Κβαντική Μηχανική

,
anastop@physics.upatras.gr
2

1 1
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2 A 21
2.1 K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4 ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3 B 35
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4 55
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5 : I. 75
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6 : . 103
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7 127
7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.4 -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
8 151
8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
9 169
9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
10 183
10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
10.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
11 : . 207
11.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
11.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
11.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
11.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
12 : . 225
12.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
12.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
12.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
12.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
ii

13 243
13.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
13.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
13.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
13.4 . . . . . . . . . . . 257
13.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
14 267
14.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
14.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
14.3 . . . . . . . 271
15 277
15.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
15.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
15.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
15.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
15.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
16 299
16.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
16.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
16.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
16.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
16.5 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
17 321
17.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
17.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
333
.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
iii
. ,
iv
1

. ,
,
,
,

.

.
. . [1]
. -
, ,
.
.
, , -
.
,
.

. -
, ,
. , -

.
1.1
,
1687, 20
. .
1. .

1
. ,
t R -
,
( )
r = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) R 3 ,
2. , ( -
). N t N
r i , i = 1, 2, . . . , N . -
,
, N r i (t).
3. . ,
r i (t) 2o
d2r i
mi =Fi (1.1)
dt2
mi i,
,
F i i.
4. ,

Fi = F i (rr j ), (1.2)
j=i
F i (rr j ) j i.
o
F i (rr j ) = F
F j (rr i ). (1.3)
N 3N -
.
, r i (t0 )
r i (t0 ) t0 r i (t)
t R.
(-
) . t0
t
t0 .
.
2
1.
1.2
1.2.1
-
-
.
(, )
, ,
, .
, . ,

,
.
N .
3N qa ,
a = 1, 2, . . . , 3N . qa Q . -
qa , Q = R 3N .
i p i = mir i . N
3N , pa . a
, pa
qa .
3N 3N
t0 , -
t, -
. ,
,
= (q1 , p1 , q2 , p2 , . . . , q3N , p3N ).
= R 6N
N ( ).
H :
R,

3N
p2a
H(qa , pa ) = + V (q1 , q2 , . . . , q3N ), (1.4)
a=1
2ma
V : Q R .
E
.
.

H H
qa = pa = (1.5)
pa qa
,
. .
3
. ,
V
qa = , (1.6)
qa
(1.1),
Fa = V /qa .
E . (1.5) -

H. , (1.4),
.
1.2.2
N
, F : R ,
F (qa , pa ).
( F F
) ( F H F H
)
F = qa + pa = = {F, H}, (1.7)
a
qa pa a
qa qa pa qa
(Poisson) F G -
,
( F G F G
)
{F, G} := . (1.8)
a
q a q a p a q a
{qa , qb } = 0, {pa , pb } = 0, {qa , pb } = ab , (1.9)
ab (Kronecker)
{
1 a = b
ab = . (1.10)
0 a = b
,
..
1. : {G, F } = {F, G}.
2. (Leibnitz): {F, GH} = {F, G}H + {F, H}G.
3. (Jacobi): {{F, G}, H} + {{H, F }, G} + {{G, H}, F } = 0.
F, G H .
-
.
4
1.
1.2.3
(Liouville)
. U , U . ,
-
, .
[U ] U

[U ] := d3N qd3N p. (1.11)
U
.
U t qa pa , t+t
qa = qa + tH/pa pa = pa tH/qa .
[2]
(qa , pa )
= 1. (1.12)
(qa , pa )
o U t + t

3N 3N (qa , pa ) 3N 3N
[U ]t+t = d qd p = d qd p
U (qa , pa )
U

= d3N qd3N p = [U ]t . (1.13)
U
,
. .

. , .
,
.
1.3

. 19
,
. (M. Faraday)
(J. C. Maxwell) ,
,
.
-
, E B . -
q
F ( )
1
E + v B ),
F = q(E (1.14)
c
5
. ,
v .
-
Maxwell
E = (1.15)
B = 0 (1.16)
B
1 B
E = (1.17)
c t
( )
1 EE
B = +j , (1.18)
c t
, j c .

A
A
1 A
E = B = A. (1.19)
c t
(1.19) , . (1.16)
(1.17) . E B

1 f
= A A = A + f, (1.20)
c t
f .
, = j = 0

1 2E
E=
2
. (1.21)
c2 t2

x, t) = E 0 eikk xxit ,
E (x (1.22)
E 0 , k .
. (1.21)

= c|kk |. (1.23)
(1.22) . (1.15) = 0 k E 0 = 0.
, -
.
E .
- (Lorentz- Heavyside),
: 0 = 0 = 1.
e = 0, 54 1013 m3/2 kg 1/2 /s.
6
1.
1.4
,
. -
.

, ,
.
1.4.1
. , -

. ,
, -
.
.
, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 6.
A =
B = 5 6. {1},
{2}, {3}, {4}, {5}, {6}, A {1, 3, 5} B
{5, 6}. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
. -

.
. (
). , , -
. .
A A =
A, A A A = A A = .
A B , A B = .
.
.
1.1 . -
36 1 6.
= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),
(3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6),
(5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)}.
. ,
,
32 . ,
,
= {1, 2, X}.
7
. ,
1. A = = {(6, 6)} (1 ).
2. B = = {(1, 2), (2, 1)} (2 )
3. C = = {(1, 5), (5, 1), (2, 4), (4, 2), (3, 3)} (5 )
4. D = = {(1, 6), (6, 1), (2, 5), (5, 2), (3, 4), (4, 3)} (6 )
5. ( )
( )
-
(ne-grained) (coarse-grained).
.
1.4.2
. ( -
) .
Prob A Prob(A),
[0, 1]. Prob(A) A.
.
(Kolmogorov)
1. A, B , A B = ,
Prob(A B) = Prob(A) + Prob(B).
2. Prob() = 0.
3. Prob() = 1.

= 1 Prob(A), A .
1. Prob(A)
2. B A. B AB B(AB) =
A.
Prob(A B) = Prob(A) Prob(B) (1.24)
B A.
3. Prob(A B) = Prob(A) + Prob(B) Prob(A B), A, B .

. A = A (A (A B), B = A (A (A B), C = A B
A B C = A B. 1 ,
Prob(A B) = Prob(A (A B)) + Prob(B (A B)) + Prob(A B).
. (1.24) .
8
1.

= {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }, n .
n pi = Prob({xi }), i =
1, . . . n, {xi }.

n
pi = 1. (1.25)
i=1
n pi

w = (p , p , . . . , p ). (1.26)
1 2 n
-
. ,
Prob({x1 , x3 }) = Prob({x1 }) + Prob({x3 }) = p1 + p3 .
f : R
= {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }.
pi ,
,

f : f := ni=1 pi f (xi ).

n- f : f n := ni=1 pi f (xi )n .
f f : (f )2 := f 2 f 2 .
1.2.
1.1. p = 1/36 36
. A, B, C D 1.1
1 2 1 5 6 1
Prob(A) = , Prob(B) = = , Prob(C) = , Prob(D) = = .
36 36 18 36 36 6
1.4.3
1 2 , 1 = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }
2 = {y1 , y2 , . . . , ym }. 1.1, -
, 1 = 2 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
(xi , ya ), i = 1, . . . , n a = 1, . . . m.
pia := Prob[{(xi , ya )}].
p1i p2a

m
p1i = pia = Prob({xi } 2 ) (1.27)
a=1
n
p2a = pia = Prob(1 {ya }). (1.28)
i=1
9
. ,
p1i 1 p2a
2 .
1 2 , -
1 2 .

.
. -
.
A, B , A B,
Prob(A|B),
Prob(A B)
Prob(A|B) = . (1.29)
Prob(B)
1.3. 1.1
1.2. D = E = -
Prob(D|E).
,
E = {(3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6),
(5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)}.
E 16 . (3,4) (4,3).
Prob(D|E) = 2/16 = 1/8. ,
D E = {(3, 4), (4, 3)},
Prob(D E) = 2/36 = 1/18. Prob(E) = 16/36 = 4/9. Prob(D

E)/Prob(E) = (1/18)/(4/9) = 1/8, -
.
P(A|B) = P(A), -
: B
A. P(A B) = Prob(A)Prob(B).
1.4. (
) 7.
, ;
. Ai 7 i , i = 1, 2, 3.
1.2, 7 16 , p(Ai ) = 1 16 = 56 . L
7, L = A1 A2 A3 .
, Prob(L) = Prob(A1 A2 A3 ) = Prob(A1 )Prob(A2 )Prob(A3 ) =
125
(5/6)3 = 216 . W L, Prob(W ) =
1 Prob(L) = 1 216 125 91
= 216 0, 42.
1.5. , 1 p
0 q = 1 p. .
10
1.
N . Prob(n) -
1 n ( 0 N n )

N!
Prob(n) = pn q N n . (1.30)
(N n)!n!
1.6. 1.4,
1 : p << 1 N
. , N ,
= N p .
( )( ) ( )
n N! n N
Prob(n) = 1 1 . (1.31)
n! (N n)!N n N N
N , . (1.31) 1, 1 e . -
,
n e
Prob(n) = (1.32)
n!

, .
1.4.4

. -
. -
,
.

.
= R , -
x (.. ).
R .

Prob(A) = dxp(x), (1.33)
A
p(x) p : R , :
+
R
dxp(x) = 1. p(x) .
A A: A :
{0, 1},
{
1 xA
A (x) = (1.34)
0 x /A
. (1.33)

Prob(A) = dxp(x)A (x). (1.35)
f : R ,
11
. ,

f : f := dxp(x)f (x).
R

n- f : f n := R dxp(x)f (x)n .
f f : (f )2 := f 2 f 2 .
p(x, y)
= R 2 , x y. -

p1 (x) = dyp(x, y) p2 (y) = dxp(x, y) (1.36)
x -
y .
1.1.
-
.
Kolmogorov, . .
An , n = 1, . . . , , An Am = n = m,

Prob(
n=1 An ) = Prob(An ).
n=1
-
, . -
R , U
[a, b]

.
. f : R
R , .
,
, . -
. ,
. 5 .

, Kolmogorov,
.
1.7. R -
.
1 (xx0 )2
pGauss (x) = e 22 , (1.37)
2 2
, x0 . -

2n ax2 1 3 . . . (2n 1)
dxx e = (1.38)
a (2a)n

dxx2n+1 eax = 0,
2
(1.39)

12
1.
1.1: () () = .

.
n a > 0.
(1.38, 1.39)
x = x0 , x = . (1.40)

1
pLorentz (x) = , (1.41)
2 + (x x0 )2
x0 . -
x = x0 . x
(x = ) x2 = ).
1.5
1.5.1
-
1.4.2.
.
,
, , ,
.

, , .

.
.
3 1,
1/(3 + 1) = 1/4.
:
13
. ,

.
.

,
.
(
) .
:
,
. ,
.
.
-
.
, -
.

. -
.
, : -
.

.

. ,
N .
A , nA
. A nA /N .
, N ,
nA /N Prob(A). (
.)

. -
,
.
-
,
.
Prob(A|B),
.
A B
Prob(A|B) = 1. B A.
B,
( ) A.
B A , Prob(A|B) = 1 , 0 < << 1.
.
14
1.
,
. ,
,
,
,
. -
. ,
.
-
.
. -
,
. -
, -
.
, ,
. -
.
-

(.. ) ( )
.
1.5.2
(
) . -
,
. , -
-
.
,

.
N N .
. 1.2, = R 6N .
N . -
, (
) .
,
, -
, -
.
.
,
,
.
15
. ,
, -
.
, ,
.
( ): , , 5m/s
10m/s.

