) = -2.02, p < .03 (one-tailedtest).Thus,thehypothesis
significant:
thatanxiety-group memberswouldrespondless interpretively thantheir
nonanxiety-group was
counterparts supported.
TABLE 1
Means and StandardDeviationsof
Scores
Interpretive-Denotative

scores
Unstandardized Standardizedscores

Condition M SD M SD t

Anxiety 2.38 0.58 -0.64 1.60

-2.02*
Nonanxiety 2.86 0.48 0.64 1.30

Note: Highernumbersindicatea more interpretive responsestyle;unstandardizedscores are

divided by nine (3 ratersx 3 tasks) to convertto scale units.
* p = < .05.

A manipulation check on the treatment effectswas computedas a

design control.The Pearson product-moment correlationcoefficient
between the Spanish versionof the MAACL and the experimental
conditionswas r = .51,p < .01,indicatingthattheanxietytreatment was
moderatelysuccessful.Sixtypercentof the subjects in the anxiety
conditionreportedbeing anxious,whereas only 10%reportedbeing
anxiousinthenonanxiety condition.
Furtheranalysis of thegroup assignment/MAACL relationshipshowed
thatthe correlation figuremay underestimate to some extentthe true
treatmenteffects.As discussedabove, each cell was balanced forthe
proficiencylevelofthestudents. WhiletheStudentResponseStylescores
of thehigh-proficiency subjectsin theanxietyconditionreflectthesame
treatmenteffectsas foundfortheanxietygroupas a whole-t (9) = -1.94;

1 Interrater reliability was assessed using the Pearson product-moment correlation

coefficients.All threecorrelations(r = .62, .69, .69) were significant(p < .01), indicatinga
moderatedegree of interrater agreement.The composite scores used in the studyincrease
measurementstabilityby reducingthe effectsof thebiases of individualraters.

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p < .05 (one-tailedtest)-the high-proficiency subjectshad a mean
MAACL Anxietyscoreof -6.6, whilethemean forthelow-proficiency
groupwas 9. (A negativescoreindicatesa lackofanxiety.)
Thus,thescoresofthehigh-proficiency who did notperceive
students,
themselvesas anxiousas a resultof thestresscondition,attenuatedthe
correlation
betweentreatment assignment and MAACL scores.As the
MAACLis a self-reportmeasure,itis likelythattheanxietycondition
also
affectedthe high-proficiencysubjectswithouttheirbeing consciously
awareofit.

DISCUSSION
Whileotherstudieshave examinedtheinfluence of anxietyon overall
proficiency in a second language,thisstudyexaminedthe effectof
environmentally induced anxietyon a more subtleaspect of second
languageperformance: thedegreeofsubjectivity,ofpersonalinput,inthe
second languagemessage.It was foundthat subjectsundergoingan
experimental treatment aimed at makingthemfeelanxiousand "on the
spot" described visual stimuliless interpretively
thandid subjectsin a
relaxed,comfortable environment.
To whatextentcan theresultsofthisstudybe generalized tothesecond
languageclassroom? Whiletheanxietycondition was somewhatartificial,
thesituation probablyseemedquitecredibleto themanystudentswho
feeltheconstant pressureofevaluationinthesecondlanguageclassroom.
Further researchin secondlanguageclassrooms is necessaryto determine
the relationshipbetweenthe contentof second languagespeech and
anxietyinnaturalsettings.
This studyhas important implications forteacherswho believe that
languageteachingand learningshouldbe based on genuinecommunica-
tioninthetargetlanguage.Realisticcommunication is bothsubjectiveand
the
objective,requiring speaker to discusspersonalreactionsto and
offacts,as wellas thefactsthemselves.
interpretations The resultsof this
studysuggestthatstudentsmaybe less likelyto attemptthesekindsof
messagesina stressful,nonsupportive environment.

REFERENCES
Daly,J. A. (1977).The effects
of writing on messageencoding.
apprehension
Journalism Quarterly,54,566-572.
Daly, J. A., & Miller,M. D. (1975). Apprehension
of writing
as a predictorof
messageintensity.TheJournal 89,175-177.
ofPsychology,
H. H. (1977).Avoidance
Kleinmann, inadultsecondlanguage
behavior learning.
LanguageLearning,27,93-101.
Murry,H. A. (1935-1943).The thematicapperceptiontest.Cambridge,MA:
HarvardUniversity
Press.
Scovel, T. (1978). The effectof affect.A reviewof theanxietyliterature.Language
Learning,28, 129-142.

BRIEF REPORTS AND SUMMARIES 135

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Steinberg,F. S. (1982).Therelationship
betweenanxiety and oralperformance in
a foreignlanguage.Unpublishedmaster'sthesis,The University of Texas,
Austin.
Zuckerman, M.,& Lubin,B. (1960).Multipleaffectadjectivechecklist.
San Diego:
San Diego Educationaland Industrial
TestingServices.

Authors'Address:c/o Horwitz,The ForeignLanguageEducationCenter,The

of Texas at Austin,EducationBuilding528 South,
University
TX 78712-1295
Austin,

TheInfluenceof BackgroundKnowledgeon Memoryfor

Reading Passages byNativeand NonnativeReaders
HELEN ARON
UnionCountyCollege
M Schema theoryresearchhas provided evidence of the importanceof
background knowledge in reading comprehension.Specifically,content
schemata are previouslyestablished patternsof background knowledge
existingin the mind of a reader and are used to create meaningfromtext.
During the reading process, selected "new" informationfromthe textis
related to "old" informationacquired fromthe reader's previous world
knowledge (Kintsch& van Dijk, 1978).
"Through membership in a culture, an individual has privileged
information whichis representedin a richsystemof schemata"(Steffensen
& Colker, 1982, p. 2). However, when the culturalbackgrounds of the
author and reader of a text differ,the reader may inappropriately
instantiateschemata (Adams & Bruce, 1982). The schemata needed for
readingcomprehensionin a second language (L2) are oftennonexistentor
contain informationinaccurate for the L2 setting.That is, there is a
mismatchbetween the background knowledge presupposed by the text
and the background knowledge possessed by the reader (Carrell &
Eisterhold,1983).
Since the mid-1970s,a number of empirical studies on cross-cultural
comprehensionhave been based on schema theory(e.g., Connor, 1984;
Johnson,1982; Lipson, 1983; Steffensen& Colker, 1982; Steffensen,Joag-
Dev, & Anderson,1979). In general,thesestudieshave foundthatsubjects
read passages with native themes more rapidly than passages with
nonnativethemes. Subjects recall a greateramount of informationfrom
nativereadingand listeningpassages, produce more culturallyappropriate
elaborations of the native passages, and generatemore culturallybiased
distortionsof the foreignpassages. When portionsof a foreignpassage are
greaterrecall of thefamiliarportionsthanof
familiar,thereis significantly
the unfamiliarparts.
The study reported here was designed to investigate whether the
potential mismatchin background knowledge between text and reader
mightaffectthe placementof ESL studentsintoremedialreadingclasses.

136 TESOL QUARTERLY

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