=
=
=
-
: R + ,
(q1 , p1 , q2 , p2 . . . , q3N , p3N )d3N qd3N p (1.42)
d3N qd3N p.
, ,

d3N qd3N p (q1 , p1 , q2 , p2 . . . , q3N , p3N ) = 1. (1.43)

= (q1 , p1 , . . . , q3N , p3N ) ,
(1.43) d() = 1, d = d3N qd3N p.

( ), -

= {H, }, (1.44)
t
H .
. (1.43) t,
d/dt = 0,
( )

+ qa + pa = 0. (1.45)
t a
qa pa
qa , pa (1.5) . (1.8) -
. (1.44).
(J. W. Gibbs) -
, ,
T ,

H()
k
can () = Z 1 e BT , (1.46)
16
1.
kB (Boltzmann), Z .

(1.43),
H()

Z = de kB T . (1.47)

dH()eH() log Z
E = = , (1.48)
deH()
= 1/(kB T ).
1.5.3
,
() .
. -
.
. -
, 6
. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
.
, .

C .

1. C C = , = ( )
2. C = ( ).
. . -

( )
.
F : R ,

F () = C (), x , (1.49)

C C .
, F : R , -
C ,
C = { |F () = }. (1.50)
:
F .
17
. ,
1.2:
C .
1.6
-
,
.
1. .
. ,

( -
).
2. . F
. (1.50), F
.
3. .
.
U ,
Prob(U ) = d()U ().
4. . , -
(1.5) -
(1.44).
5. .
, . (1.29).
6. . 1 1, 2 -
2, 1 2
1 2 .
.
( R 6 ,
R 6 R 6 = R 12 .), ,
18
1.
1.
.
.
.
.

.
.
2. , 14 ,
. . ;
3.
( )
( ) [3]. 1%
5
99%. -
5
0,01. ; (
.)
4.
X.
() 95% X 300 400 GeV .

() X 30% 70% -
.
() 2016 .
1. -
( ).
(1,2) (2,1)
. -
,
.
2. -
:
( ). (1,2) (2,1) -
,
(2,2) . -
,
.
, , .
19
. ,
3. ;
1 2.
4. 6 50%,
.
(i) , (ii) , (iii) ;
5. .
p << 1
. t = 0 .
t, t >>
, ept/ . p(t),
[t, t + t].
6. ( Brown).
.
. t -
t (x),
t 1 2 t
= D 2, (1.51)
t 2 x
D .
() . (1.51)
[ ]
1 (x x0 )2
t (x) = dx0 exp 0 (x0 ), (1.52)
2Dt 2Dt
0 t = 0.
() t = 0 x0 = 0, -
x(t) x(t).
, . Goldstein
[2]. . . Griths [5]. -
, . 1-2
Par cle or Wave [4].
, . Spiegel [6],
[7].
Hacking [8] Mellor [9].
-
, . . 4 Isham [10].
20
2

,
,
, .

.
T. N. [11]
. , -
. ,
,
. -
, .
2.1 K

:
.
,
. ,
. .
.
. .
.
, ,
,
.
.
,
.
21
. ,
. -
. ,
. , -
. :
.
.
.
.
, -
E . V
[, + ]
g(V, ), g(V, ) . 1,

8V 2
g(V, ) = . (2.1)
2 c3
() V -
[, + ]
() = g(V, )E. (2.2)
E -
m
p2 1
H= + m 2 q 2 . (2.3)
2m 2
T Z = 2kB T . -
. (1.48) E = kB T . . (2.2),
8V 2 kB T
() = . (2.4)
2 c3
(2.4)

d() d 2
0 0
. , .
()
.
.
-
.
-
.
(Max Planck)
1900. -
22
2. A
(), -
. .
.
:
, . -
, ~, -
(quantum) .
n~, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .. ~ -
,
~ = 1.0545 1034 m2 kg/s.
, -
. , pn -
n~ ( n ), n
,
en ~
pn = , (2.5)
Z

1
Z= en ~ = . (2.6)
n=0 1 e ~
(2.5) .

n ~
n=0 (n~)e ~
E = = log Z = . (2.7)
Z e ~ 1
()
8V ~ 3
() = , (2.8)
2 c3 (e ~ 1)
. . (2.8)
. 2.1 . ~ << kB T , e ~ 1 + ~ .
(2.8) (2.4).

, : -
;
.
2.2

(Albert Einstein), (1905),
.
[12]
23
. ,
2.1: . (2.8) .
a b c.
...[ ]
.
, ,
, ,
,
.

.
, ;
( 103 104 .)
-
,
.
,
,
E = ~. (2.9)
. k
,
p = ~kk . (2.10)
, .
( 1926) [13].

.
, -
.
(. . 6),
19 . , -
, 20
.
.
24
2. A

(Arthur Compton) 1923,
[14].
,
.
. (2.9) . (2.10),
( , . . 3)
2~
= (1 cos ), (2.11)
me c
, ,
( )
me . . (2.11) , -
,
.
, .
,
. 2.1.
2.1.
2.2.
M (down converter). -

. (1012 1010 )
, -
. (
) .
(beam spli er). : 50%
50% 90o .
D0 , D1 , D2 ,
.
, D0
,
D1 D2 . ,
D1
D2 , D1 D2 . -
D0 D1 D0 D2 , D1 D2 . D1 D2
.
2.3
-
. 1895
25
. ,
2.2: (. 2.1 ).
2.3: . .
, ,

.
(Rntgen) , 1896 T. (J. J. Thompson) -

. (Henri Bequerel) , 1900 (.
Rutherford) (F. Soddy)
(). ,
, ,
.

(Rutherford) [15]. -
(H. Geiger) (. Marsden), -
. 2.3. , -
90o . -

. -
,
( ) [16]. .
, ,
,

.

. -
, . ,
. -
26
2. A
(. 4) 1011 s
.
.
(Niels Bohr) [17],
.
, , -

,
.
.

.

( ). -
,
.
, , -
.
.
, ,
. -
, ~,
L = n~, n = 1, 2, . . . (2.12)
n (2.12) .
(2.12)
. 2 Coulomb me v 2 /r =
e2 /(4r2 ), r
e2
v2 = . (2.13)
4me r
me vr = n~, (2.13)
r
4~2 2
rn = n. (2.14)
me e 2
E = 12 mv 2 e2 /(4r) (2.13)
E = e2 /(8r). r . (2.14) -

E1
En = , (2.15)
n2
E1 = e4 me /(32 2 ~2 ) 13, 6eV (2.16)
27
. ,
(n = 1).
, (2.14) r1 = 0 ,
4~2
a0 = 2
0, 5 1010 m (2.17)
me e
.
(2.15) .
,
.
-
Em En , n m n < m. -

( )
1 1
~m,m = Em En = E1 , (2.18)
n 2 m2

.
, ,
-
.
.
, [18] ... -
.
.
, -
.
.
-
. .
-
, .
. -
,
. ,
.

,
. -
, :
n
.
( , )
n . En =
En+1 En .

En
0, n , (2.19)
En
28
2. A
.
(2.19) (En /En n1 )
(En /En n1 ).
2.4 ;
, , -
.
1924 ,
(Louis de Broglie).
[20].
.

E = ~, . ,
.

.
[
] ,
-.
,
.
:
( )
.
. ,
, [..] ,

.
,
.
k
(. 2.2)

vg = . (2.20)
kk
, m
p E
v= = , (2.21)
m pp
p 2
E = 2m . -
, v g = v . E = ~,
(2.20) (2.21)
p = ~kk . (2.22)
29
. ,
(2.22) = 2/|kk |
~
= 2 . (2.23)
|pp|
.
2.2. .
vg
. A(x, t).

A(x, t) = dk A(k)e ikxi(k)t
, (2.24)
k.
, A(k) - k
k0 . ,
k = 0 + vg (k k0 ), (2.25)
0 = (k0 ) vg = (/k)k=k0 . (2.24)

A(x, t) = ei(vg k0 0 )t
dk A(k)e ikxivg t
, (2.26)
|A(x, t)| = |A(x vg t, 0)|.

|A(x, t)|2 ,
vg .

-
d
().
, ,
() (. 2.3).
2.3. .

, d -
. (C. Davisson) ( L. Germer)
1927 ( !)
[21].
d
(d 1010 m.)
, 1929 (I. Estermann) (O. Stern)
NaCl, -
[22]. 1940, (E. O. Wollan) (C.
Shull) .
, -
( )
30
2. A
. 1960 , -
.

().
[23, 24], [25], [26]
[27].

(C48 H26 F24 N8 O8 ) 114 1.298 [28].
( 5pm)
( 1nm)!

. -
, -
.

mP = ~c/G 2 108 kg (G -
). ,
!

(. . 2.4), -
19 (. 6).
.
,
. , -
( ).
, . -
. ,
. ,
.
, . .
. ,
.
. 10.000 , -
50.000 (. . 2.5). ,
. -

.
,
.
; -
( ). -
, .
, -
: ,
, . -
, .
.
-
, -
31
. ,
2.4: . .

.
.
.
. -
.

.

.
-
(
),
, . -
,
. .
1.
, 19 . -
;
2.
. -
. , .
;
3. , -
;
[24], 1
103 s 1, 5 108 m/s. 150km
1, 5m. ,
.
32
2. A
2.5:
(Tonomura) [24].
: ) 8 , ) 270 , ) 2000 ,
) 60000 .
4. -
. ;
5. ,
. ;
1. L
( ) (/L)3
.
8V 2
g(V, ) = , (2.27)
2 c3
V = L3 .
2. (2.8) /T = b
b.
3. . (2.11)
.

- E = c p2 + m2e c2 .
4. q a E

dE 2q 2 a2
= . (2.28)
dt 3c3
r.
E = e2 /(8r). . (2.28)

dr e4
= . (2.29)
dt 3c3 m2e r2
33
. ,
2.6: .
r(0) = r0 -
(r = 0)
m2e c3 r03
= .
e4
r0 1010 m,
.
5. (2.21) m, E
p

E = c p 2 + m2 c2 p = mvv / 1 v 2 /c2 ).
6. (. 2.6).
A1 (t, x) A2 (t, x). d
L -.
()
kd sin , k .
() A,
I(y) = |A1 + A2 |2
( )
2 2 kd sin
I(y) = 4|A| cos , (2.30)
2
y.
()

sin y/L.
, . Kragh [29] -
Jammer [30].
van der Waerden [31].
[32] [20].
- , . Physics
World [33, 34] Hitachi (www.youtube.
com/watch?v=PanqoHa_B6c ) (www.youtube.com/watch?
v=vCiOMQIRU7I).
34
3

-.

,
. . ,
. ,
.
. . (1922) [35]
. , -
,
. ,
,
.
.
, -
: -
.

, .
3.1

. (William Lawrence Bragg) -
,
. (Werner
Heisenberg).
[36] -

E(n) E(m)
nm = (3.1)
~
35
. ,
n m E(n) , -
.
n. x (n, t).
, x (n, t)
Fourier

x (n, t) = x m (n, t)eim(n)t , (3.2)
m=
(n) n T (n)
n: (n) = 2/T (n).
x (n, t)
,
n,m = m(n) m n, . (3.2). -
,
.
, (3.1). x (n, t)
.

. ,
(3.1).
.
1.
, Anm
m n.
Anm Anm einm t , (3.3)
nm (3.1).
2. Anm ,
. 1 . -
a Anm , -
a2

Bnm = Anl Alm , (3.4)
l
(3.3). (3.4)
. . ( -

). , Anm
. -
.
3. Xnm x -
, Pnm p, -

(Xnl Plm Pnl Xlm ) = i~nm , (3.5)
l
36
3. B
X P
XP P X = i~1. (3.6)
-
.
-
, .
, -
.

. -
, ( ) -
, -
. -
.
, .
,
. , (Max Born) -
(Pascuale Jordan)
(Paul Dirac) -
.
3.2
3.2.1
,
, [37].
(Erwin Schrdinger),
.
,
(t, x) = eikxit .
E = ~ p = ~k E p
k ,

i~ t (t, x)
(t, x) E.
i~ x

(t, x)
p.
p 2
E = 2m (-)
m, (t, x)
(x, t) ~2 2 (x, t)
i~ = . (3.7)
t 2m x2
37
. ,
(3.7) .
; O .

p2
H= + V (x)
2m
V (x) , -
~ . (3.7) ( p )
2 2 2
2m x2 2m
~
2
2
2m x2
+V (x) .
( )
[ ]
(x, t) ~2 2
i~ = + V (x) (x, t). (3.8)
t 2m x2
. -
,
[ ]
(rr , t) ~2 2
i~ = + V (rr ) (rr , t). (3.9)
t 2m

E =
~.
(rr , t) = E (rr )eiEt/~ (3.10)

. (3.9)
[ ]
~2 2
+ V (rr ) E (rr ) = EE (rr ). (3.11)
2m
, (x, t) = E (x)eiEt/~ . (3.8), -

[ ]
~2 2
+ V (x) E (x) = EE (x). (3.12)
2m x2
3.2.2

m , . (3.12)
V (x) = 12 m 2 x2 ,
[ ]
~2 2 1
2 2
+ m x E (x) = EE (x). (3.13)
2m x2 2
, , -
. -
, . (3.13)

lim (x) = 0. (3.14)
x
38
3. B
(3.13) m, ~, -
:

~
x0 = . (3.15)
m
x = x/x0 , . (3.13)
E + (2 2 )E = 0, (3.16)
,
E
= . (3.17)
~

>> , . (3.16)
E 2 E = 0. (3.18)
s = 12 2 , . (3.18) d2 E /ds2 + E = 0,
es es . . (3.18) e /2 ,
2
e /2 (3.14).
2
E . (3.16) () = e /2 uE (). . (3.16)

2
uE 2uE + (2 1)uE = 0. (3.19)
. (3.19) (Hermite). 3.1, -

(3.14),

1
=n+ , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . (3.20)
2
. (3.19) n -
Hn (). -
, n , .
, . . 1 .
-
n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
[ m ] ( )
m
n (x) = Cn exp 2
x Hn x , (3.21)
2~ ~
Cn . Cn

2
n (x) : dx|n (x)| = 1. -
(. . .1) |Cn |2 2n n! x0 = 1,
1 ( m )1/4
Cn = . (3.22)
2n n! ~
39
. ,
3.1: (3.21)

2
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 5. dx|n (x)| = 1.
n (x) 3.1.
( )
1
En = (n + )~. (3.23)
2
-
. 12 ~ -
.
3.1. .
uE () = 0

uE () = ak k , (3.24)
k=0
ak .
uE

uE () = ak+1 (k + 1) k , uE () = ak+2 (k + 1)(k + 2) k . (3.25)
k=0 k=0
(3.19)
[
]
1
(k + 1)(k + 2)ak+2 2(k + )ak k = 0, (3.26)
2
k=0
ak ,
2(k + 12 )
ak+2 = ak . (3.27)
(k + 1)(k + 2)

. (3.27) 2, -
a0
a1 ak . a0

l=0 a2l 2l a1 l=0 a2l+1 2l+1 .
12 = n, n = 0, 1, 2, . . ., an+2 = 0 (3.24) n,
n . a0 = 1 a1 = 2
40
3. B
Hn , . (.1). , E () = e /2 uE ()
2
(3.14).
, (3.24) .
k ,
2
ak+2 /ak 2/k. , e l=0 a2l 2l a2l = 1/l!.
a2l+2 /a2l 1l , ak+2 /ak 2/k, (3.24). uE ()
2 2
e E () e /2 . (3.14)
.
(3.14) 12 = n -
(3.23).
3.2.3
(3.11) -
, V (r),
r = |rr |.
(r, , ), r [0, ), [0, ]
[0, 2].
( ) ( )
1 2 f 1 f 1 2f
f= 2
2
r + 2 sin + 2 2 , (3.28)
r r r r sin r sin 2
f (r, , ) . . .2.1 .

E (r, , ) = R(r)Ym (, ), (3.29)
Ym (, ) . R(r)
. m l =
0, 1, 2, . . . m = , + 1, . . . , 1, .
,
( )
1 Ym (, ) 1 2 Ym (, )
r Ym (, ) =
2 2
sin + 2
sin sin 2
= ( + 1)Ym (, ). (3.30)
. (3.29) . (3.11)
R(r)
( ) [ 2 ]
~2 d 2 dR(r) ~ ( + 1)
r + + V (r) R(r) = ER(r) (3.31)
2mr2 dr dr 2mr2
. (3.31) u(r) = rR(r) R(r).
[ 2 ]
~2 d2 u(r) ~ ( + 1)
+ + V (r) u(r) = Eu(r) (3.32)
2m dr2 2mr2
. (3.31)
V (r).
, . (3.12),
~2 ( + 1)
V (r) = V (r) + . (3.33)
2mr2
41
. ,
(3.32) u(r)
, m.
-
.
E (r) 0 . , E r = 0. ,
. (3.32)
u(0) = 0 lim u(r) = 0 (3.34)

r
,
.
,
.
Ze2
V (r) = , (3.35)
4r
Z . m
me . ( , , . . 2.)
. (3.32) (3.35) ~, me e,
, . . (2.17),
4~2
a0 = (3.36)
me e2
= Zr/a0 r, . (3.32)
( )
2 ( + 1)
u + + u = 0. (3.37)
2
2me Ea20
= . (3.38)
~2 Z 2
(3.34).
0, . (3.37) 2 u = ( + 1),
u = +1 u = . (3.34),
.

, . (3.37) u + u = 0, u = e ||
, < 0.
u()

u() = l+1 e || f (), (3.39)
. (3.37)
42
3. B

f + 2( + 1 ||)f + 2(1 ( + 1) ||)f = 0 (3.40)
. (3.40) (3.34)
n > || = n2 . 3.2.
. (3.40) (n 1)-. -
(Laguerre) L2+1 n1 . . .3 .
,
() -
n, m, n = 1, 2, 3, . . ., 0 < n m ,
( )l ( )
Zr n
Z
r 2+1 Zr
nm (r, , ) = Cn, e 0 Ln1 Ym (, ), (3.41)
0 0
Cn, . 3.1,
n.
n

Z 2 e 4 me
En = , (3.42)
32 2 ~2 n2
n m
. 2 + 1 m n
n ,

n1
n(n 1)
(2 + 1) = 2 + n = n2 (3.43)
=0
2
En .
3.2. (3.40)

f () . (3.40) = 0, f () = k=0 ak k
ak .

f () = ak+1 (k + 1)k k , f () = ak k k , f () = ak+1 (k + 1) k .
k=0 k=0 k=0
(3.40) ak

2[ ||(l + 1 + k) 1]
ak+1 = ak . (3.44)
(k + 1)(k + 2l + 2)

k ak+1 /ak = 2 ||/k.
k , .. (3.44)
exp[2 ||]. u() . (3.39)
l+1 e || (3.34) .
, ak -
. ||(l + 1 + k) = 1 k 1,
ak+1
= 0
k . -
43
. ,
3.2: Rn, (r) (3.41) -

,
n .
n = l + k + 1 > l,
|| = n2 . (3.45)
. (3.40) k = n 1.
L2+1n1 , .
2 H nlm
r sin drdd|nm |2 = 1
( )3
2Z (n 1)! n
Zr
nm (r, , ) = e 0
n0 2n(n + )!
( ) ( )
2Zr 2Zr
2+1
Ln1 Ym (, ). (3.46)
n0 n0
n m n,,m
( )3/2
1 0 0 1
a0
Z
eZr/a0
( )3/2 Zr ( )
2a
2 0 0 1
4 2 a0
Z
e 0 2 Zr
a0
( )5/2
2a
Zr
2 1 -1 1
8 a0
Z
e 0 r sin ei
( )5/2
2a
Zr
2 1 0 1 Z
e 0 r cos
4 2 a
( )5/2
0
1 Z Zr
2 1 1
8 a0
e 2a0 r sin ei
3.1:
44
3. B
3.2.4
.
, -
, .
, N
[ N ]
~2
i (rr 1 , . . . , r N ) = + V (rr 1 , . . . , r N ) (rr 1 , . . . , r N ),
2
(3.47)
t i=1
2mi i
mi V (rr 1 , . . . , r N ) .

. -

.
.
-

. ,
.
-

. -
:
. . 3. .

. .
1. i. -
(x, t), .
.
2. N ,
N . -
Q = R 3N N . ,
R 3 .
3. N0 t = 0, t
N (t) = N0 et , .

. , -
. (rr , t) (3.9),
(rr , t) . -
- ,
.
45
. ,
3.3.
O [38]:
1926
. -
, -
-
. , ,
. -

.

.

... . :
,
. :
, .
,
,
, ,
.
3.3
3.3.1
,
, . :
,
. .
.
-
n (x) En .
() X P (x)

X(x) = x(x), P (x) = i (x). (3.48)
x
(3.6) .

Xmn = dxm (x, t)xn (x, t) (3.49)

Pmn = dxm (x, t)(i/x)n (x, t). (3.50)
46
3. B
(3.10), n (x, t) = n (x)eiEn t/~ . Xmn Pmn

Xmn (t) = Xmn (0)ei(Em En )t/~ , Pmn (t) = Pmn (0)ei(Em En )t/~ , (3.51)
(3.3).
, , ,
.
.
3.3.2
. -
[40].
.
, .
, -
. ,

x w, (3.52)
w .
-
.
. -
, p = 2~/.

,
~
p 2 . (3.53)

(3.52) (3.53)
xp (2w)~ ~. (3.54)
(3.54) .
-
. x p
. (3.54) -
[42]. . 6, x p
. , x
[41] w 0, 47/N A N A -
(numerical aperture) , .
2 1,45.
w = 0, 3 .
(3.54) xp > 2~.
47
. ,
3.3: -
.
. , -
-
.
.
.
p
[43]. x p

.
(3.54) ,
.
.
.
t. ,
t.
E = E p
p = vp, v .
t
x = vt, . (3.54)
Et > ~ (3.55)

. -
, , -
, . ,
.
[44]
,
, . -
, .
48
3. B
,
-
.
. -
-
, . ,
, ,
3.4.
3.4.

(3.55).
.
T . ,
. ,
m1 m2 (1) (2) E =
(m1 m2 )c2 .
, E .
t
. Et
.
.
:
... .
,
, .
.
. , ,
, ....
.
, ,
,
. ,
.
E m : E = mc2 .
F = mg , m = F /g.
pz
( ) F = p/T ,
T . E = pz c2 /(T g).
,
. ,
z z + z, T T + t , t/T = gz/c2 T . z
, t
.
pz c2 gzT
Et = pz z > ~, (3.56)
Tg c2
- .
.
[45]
[39]. . [46] .
49
. ,
3.3.3
-
. , -
.
,
.

[47]: (x x, t) = |(x
x, t) (x x, t)|2
x t. -
, U R 3 , Prob(U, t) -
U t

Prob(U, t) = d3 x|(xx, t)|2 . (3.57)
U
|(rr , t)|2 -
.

d3 x|(x
x, t)|2 = 1. (3.58)
(3.58) (3.9).
,
( )
i ~2 2
= + = +V
t t t ~ 2m
( )
i ~2 2 i~ 2
+ +V = ( 2 ), (3.59)
~ 2m 2m
. (3.9).
(3.59)

+ J S = 0, (3.60)
t
J S
i~
JS = ( ) . (3.61)
2m
U
I

Prob(U, t) = d2 J S , (3.62)
t U
U U . U = R 3 U ,
( ).

d3 x|(x
x, t)|2 = 0, (3.63)
t
50
3. B

(3.58) .
, -
( ) .
|(x x, t)|2
, t.
. Prob(U, t)
. .
t
,
|(x
x, t)|2 .

. ,
. -
, .
.
3.4
-
-
.
( ) 5 (Solvay)
, 1927,
.
,
: .
.
. , -
, ,
1927. ,

. -
, .

.

.
.
. -
. :
. -
.
, . -

.
51
. ,
3.4: .
[48] .
-
. -

. -
.
-
.
, -
, .
[49] .
(J. von Neumann) [50], -
. ,
,
(Hilbert)
.
-

. ,
, -
,
. ,

.

6 . -
. 1.5. 3.2
. -
,
. , -
.
-
,
52
3. B
.
-
.

H
H

3.2:
1. -
.
2.
.
3. x p .
4. - ,
.
5.
J S ;
1. .
(3.47) m M r 1 r 2 .
V (rr 1 r 2 ) -
. r c m+M
x = r 1 r 2
V (x x),
Mm
= . (3.64)
m+M

.
2. m . -

[ m ]
(x, t) = C(t) exp [x q(t)]2 + ip(t)x/~ . (3.65)
2~
(3.65)
q(t) p(t) .
53
. ,
3. ( -
) ear a > 0; , -
2
( ) 1/ cosh(bx), b > 0;
. . 2. .
American Ins tute of Physics [51].
Wheeler
Zurek [39]. [52],
[53] [54].

Bell [55].
, . Hilgevoord
Unk [56]. , . . 6.
, . [44]
Faye [57].
54
4
.
.
. [58]
.
.

.
. -
,
. .
~ = c = 1.
4.1
4.1.1
-
.
1. .
: 1 (rr , t) 2 (rr , t) c1 1 (rr , t)+c2 2 (rr , t)
, c1 c2 .
. i

.
2. -
, -
.
3. (3.50)
-
dx (x)(x)
(x) (x).
55
. ,
|(x)|2 .
.
,
.
.
4.1.2
4.1. V C
V
: , V + V ,
: C V
V ,
1. , , V ( + ) + = + ( + ).
2. , V + = + .
3. 0 V + 0 = , V .
4. V , V , + () = 0.
5. 1 , 2 C , 1 (2 ) = (1 2 ).
6. V , 1 = .
7. C , V ( + ) = + .
8. 1 , 2 C (1 + 2 ) = 1 + 2 .
. (0)
V .
4.2. V
n= {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } V =
B
i=1 i ei , i . B ,
B V
.
.
. -
.
C n ,
n

1
2
=
... . (4.1)
n
56
4.
C n n

1 0 0
0 1 0
e1 =
... e = . . . en =
...
. (4.2)
2
...
0 0 1
4.1.3
4.3. V
, H (, )
.
C , , H, ( + , ) = (, ) + (, ). (
).
, H, (, ) = (, ) . ()
H, (, ) 0. (, ) = 0 = 0. ()
,
: (, + ) = (, ) + (, ).

V : |||| = (, ),
D(, ) , V : D(, ) = ,
, |||| = 1.
4.1.4
V . -
V ,
. , V
C n n.
, C n ,

1 1
2 2
= ...
=
... . (4.3)
n n

n
(, ) = i i . (4.4)
i=0
, . 3, -
(x).
.
57
. ,
4.4. V
, .
, . 4.1.
V n V
V .

. -
.
4.1.5

1. l2 = {i , i = 1, 2, . . .} i=1 |i |2 <
, (, ) =
i=1 i i .
l2 .

1
2

= 3
.
(4.5)
...
...
2. L2 (R
R, dx)
(x) R (-
dx|(x)| < ) -
2

(, ) = dx(x) (x). (4.6)

. 3, -
,
L2 (R
R , dx) .
R n , dn x) -
3. L2 (R
n . L2 (R R 3 , d3 x)
.
4. L2 (U, d(x)) -
U R n d(x). -
(x)

d(x)|(x)|2 <
U

(, ) = d(x)(x) (x). (4.7)
U
5. , .
L2 (R R n ), .
R ), L2 (R
58
4.
6. -
. , L2D ([0, a])
(x) [0, a]
(Dirichlet) : (0) = (a) = 0.
(4.7) U = [0, a] d = dx.
7. -
Q : L2 (Q).
, . : R V
8. V
dx((x), (x)) < , H.
H

(1 , 2 ) = dx1 (x), 2 (x). (4.8)
L2V (R
R ).
4.1.
. -
V .
4.5. {n |n = 1, 2, . . .} V
V . > 0, N n > N
< .
n
, -
. , (Cauchy),
.
4.6. . {n |n = 1, 2, . . .} V
> 0 N n, m > N n m < .
V .
, V R .
n (x) = tanh(nx)/(1 + x2 )
, sgn(x)/(1 + x2 ) x = 0,
V .
-
.
4.7. V , -
{n V |n = 1, 2, . . .} Cauchy, V .
,
,
.
4.8. {n |n = 1, 2, . . .} V
V . V > 0, N
)| < .
n > N |(n , ) (,
. . ,
n (x) = sin(nx) L2 ([0, 2])
59
. ,
[0, 2]
2
(, ) = dx(x) (x). (4.9)
0
n n . -
(x) limn (n , ) = 0. n
0.
4.2
. -
.
1.
, -
.

. , -
()
. -
.
. 6 1 , -
, -
.
,
.
,
.

....
A. [59]
1, .
, ;
,
. ,
. , -
, .
. ,
,
. ,
,
,
.
60
4.
, .
, () ,
-
.

. , -
.

.
:
. -
.
. -
1 2 .
, 1
, 2
( ).
.
, -

.

.

. , -
,
.
-
-
. , . -
-
.
-
. , , -
, (. 7),
.
61
. ,
4.3
4.3.1

, .
H. , H -
, +
( C ) .

,
, .

, -
+ .
,
, ,
, .
: -

.
+
.
E1
E2 , +
E1 E2 .
+ E1 E2
.
4.3.2
-
. ,
, -
. -
- (Mach-Zehnder),
4.1.
-
(beam spli er).
( 50%) .
,
.
. -
( )
. -
-
.
62
4.
4.1: - -
( ).
+ .
() ().
( 45o ) 90o ,
. -
i .

i , i . (4.10)
-
, (4.10).

1 1
(i + ), ( + i ), (4.11)
2 2

( , ) = ( , ) = 1 ( , ) = 0. 1/ 2
.
U
. ( U

.) , 4.1
,
, 1 2
( + ) 2i ( ).
U :
-
.
-
. , -
. -
,
-
.
63
. ,
4.3.3 .
. , -
-
. ,
.
5e = 5 7e = 7 .
-
. 5e + 7e ,
5e 7e.
,
.
. , -
. -
: . . 8
.
4.3.4

.
[60].
(
):
,
21 , . ,
,
. ,
.
( )
.

,
....

. (.. ) -
, -
. -
.
-
.

.

.
64
4.
,
.
-
, Schrdinger .
, -
. -
,
.
-
, .
.
-
. ,
, -
.
,
.

. . 9, -
, -
, -
. ()

, .

.
. -
-
:
.
4.2.
4.2. .
.
1. 1996, . (S. Haroche) [61]
= c1 +c2 ,
.
.
,
N .
, (1015 kg)
1012 amu .

, -
4.2.
65
. ,
5-10 .
2. 1996, N. (D. J. Wineland) [62]
Be+ (x x) = [ (x x x 1 ) + (x
x x 2 )]/ 2,
x = 0.
|x x1 x 2 | 80nm,
7nm, (
0, 1nm). .
3. 2000 2002 , [63]
[64] -
.
A -
.
1010 ,
103 [65].
,
. :
( ) -
, , .
6, -
.
4.4

, : ,
, .
4.4.1
4.9. ,
H.
1. . (, ) = 0,
+ 2 = 2 + 2 . (4.12)
. + 2 = ( + , + ) = (, ) + (, ) + (, ) + (, ) = 2 + 2 .
2. - (Cauchy-Schwarz). |(, ) ,
= , C .
. = 0, . = 0.
(, )
:= .
,
(, ) = (, ) (, )(, )/(, ) = 0,
,

(, ) 2
+ 2 = |(, )| + 2 |(, )| .
2 2
=
2
(, ) 2 2
66
4.
2 2 |(, )|2 -
. h = 0, = = (, )/(, ) C .
3. . | | + + .
. ( + )
( +
2
) = +
2 2
( + 2 ) (, )
2 2 2
(, ) = 2 1 Re (,)

|(,)|
2 1 0,
-. + + .
.
4. . ( -
.)
1( )
(, ) = + 2 2 + i + i2 i i2 . (4.13)
4
. .
4.4.2
4.10. {ei }
(ei , ej ) = ij .
ij ij = 0, i = j ii = 1.
4.11. {ei } H
.
(C C n ), o -
.
.
4.12.
.
-
.
.

,
.
-
. , i -
{ei } . (i
{1, 2, . . . , n}) (i {1, 2, . . .}).
,

. i
ni=1 i=1 .

. {ei } -
H. H = i ci ei ,
.
67
. ,

ci .
= i ci ei ej . , (, ej ) = i ci (ei , ej ) = i ci ij = cj .

= (, ei )ei , (4.14)
i

.
4.13. .
{ei }
H H,
= i |(ei , )| .
2 2
. = i ci ei ,

2 = (, ) = ci cj (ei , ej ) = ci cj ij = |ci |2 = |(ei , )|2 .
i j i j i i
4.4.3
{ei }, i = 1, 2, . . . n H
n.
H
c1
c2

. . . C , ci = (, ei ).
n
cn
nH C ,
n
n
= i=1 ci ei = i=1 di ei

n
(, ) = ci di . (4.15)
i=1
n Cn , -
.
,
{ei }, i = 1, 2, . . . H {c1 , c2 , . . .} l2 ,
ci = (, ei ).
2
H
l , = i=1 ci ei = i=1 di ei

(, ) = ci di . (4.16)
i=1
n
l2 .

.
.
() .
-
,
.
68
4.
-
( )
.
, , ,
.
4.4.4
.
H1 H2 ,

c1 d1
c2 d2
=
. . . H1 =
. . . H2 . (4.17)
cn dm
H1 H2

c1
...

cn
=

(4.18)
d1
...
dm
-
.
{ei } H1 {oj } H2 ,
{ei 0, 0 oj } H1 H2 . {ei } n
{oj } m , {ei 0, 0 oj }
n + m .
C n C m = C n+m . (4.19)
-
, .
4.14. H1 H2 H1
H2 ,
H1 H2 ,
(1 1 ) + (2 2 ) = (1 + 2 ) (1 + 2 )
(1 1 , 2 2 ) = (1 , 2 ) + (1 , 2 ).
69
. ,
4.4.5
4.15. V H H
.
, V C , + V .
.
V , n V ,
V . V .
V -
. .

. ,
.
1 , . . . , n H. -
n
ni=1 ci i V H. i
, V n.
V V -
V , H (, ) = 0
V . V V
.
, -
: V = V .
{ei } V m. H,
V V

m
V = (, ei )ei . (4.20)
i=1
V V ,
V . H -
= V + V , V V V V .
(4.20) {ei }, V .
V V = V + V .
V V = V V . V V ,
V V = V V = 0.
H = V V .
4.4.6
-
. H

1
2
=
. . . H, (4.21)
n
(4.4).
70
4.
O H H
= (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) . (4.22)

(, )H = i i . (4.23)
i
.
1. H
: H C ,
H, (f ) = i i i H.
H H.
2. H . (4.21)
= (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) H .
( , )H = (, )H , (4.24)
, H.
H H
. , , H = H .
(Riesz).
.
. 4.3,
.
4.3.
4.16. H H
H, : H C ,

( + ) = () + (),
, H C .
H
(1 + 2 )() = 1 () + 2 ()
1 , 2 H , H C .
|()|
= sup .
H (, )

H .
4.17. . H, H
() = (, ) H.
.
{ei }
H. i = (ei ) i, =
i i ei . H, (, ) = i i (, ei ) = i (ei )(, ei ) = ( i (, ei )ei ) = ().
71
. ,
.
() = (, ) H, (, ) = 0, H.
= , = 0, , = .
4.5
,
.
, H (ket)
|. , .. ,
, . ,
1
| 4 , (| + | )
2
. 12 |,+ 12 |/
.
H (bra) |. ,
.
| H |.

H (braket): |. .
(||) | = ||.
.
= = n 1.
= = 1 n.
= ( 1 n) ( n 1) = 1 1 = .
= ( n 1) ( 1 n) = n n = .
, o -
. -
, |H H |.
, {en } |n, n = 1, 2, . . .. -
, .
, (3.41) -
|n, l, m.
| |n | =
n |nn|f .

1= |nn|. (4.25)
n
!! To (, )
| , .
-
, 5.6 .
72
4.
, -
-
. 5.5
.
1. ;
2. -
;
3.
.
4. : ,
, -
.
;
5. x 2

ax

R ; (i) e /x, (ii)
1/ x2 + 1, (iii) e , (iv)sin(x)/x, (v) 1/ |x|.
1.
0 2. ( ei )
D(, ) ;
[ ]
2. qp (x) = C exp (x q)2 /(2 2 ) + ipx L2 (R
R), C
.
() C, qp .
() (qp , q p ).
1 2
3. p (x) = 12 eipx 2 x . p -
> 0, = 0. (p , p ).
0;
, . Axler [66].
. 1-6 Young [67] . 1-4
Cohen [68]. , . .
2 Isham [10] . 3 Peres [58].
, . Scarani [69]. ,
. [70] Mach-Zehnder.
, .
Legge [71] Arndt Horberger [72].
Wineland [73] Haroche [74].
73
. ,
74
5
: I.
. , -
. -
: , , . -
, .

.
5.1
5.1.1

,
. (
) .
5.1. A H A : H H,
H A H, A(
+ A,
+ ) = A
, H C .

,
.
5.2. H .
1. . (A + B)
:= A H.
+ B,
C H.
:= A,
2. . (A)
3. . (AB)
:= A(
B),
H.

1. H .
4.1.
75
. ,
B
2. . A, C, (AB)
C = A(
B C).

C C ,
B
3. . A,
B
A( + C)
= AB
+ AC,
(B
+ C)
A = B
A + C A.

4. . 1 1 = H,
1A = A1 = A A.
5. . 0 0 = 0 H,
0A = A0 = 0 A + 0 = A,
A

A n- , n,
An = A . . . A,
| A{z }
n

A,

n
=
hn (A) ck Ak
k=0
n k
n hn (x) = k=0 ck x , ck .

AB
B, =B A = 1
B 1
A A .
A,
A B
, AB ,

1 = B
(AB) 1 A1 . (5.1)
. (5.1) : (AB)
B 1 A1 = A(
B) 1 )A1 =
B
A1A1 = AA1 = 1.

A A
) = (, A ),
(A, (5.2)
, H.
.
= c A + B
1. (cA + B) , A B
c C.
2. (A ) = A.

=B
3. (AB) A .
) = (AB,
. (, (AB) A ) = (, B
) = (B, A ), , H.
76
5. : I.

{en } H A
Amn = (Ae n , em ). =
n cn en .

=
A n=
cn Ae n , em )em =
cn (Ae ( Amn cn )em , (5.3)
n n,m m n
. A -

cm cm n Amn cn
{en }. cn ,

Amn .
Amn = m|A|n.
,
B
. , (A, C)

) |C B
(C B A, A|.

1. L2 (R
R, dx) , . 4,
x p
x(x) = x(x) (5.4)

p(x) = i (x). (5.5)
x
2. (3.8)

i = H, (5.6)
t

= 1 p2 + V (
H x) (5.7)
2m
L2 (R
R , dx) .
3. nn C n
.
5.1.2
A H. H
= a, a C , A
A

A.
A , -
c1 + c2 , c1 , c2 C A
. a
Va , a.
77
. ,
A a ,
. , Va -
. Va
a.
= a. ,
5.3. A
1. An = an , n = 1, 2, 3, . . ..
. n = 2, A2 = A(a)
= a2 . n.
= aA
n k
n k = f (a).
2. f (x) = k=0 ck x , k=0 ck A
3. A , a = 0.
= 0, A1 A
. A = 0, = 0.
4. A1 , A1 | = a1 |.
. , . (3.12), -
. (5.7).
H,
5.1.3
5.4. A
A
A

A
= sup . (5.8)
H
(supremum) . (5.8) .
, ( )
. .
.
.
H .
5.5. A B
1. A
= 0, A = 0.
2. A
= ||A,
C .
3. A
A
, H.
4. A + B
A
+ B.

. H (A + B)
= A
+ B
A
+ B
(A
+
B). (5.8) .

5. ( - .) AB
A
B.

. AB
A
B
A
B,
H. (5.8)
.
78
5. : I.
1. (H = C n ),
n n. Aij , i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n
. (5.8) -
. C n .
2. - . ,
x(x) = x(x) L2 (R R ) -. -
0 (x) = ex /2 L2 (R
2
R ). -
a (x) = 0 (x a)
a.

xa 1
= a2 +
a 2
, a.
x .
- .
. ,
2
x L (RR )

0 (x) = 1/ x + 1 x/ x2 + 1, -
2
.
3. DA - A -
H A .
A -
. A
-
(A, ), , H.

, x
0 (x) = 1/ x2 + 1, -
= ex / x2 + 1, > 0.
2
( x0 , ) lim0 (
x , ).
.
4. -,
.
.
5. H B(H).
5.2
5.2.1
AA = A A.
5.6. (normal) A,
5.7. A , A
= a,
1. A = a
. (A a 1)
a 1),
2 = ((A (A a 1))
= ((A a1)(A a 1), ) = ((A
a 1)(A a1), ) = 0, (A a1) = 0. A = a .
79
. ,
2. A A
= |a|2 .
3. A
= supa |a|, a A.

2 = (A A,
. A ), A

A A, |a|2 a A.

. -
, .
5.2.2
5.8. A A = A .
5.9. A .
1. A .
= a, (A,
. A ) = a(, ) (, A)
= a (, ). (, A)
=

(A, ), a = a .
= a, A
2. A = a , a = a , (, ) = 0. (, -
A .)
. (A, ) = a (, ). -
) = a(, ) (A,
= a (, ) a , (a
(, A)
a )(, ) = 0. a = a , .
, , -
{en } .
- .
, Va .
-
. , . -
, . C n ,

A det(Aa1) = 0,
a. n , n .
n . C n .
5.2.3
5.10. (unitary) U U =
U 1 .
5.11. U
1. ( U U = U U = 1).
2. ei .
. U = = 1. 1 = U 1
U = U 1 1 U
. o U
,
1
U . = , ||2 = 1,

.
80
5. : I.
3. ( |ei | = 1).
-
. .
5.12. {ei } {ei }. -
U ei = U ei , i.

. U

=
U (, ei )ei .
, ,
U

(U U
, ) = (U
, U ) = (, ei )(, ej ) (ei , ej ) = (, ei )(ej , ) = (, )
i,j i
U
U = 1. U
U = 1.

. A = a. = U . U AU =
U AU U = U A
= aU = a , U AU a.
U AU A .
, :
U1 U2 , U1 U2 (U1 U2 ) = U1 U2 U2 U1 = U1 U1 = 1.

, U (H) H -
,
H( , . . 11).
5.1.
5.1 A A (A, ) =
(, A ) , H. A .
, to DA A DA A ,
. DA ,
DA .
, A = A
, DA = DA . . ,
p = i x
H = L2 ([0, a])
[0, a]. p H.
p , i x
. ,
a a

p, ) (, p ) = i
( dx( + ) = i ( ) = i[ (a)(a) (0)(0)]. (5.9)
0 0
(0), (a), . (5.9) (0) =

(a) = 0. p ( )
p, Dp Dp.
, . (5.9) p p ,
(0) (a), Dp Dp . p -
.
A (A, ) = (, A ),
DA DA . p , p .
, .
,
. , p = i x
,
81
. ,
[0, a]
(a) = ei (0). (5.10)
. (5.9), (a)ei = (0), (a) = ei (0), Dp = Dp

p H
(5.10).
p . , -
.
-
,
. U s = eisA
, A s R .

, .
, [75, 76, 77]
U s ,
s U
U s+s s, s R,
s = U
s,

s = eisA A.

U
5.2.4
5.13. P P 2 =
P .
5.14. 0 1.
. P = a. P 2 = a2 . P 2 = P , a2 = a, a = 0 a = 1.
H, P
P = (, ) H .
P = ||. P .
n S = {e1 , . . . , en }.. PS
PS = ni=1 (, ei )ei H. PS

. PS = ni=1 |ii| .
, V H

PV , . ,
V PV
PV = V , V H V ,
. (4.20). V
PV = 1 PV .
P V1 1 P .
5.2.5
)
5.15. A (A,
0 H.
A , A 0.
A B,
A B: A B
0.
82
5. : I.
= a
, , A
) = a(, ) < 0. , > 0 A 0, B
a < 0, (A, 0,
A + B 0.

, A, (A A,
) = (A,
A)
=

A
2
0. A A A 0.
5.3
.
. -
, R .
n, f (x) = ex hn (x) =
k=1 x /k!, n .
k
f (A) f : R R .
. -
, fn (x) = 21 (1 + tanh(nx)) n

{
0 x<0
(x) = . (5.11)
1 x>0
,
gn (x) = fn (x a)fn (b x) (5.12)
[a,b] (x) [a, b] R .
-
f (A)
f : R C .
.

.

1 n
: eA = n=1 n! A .
-
: U (A)
U R .

n A.
A:

|A|
:= A A.
,
= a, f (A)
A = f (a) f . , f (x) =
g(x) , .
,
1. eix eix = 1, eiA eiA = 1.
A
(eiA ) = eiA , eiA (eiA ) = 1 eiA .

83
. ,
2. U 0 1
U (A)
2U = U . A, = U (A)
2 ,
.
U (A)
3. (1 x)1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . . |x| < 1,
||A||
A, < 1,
1 = 1 + A + A2 + A3 + . . . .
(1 A) (5.13)
5.4
5.4.1
5.16. A B
[A,
B] B
:= AB A.

A B , C = i[A,
B]

. , C = i(AB B = i(B
A) A AB)
= i[B, A]
= C.
.
1] = 0.
1. [A,
2. [A, = [B,
B] A].

B
3. [A, + C]
= [A,
B]
+ [A,
C].

B
4. [A, C]
= [A,
B]
C + B[
A,
C].

[B,
5. [A, C]]
+ [C,
[A,
B]]
+ [B,
[C,
A]]
= 0.
5 (Jacobi).
A B [A, B]
= 0, A
B .
4 [A, B] = 0, [A2 , B]
= A[
A,
B]
+ [A,
B] = 0.
n
n, [A , B] = 0.
f [f (A), B] = 0.
A = a, [A, B] = 0 AB
=

B A = aB, B A. a
= b b. a ,
, B
B = b. .
Va , ei Va .

Bij = (Bei , ej ). ci Bij , i Bij cj =

bcj b. = i ci ei

=
B ej )ej =
(B, i , ej )ej =
ci (Be cj Bij ej = b cj ej = b. (5.14)
j i,j j,j j
A B
-
.
84
5. : I.
5.4.2
,
.
5.17. BCH (BakerCampbellHausdor).
( )
B 1 1 1
[B,
e e = exp A + B
A B]
+ [A, + [A, [A,
B]] [A,
B]]
+ ... .
2 12 12

. C = log[eA eB ]. eA eB = (1+ A+
1 A2 + 1 A3 . . .)(1+ B
2 3!
+
1 2 1 3 1 2 2 1 3 2 2 3
2 B + 3! B +. . .) = 1+(A+ B)+ 2 (A + B +2AB)+ 6 (A +3A B+3AB + B )+. . ..
log(1 + x) = x 2 x + 3 x + . . . C.
1 2 1 3

A B .
.
5.18. (Hadamard)
A
eA Be
+ [A,
=B + 1 [A,
B] [A, + 1 [A,
B]] [A,
[A,
B]]]
+ ....
2! 3!
sA

. C(s) = esA Be
s = 0. s = 1. C(0)
= B.
d s
A sA s
e Be
A s
A C(s)
A = AC(s) A,

ds C(s) = Ae Be

[A, C(0)] = [A, B].
[A, ] . .
BCH (Tro er) [80].

( )n
B
A+
A/n
B/n
5.19. A B, e = limn e e .

. BCH eA/n eB/n = exp[(A/n+
B/n+O(n 2 )].
)n ( )n
+ O(n2 ), limn eA/n eB/n = limn 1 + 1 (A + B)
n, eA/n eB/n = 1 + n1 (A + B)
=
n

eA+B .
5.4.3
x p
(3.6), [
x, p] = i.
xn , p] = in
[ xn1 . (5.15)
f (x)
x), p] = if (
[f ( x). (5.16)
[ p)] = if (
x, f ( p).

x ib
V (a, b) = exp (ia p) , (5.17)
, . wikipedia [78],
. mathworld [79].
85
. ,
a b , (Weyl).
-
BCH. ,
BCH ,
V (a1 , b1 )V (a2 , b2 ) = V (a1 + a2 , b1 + b2 )e 2 (a2 b1 a1 b2 ) .

i
(5.18)
V 1 (a, b)
xV (a, b) = x + b1 V 1 (a, b)
pV (a, b) = p + a1 (5.19)
.
U (a, b) b a.
5.5

. -
,
.

.
, -
(). -
.
-
, , .

. -
.
5.5.1
A C N .
, an , n = 1, 2, . . . , N .
|n,
|n ei |n.
N |n

C N , 1 = Nn=1 |nn|. ,

N
A = an |nn|. (5.20)
n=1
. (5.20) |,

N
N
N

A| = A n||n = n|A|n
= an |nn|. (5.21)
n=1 n=1 n=1
86
5. : I.
A C N
. K , K < N .
an , n = 1, 2, . . . , K Vn ,
an . Dn Vn
N - , K n=1 Dn = K.
Pn Vn
A.
5.20. Pn A,

K
1. n=1 Pn = 1 ( )
2. Pn Pm = Pn nm ( ).
. n, Dn |n, in , in = 1, 2, . . . , Dn
Vn , n, in |n, jn = in jn . Vn

|n, in n, in | = Pn . (5.22)
in
5.9, n, in |m, jm = 0 n = m. Pn Pn = 0 n = m,
.
|n, iKn
N
C : n=1 Dn = N
.

K
Dn
|n, in n, in | = 1, (5.23)
n=1 in =1
. (5.22) .

, . 5.8.
( -
) .
.
5.21. . -
A an
Pn ,
1. -
.

2. A = K
n=1 an Pn .
. | (5.23).
= K f (an )Pn .
3. f : R R f (A) n=1
. , A f (A).

87
. ,
5.5.2
C 3 /

2 0 0
A = 0 1 3i .
0 3i 1
det(A 1) = 0,
( + 2)(2 2 8) = 0,
= 2 = 4. -
= 4

0
1
|4 = i
2 1
= 2

c1
c2 ,
ic2
c1 , c2 C , V2 . -
V2

1 0
1
| 2, a = 0 | 2, b = 1 .
0 2 i
= 4

0 ( ) 0 0 0
1 1
P4 = |44| = i 0 i 1 = 0 1 i .
2 2
1 0 i 1
= 2
P2 = | 2, a2, a| + | 2, b2, b|

1 ( ) 1 0 ( ) 1 0 0
= 0 1 0 0 + 1 0 1 i = 0 12 2i .
2
0 i 0 2i 12
A

1 0 0 0 0 0
1
A = (2) 0 12 2i + (4) 0 1 i .
2
0 2i 12 0 i 1

eiAx

1 0 0 0 0 0
1
= e2ix 0 12 2i + e4ix 0 1 i .

eiAx
2
0 2i 12 0 i 1
88
5. : I.
5.5.3
A C N .
. A, -
n (A), n = 1, 2, . . . , N , n (A) A

m (A)
n (A) n < m.
A a D, a -
D n (A).
, -
.
5.22. A B C N , A B, n (B),
n (A)
n = 1, 2, . . . , N .
5.2.
[81]. -

.
5.2. max-min
A C N , n (A)
(n = 1, 2m . . . , N ) |n
2

A.
| = n=1 cn |n n=1 |cn | = 1. 1 (A) n (A)
,

N
N
|A|
= |cn |2 n (A) 1 (A)
1 (A) |cn |2 = 1 (A),

n=1 n=1
= min||||=1 |A|.
1 (A)
N
| |1, | = n=2 cn |n,
|A|
2 (A)

=
2 (A) min |A|.
(5.24)
||||=1,1|=0
n
=
n (A) min |A|.

||||=1,1|=0,...,n1|=0
. (5.24) |A|
|
N N
| = d
n=1 n |n, c
n=1 n nd = 0.
,

N
N
I(cn ) = |cn |2 n (A)
cn dn = 0,
n=1 n=1
, . I/cn = cn n (A)
dn ,

cn = dn /n (A).
N
n=1 |cn |
, 2
= 1,
89
. ,
( )1
N
2 = n=1|dn |2 /n (A)
2 . | = 0 dn
N
n=1 |dn |2 /n (A) 2 = 1, = 1.

N
|dn |2
|A|
= .
n (A)
n=1
|A|
dn 0, d1
n (A). | |1, |A|

= 2 (A).
= max
2 (A) min |A|.

| ||||=1,|=0
, | V ,
=
2 (A) max min |A|.

V,dim V =1 |V ,||||=1
n, max-min,
- (Courant-Fischer)
5.23. n = 1, 2, . . . , N ,
=
n (A) max min |A|.

V,dim V =n1 |V ,||||=1
C N . max-min
C D
n (C + D)
= max min |C|
+ max min |D|

V,dim V =n1 |V ,||||=1 V,dim V =n1 |V ,||||=1
max min |C|

= n (C)
+ 1 (D) + 1 (D).

V,dim V =n1 |V ,||||=1
0, 1 (D)
D 0,
n (C)
n (C + D) (5.25)
= A B,
C = A D A B,
A B, . (5.25)
.
5.6
5.6.1

. ,
, .
p = i/x
2
L (RR, dx). k (x) = eikx pk = kk ,
, .
. -
,
. |k
p|k = k|k, .
-
90
5. : I.
|k. ,
, |k
.
-
1. , (A)

A. (A) A ( )
( ). -
|k ,

. -
5.3.
2. ,
. 5.4.

, , -
, p = i/x L2 (R
R, dx)
.
5.3.
5.24. (A) A H
A 1 .
.
, A 1
1. A (A).
, .
2. x L2 (R 1 -
R , dx). x
(x). (x) (x )1 .
, x = . , = R +
iI ,

|(x)|2 1
(x )1 2 = dx dx|(x)|2 (5.26)
(x R )2 + 2I |I |2
(x)
x = R . ||( x )1 || = |I |1 , (
x )1 -
I = 0. (
x) = R .
3. H =x2 L2 (R
R , dx). (k) Fourier

(x). H(x) = dkeikx k 2 (k), (H 1)1 (x) = dkeikx (k 2 )1 (k).
0 k . , (H 1)1
- 0, (H) = R .
+

1. A p (A)
(A),

(point spectrum) . p (A), (A 1)1

V , V o A.

2. (absolutely con nuous spectrum) c (A) A
(A) (A 1)

. c (A) (A 1)1
.
91
. ,
V H (A
1)1 V .
.
2 , (x )1 (x) R -
() = 0. ,
(x) (x) () = 0
(x) = (x)(x) [/2, +/2] -
. 2 = dx|(x)|2 < c2 , c |(x)|.
2 < ,
(x)1 (x) . (x)1 (x)
. x .

3. (singular spectrum) s (A)
, . ,
.
= p (A)
4. (A) c (A)
s (A).

. , A
H, Hp Hc Hs
Ap , Ac As ,
.
5.6.2

.
p = ix H = L2 (RR , dx). -

1 1 2
fk, (x) = eikx 2 x , (5.27)
2
> 0. ,
|k, . |k

dx
k| = lim k, | = lim eikx 2 x (x)
1 2
(5.28)
0 0 2
| H. , k|
(x): (k) = 12 dxeikx (x).
(5.28) .
lim0 (ix fk, kfk, ) = 0.
p k 1)|k, = 0,
lim ( (5.29)
0

p|k = k|k. (5.30)
. (5.30) -
, . (5.29).
, k, |k , = (k k ),

1 2
() = e 4 . (5.31)
4
()
92
5. : I.
1. () = () 0.
2. lim0 () = 0 = 0. lim0 (0) = .

3. d () = 1.

4. lim0 d n () = 0, n.

k
3 4
f () =
c
k=0 k , lim 0 df () () = c0 = f (0).
To () 0, ()
. , -
,
.
5.25. (x),

dxf (x)(x) = f (0) (5.32)
f x .
(5.32)
. (5.31). (5.31) ,
. ,
.

lim = (x). (5.33)
0 ( 2 + x2 )

, (5.32)
5.26. .
(i) (x) = (x).

. dx(x)f (x) = dy(y)f (y) = (0) = dx(x)f (x).
f , .
(xxi )
(ii) (g(x)) = i |g (xi )| , xi g(xi ) = 0.

. U1 dx[g(x)]f (x) U1
x1 y = g(x) 1-1 . y,
dy = g (x)dx = g (g 1 (y))dx.

f (g 1 (y)) f (g 1 (0)) f (x1 ) 1
dy(y) 1 = 1 = = dx(x x1 )f (x).
U1 |g (g (y))| |g (g (0))| |g (x1 )| |g (x1 )| U
x = xi

1
dx[g(x)]f (x) = |g (xi )| dx(x xi )f (x)
i
f , .
1
(iii) f (x) = ax, (ii) (ax) = |a|
(x).
93
. ,

(iv)
dkeikx = 2(x).
k2
. dkeikx 2 x = e 4 = 2 (x), . (5.31).
1 2
0.
(v) (x) : (x) = 0 x < 0 (x) = 1 x 0.
d
dx
(x) = (x).
. f (x), f () = 0. dx (x)f (x) =

dx(x)f (x) = 0 f (x)dx = [f () f (0)] = f (0).
.
, k, |k ,
0,
k|k = (k k ). (5.34)
5.3.
. 4.4 H H -
H C . 1-1
.
, .
1-1
. . H
H , H .
H = H
H . (5.35)
|k .
, H = L2 (R R) -
, |x|a a > 0. (x)
,

f dx(x)f (x) = f (0), (5.36)
C .
.
(, H, ) -
(rigged Hilbert space).
5.6.3
.
5.27. |k (5.28)

dkk n |kk| = pn , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . (5.37)

. . (5.28) k| = (2)1/2 dxeikx (x).

I = dkk |kk| = dkdxdx k n (x )eik(x x) (x)
n

dk
= dxdx k n eik(x x) (x )(x),
2
94
5. : I.
|, | L2 (R
R).

dk n ikx dk ikx
k e = (ix )n e = (ix )n (x).
2 2

I = dxdx (ix )n (x x) (x )(x). ,

I = dxdx (x x )(ix ) (x )(x) = dx(ix )n (x)(x)
n

= dx (x)(ix )n (x) = |
pn |.
| |.
. (5.37)

n = 0 : dk|kk| = 1.

n = 1 p: dkk|kk| = p.

hn (k), dkhn (k)|kk| = hn ( p)
f ( )

dkf (k)|kk| = f (
p).

. :
|kk| , .
5.28.

PU = U (
p) = dk|kk|, (5.38)
U
()
1. PU1 PU2 = PU1 U2 .

2. U1 U2 = 0, PU1 + PU2 = PU1 U2 .
3. PR = 1.
5.6.4
.
A () . -
: H Hc Hd ,
Hc Hd .
A -
,
.
95
. ,

, . , ,
. , -
.
R , A.
c (A)

U c (A) PU = U (A),
. 1-3
5.28. PU
. (5.38).
, -
P , ,
P = P[,+] (5.39)
0. P , |kk|
, . P

.

1 = dP , A = P d, =
f (A) f ()P d. (5.40)
5.6.5

x L2 (R
R, dx)

x = dxx|xx|, (5.41)
|x
x|x = (x x ). (5.42)
|x .
[ ]
1 x2
f (x) = exp 2 , (5.43)
22 2
lim0 xf (x x0 ) = x0 f (x x0 ).
f ( x0 ) 0 |x0 . 0
f () , |x0 (xx0 ).

x0 | = lim dxf (x x0 )(x) = dx(x x0 )(x) = (x0 ), (5.44)
0
96
5. : I.
(x) x x|.
, |
(x).
(x)
.
|k 12 eikx ,

1
x|k = eikx . (5.45)
2
i x

x|
p| = i x|. (5.46)
x

R 3 , dx1 dx2 dx3 ) |x1 , x2 , x3 ,
L2 (R

(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x1 , x2 , x3 |. (5.47)
x1 , x2 , x3 |x1 , x2 , x3 = (x1 x1 )(x2 x2 )(x3 x3 ).

xi = d3 xxi |x1 , x2 , x3 x1 , x2 , x3 |. (5.48)
Px1 x1

Px1 = dx2 dx3 |x1 , x2 , x3 x1 , x2 , x3 |.
(5.49)
Px2 Px3 .
. - r
, r|rr = r |rr , rr |rr =
3 (rr r ).

| -
(x) = x|,
(k) = k|. , -
p (x): p(x) = i
x
,

p| = dkkk||k = dkk (k)|k, (5.50)
(k) = k| (k) = k|. . (5.50) -

p (k) : p(k) = k (k).
97
. ,

1

(k) = k|xx| = dxeikx (x), (5.51)
2

.

.
.
,
-
, .
5.7
5.29. A H

T rA = n|A|n,
(5.52)
n
|n H.
. |n . -
T r .

T r A = n |A|n
= n |nn|A|mm|n

n n m,n

= m|nn|A|m
= n|A|n

= T rA. (5.53)
m,n n n
5.30. .
1. T r(A + B) C .
= T rA + T rB,
. .
2. T r(AB)
= T r(B
A).

= n|AB|n
. T r(AB)
= n m n|A|mm|

B|n

= m m|B
A|m
A).
= T r(B
n
3. T r(||) = |.

. T r(||) = n n||n = |1| = |.
4. P N - T rP = N .

. P N |ii|, |i -
N i=1
. T rP = i=1 i|i = N .

5. T r(A A) B)
< T r(B <
)|2 T r(A A)T

|T r(AB B).
r(B (5.54)
98
5. : I.
.
B
A, A,
B = T r(AB
). , -
A T r(A A)
<
. . (5.54)
.
.
. , -
PU = U dk|kk|. ,

T rPU = dkk|k = dk(0) = .
U U
5.8
5.8.1
, -
, . 1.5.
-
C ,
.
:= C C -

= 1. (5.55)

-
f : R ,

f (x) = (x). x . (5.56)

(5.55) (5.56) -
. , .
A H f : R .
A f.
A C .
H .
2. A H
. , -

A,
A.
99
. ,
, -
. ,
. -
.
A1
. ( ,
).
, -
A2 , A3 ,
([Aa , Ab ] = 0, a, b = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N ), -
|n
Aa |n = a,n |n. (5.57)
|n N -
(1,n , 2,n , . . . , N,n ).
-
.
5.8.2
,
.
. . 7
,
.
,

. ,
x L2 (R
R , dx), (
x) = R ,
n ,
1 1
n = [(n ), (n + )], (5.58)
2 2
n Z. n xn = n.
.

Pn = dx|xx| (5.59)
n

Pn = dx|xx| = dx|xx| = dx|xx| = 1, (5.60)
n n n n R
Pn Pm = mn Pn .
100
5. : I.
5.8.3
2 -
. . ,
,
.
,
, .
A A =
n an Pn ,
Pn
. ,
-
Q, |q. Pn
|q + |q q = q . -
Pn ] = 0 [Q,
[Q, A]
= 0. Q
.
.
; -

; ,
. -
,
:
.
.
.
-
.
, , ,
. -
. ,
, -
.
1. L2 (R , (ii) p, (iii) eipa , (iv) x

R) ; (i) x 25 (
x26 +
1)1 .
2. .
3. A , f (A)

. ;
B]
4. : [A, = 0, [f (A),
B] = 0.
5. |,
(x) = x|;
6. ; (i) (cosh x), (ii) (3x2 + 1), (iii) (x3 + 1) (iv) (x4 1);
101
. ,
7. A B . -
B],
; (i) [A, (ii) AB
+B A,
(iii) B
AB,
(iv) B
AB
A.

B]
1. [A, = 0 A , B

A.
x3 p, x
2. [ p] [x2 , [
p2 , x
3 ]].
3. ,
.

2 0 0
4. A = 0 1 1 C 3 , > 0.
0 1 1
() .
C = [0, 2].
() eiAt C (A)

1 0 0 0

= 0 1 1 0 , > 0.
5. H 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 1
() .
() eiHt U (H)
U = [0, ].
6. |k |x p x
.

() k|
p|x = k eikx .
2
() x|k2 = i (k1 k2 ),
k1 | .
() k| eikx .
xp|x = kx+i2
B,
7. A, C, 0,
B
[ ]
T r(AB 1 T r (AB)
C B) 2 + (C)
2 .
2
. Axler
[66] Roman [82].
. 7-8 Young [67] Akhiezer Glazman [83].
Jordan [84]
.
, . . 3 7 Isham [10] 4 Peres [58].
102
6
: .
. -
.
, , -
.
6.1
6.1.1
C 2 -
- . C 2
.
, -
.
.
1. , |0.
, -
|1. -
|0, |1.
.
2. ,
C 2 .
3.
. -

. R
L. |L, -
|R ,
.
(qubit), ,
.
qubit (B. Schumacher) [85],
103
. ,
. cubit ()

.
.
6.1.2
C 2

3
A = a0 1 + ai
i , (6.1)
i=1
i i = 1, 2, 3 (Pauli),
( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 0 i 1 0

1 = ,
2 = ,
3 = . (6.2)
1 0 i 0 0 1
i )2 = 1.
(i) (
(ii) 2 = i3 ,
1 1 = i3 .
2
(iii) 3 = i1 ,
2 2 = i1 .
3
(iv) 1 = i2 ,
3 3 = i2 .
1

3
j = 1ij + i
i ijk
k , (6.3)
k=1
ijk

1 (i, j, k) = (1, 2, 3)
ijk = 1 (i, j, k) = (1, 2, 3) (6.4)

0 i, j, k .

,

ijk ilm = jl km jm kl , (6.5)
i
A B )2 = A 2B 2 (A
(A A B )2 (6.6)

qubit, ,
. .
104
6. : .

A B . . (6.6) ijklm ijk ilm Aj Bk Al Bm ,
jklm (jl km jm kl )Aj Bk Al Bm .
Ai Bi , . (6.4).
= ( 1 , 3 ), (6.1)
2 ,
A = a0 1 + a , (6.7)
, (6.3)
(aa )(bb ) = a b 1 + i(aa b ) , (6.8)

3
a b = a i bi (6.9)
i=1

3
3
(aa b )k = ijk ai bj
i=1 i=1
= (a2 b3 a3 b2 , a3 b1 a1 b3 , a1 b2 a2 b1 ). (6.10)
6.1.3
(6.1)
( )
a0 + a3 a1 ia2
A = . (6.11)
a1 + ia2 a0 a3

a+ = a0 + |aa| a = a0 |aa|, |aa| = a a .

( )
1 a1 ia2
|a+ = ,
2|aa|(|aa| a3 ) |aa| a3
( )
1 |aa| + a3
|a = . (6.12)
2|aa|(|aa| a3 ) a1 ia2

1
P = |a a | = (1 n ) . (6.13)
2
a
n= (6.14)
|aa|
R 3 .
n ,
n .
a0 , |aa| -
.
n , n .
105
. ,
6.1.4
,
( ) ( )
0 1
, , (6.15)
1 0
( ).
|0 |1 , | |+. 0 1
(0
1 ) bit,
1/2. 0 1.
+ ,
( ) ( )
1 0 1 0 0

+ = ( 1 + i2 ) =
= ( + ) = . (6.16)
2 0 0 1 0
|0 |1
+ |0 = |1 + |1 = 0 (6.17)
|0 = 0
|1 = |0. (6.18)
+ 0 1

1 0.

.
)2 = 0.
(i) (
(ii)
+
+ + = 1.

(iii) [
+ , 3 .
] =
(iv) [ ] = 2
3 , .
6.2
. 3.2.2
, -
() = 0.
. O
L2 (R
R , dx)
= 1 p2 + 1 m 2 x2 ,
H (6.19)
2m 2

x p . H
|n En = (n+ 2 ), n = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
1
(6.19)
.
106
6. : .
6.2.1

m i
a
= x + p, (6.20)
2 2m
.
a
.
(6.20)
[ ] = 1
a, a (6.21)
1
= (
H a a
+ ). (6.22)
2
(6.21) a a . (6.22)
H N =a a N
, H
.
N , |,
|N | = a|2 0.

[ ] = a
a, N a , N
[ a .
] = (6.23)
N |n = n |n N . n
. (6.23) |n -

Na|n = (n 1)
a|n (6.24)

Na |n = (n + 1)
a |n. (6.25)
a |n N
|n a -
1 |n.
a .
a
(6.24) n , -
a N . -
|n n = 0 n = 0. |0
a |0 = 0. , N |n = n|n, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .,
N
n = n.
|n a

|0. n| |n = n|[
aa a, a
]+a
a |n = n|1 + N
|n =
(n + 1).

|n = n + 1|n + 1,
a (6.26)

a a )2
( a )n
(
|n = |n 1 = |n 2 = . . . = |0. (6.27)
n n(n 1) n!
a a
n| |n = n

a|n = n|n 1. (6.28)
(
N
) .
107
. ,
6.2.2
a .
a
.
6.1. a
. a 0. |, a
| = 0, n|
a | = 0,
n 1| = 0, n = 1, 2, . . .. |
, .
a |w = w|w |w, w = 0. 0| a = 0, 0 =
0|
a w = w0|w, 0|w = 0.
1| a = 0|, 1|w = w1 0|w = 0. ( 2| a 1|,
2|w = 0 n|w = 0.
|w, |w = 0.
|z = z|z, z C
6.2. a
|z|2
zn |z|2 z (
n n
a)
2
|z = e 2 |n = e |0. (6.29)
n=0 n! n=0
n!

= n=0 cn |n. a
. |z |z = z|z
.
n
(6.28) cn+1 = cn z/ n + 1, cn = c0 z / n!. c0

z m z n |z|2n
1 = z|z = c20 m|n = c0
2
= c20 exp(|z|2 ), (6.30)
n!m! n!
m=0 n=0 n=0
c0 = exp( 12 |z|2 ).
|z . (6.29) .

am a
(i) z| n |z = (z )m z n m, n = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
. a
.

(ii) n|z = e 2 |z| z n / n!.
1 2

. , n| = 0|
an / n!.
2 1 |z |2 +z z
(iii) z|z = e 2 |z|
1
2 .

. z|z = exp( 21 |z|2 12 |z |2 ) z m z n m|n/ n!m!
n=0 m=0
= exp( 12 |z|2 12 |z |2 ) n 1 2 1 2
n=0 (z z ) /n! = exp[ 2 |z| 2 |z | + z z ].
d2 z
(iv)
|zz| = 1, d2 z = dxdy z = x + iy, x, y R .
.
2
d z d2 z
z n z m e|z| .
2
Imn := n|zz|m = (6.31)
n!m!
z = rei r 0 [0, 2],
2
rdr
rm+n er .
2
Imn = de i(mn)

0 0 n!m!
ds n s
m = n, 2. , Inn = 0 n! s e =
1, s = r2 . Imn = mn .
108
6. : .
(iv) .
z.
-

2 2
dz dz
| = |zz| = (z)|z, (6.32)

(z) = z|.
, A
-
,
2
dz
A| = (z)A|z. (6.33)

,
z (x) = x|z -
|z, z = m/2 q + i/ 2m p, -
q p
.
a |z = z|z
dz
= m(x q) + i
p, (6.34)
dx

( m )1/4 [ ]
m(x q)2
z (x) = exp + i
px . (6.35)
2
. (3.21)
q eipx .
6.3
6.3.1
(3.12) -
m
2
= 1 + V (x),
H (6.36)
2m x2
L2 (R R ). -
(6.36) V (x).
V (x)
.

+ 2m[E V (x)] = 0. (6.37)
109
. ,
. (6.37) H. -
H L2 (RR ).

H.
. (6.36) .
(x) (6.36),
. (6.36). n (x)
H .
V (x) , V (x) =
V (x). . (6.37), , (x) := (x) .
(6.37) E. (x)
+ H H.
,
H .
1 2 H E1 E2 ,
1 = 2m[E1 V (x)]1 2 = 2m[E2 V (x)]2 .

2 , 1 -
2 1 1 2 = (E2 E1 )1 2 , ,
(2 1 1 2 ) = (E2 E1 )1 2 (6.38)
W = 2 1 1 2 (Wronskian) 1 , 2 .
E2 = E1 , . (6.38)
2 1 1 2 = C (6.39)
C.
6.3.2
-
.
6.3. H, . (6.36), .
. , -
, C . (6.39) , 0 .
1 /1 = 2 /2 dx
d
log(1 /2 ) = 0, 1 = a2 a. E
.
,
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , , E0 <
E1 < E2 < . . .. , 0 (x) n (x) n-
.
x0 R (x0 ) =
0. ,
.
, -
(Sturm).
110
6. : .
6.4. ( .) n-
n .
,
6.1.
6.5. x0 x1 n
. k k > n -
x x0 x1 .
, 6.5
n . ,
(x) H x1 x2 > x1 . (x) u
, , x1 , x2 , .
(, x1 ), (x1 , x2 ), (x2 , ),
.
() 0 . -
0 , . 1 (
E1 ,
0 .) n n ,
.
. n- -
,
. . 3.2 -
.
6.1 6.5
n k Ek > En . . (6.38)

d
(k n n k ) = 2m(Ek En )k n . (6.40)
dx
x0 x1 n .
n . . (6.40) [x0 , x1 ].
n (x0 ) = n (x1 ) = 0,
x1
k (x1 )n (x1 ) k (x0 )n (x0 ) = 2m(Ek En ) dx1 2 . (6.41)
x0
x0 x1 n , n (x0 , x1 ),
. , n (x0 ) > 0 n (x1 ) < 0,
x0 x1 .
, n (x0 ) < 0 n (x1 ) > 0.
k (x0 , x1 ). , -
[x0 , x1 ].
.
111
. ,
n k n (x0 ) n (x1 )
+ + + - - +
+ - + - + -
- + - + + -
- - - + - +
() . (6.41) , ()
. , . k
(x0 , x1 ).
, ,
.
6.6. lim|x| V (x) = ,

.

, .
, . [86].
6.3.3
,
: lim|x| V (x) = 0. ,
C = [a, b]. C, -
1 2
T = 2m x2
,
( p2 ).
T ,
eikx eikx E = 2m
k2
.
[86].
6.7. V (x) , E [0, )

-
H,
H. , E < 0.
6.1

ikx ikx
> b), = 2mE,
[a, b]. I(x < a) III (x
= Ae +Be , k = 2mE. E

H I III.
{
1 (eikx + Rk eikx ), x<a
2
fE+ (x) = 1 Tk eikx
2
x>b
{
eikx ,
1 T x<a
2 k
fE (x) = k eikx )
1 (eikx + R
(6.42)
2
x>b
fE+ (
+), fE
( I ).
112
6. : .
6.1: [a, b].
, fE+ , -
III
+. fE , .
Rk , R k
Tk , Tk . , |Tk |2

III.
(8.3.4), |Tk |2
E , .
. -

fE+ , fE , fE+ fE . (6.39)
E.
{
k| )
2
ik(1|R x<a
fE+ fE+ fE+ fE+ =
ik|Tk |2 (6.43)
x>b
{
ik|Tk |2
x<a
fE fE fE fE =
ik(1|R k |2 ) (6.44)

x > b
{ ikT
k x < a
fE+ fE fE fE+ = (6.45)
ikT k
x>b
{
ikTk Rk
x<a
fE+ fE fE fE+ =
ikTk R (6.46)
k
x>b
-
I III
|Tk |2 + |Rk |2 = 1, |Tk |2 + |R

k |2 = 1, Tk = Tk , = 0.
Tk Rk + Tk R k (6.47)
-
, |Tk |

eik := Rk /|Rk | eik := R k | . (6.47)
k /|R
2 k | = 1|Tk | , eik := Tk /|Tk |
|Rk | = |R 2 2
k k ,
2k = + k + k (6.48)
113
. ,
6.2: ( ) -
( ).
. ,
fE+ (x) ,
fE (x) I , .
, Rk = R k , k = k k = k + .
2

fE+ fE |k, + |k, ,
k = 2mE. , , -
, k ,
k, +|k , + = (k k ), k, |k , = (k k ). (6.49)
, |k, + |k,
,
k, +|k, = w(k)(k k ), (6.50)
w(k).
6.4
6.4.1

.
,
.
, -
. 6.2.
,
+ 2m(E V ) = 0, V . E > V ,
ikx
ikx
= Ae + Be , k = 2m(E V ) A B .
x
E < V , = Ce + De , = 2m(V E) C
x
D . E = V = Ex + F , E F .

V ,
(x). . x = x0
.
114
6. : .
x0 . , + 2m[E V (x)] = 0
[x0 , x0 + ] > 0 ,
x0 +

(x0 + ) (x0 ) = 2m dx[E V (x)](x). (6.51)
x0 +
0, . (6.51) , (x)
, lim0 [ (x0 + ) (x0 )] = 0,
x = x0 .
(x) .
6.4.2
,
{
V0 a2 x a2
V (x) = , (6.52)
0 |x| > a2
V0 > 0 a .
6.3.3, -
.
V0 < E < 0, |x| > a/2 ex
ex , = |E|.
x , |x| > a/2
e|x| .
, -
: + .

A+ ex x < a2 A ex x < a2
+ (x) = B cos kx a2 x a2 , (x) = C sin kx a2 x a2 , (6.53)
x
A+ e x> 2 a
A ex x > a2

k = 2m(V0 |E|).

x = a2 4 . ,
x = a2 x = a2 ,
.
+ : A+ ea/2 = B cos ka/2 A+ ea/2 = kB sin(ka/2).
: A ea/2 = C sin(ka/2) A ea/2 = kC cos ka/2.
+ .
tan(ka/2) = /k + cot(ka/2) = /k . (6.54)
. (6.54) x = |E|/V0 [0, 1]

b = mV0 a2 /2,

x = 1 x tan(b 1 x) (6.55)

x = 1 x cot(b 1 x) (6.56)
115
. ,
6.3: . (6.55) (6.56). ,

y1 = x ( ) y2 =
1 x tan(b 1 x) b. ,

y1 = x ( ) y2 = 1 x cot(b 1 x)
b. , b, -
y2 [0, 1], . (6.55) (6.56).
(6.55) (6.56) -
b. b << 1, ,
. (6.55) x = b(1 x), x b. b
.
(6.55).
. (6.56), . b << 1,
. (6.56) b x = 1, . b << 1
. . 6.3.

V0 a , .
6.4.3
, ,
{
V0 a2 x a2
V (x) = , (6.57)
0 |x| > a2
V0 > 0 a .
, ,
. fE+ fE . (6.42).
, fE+ , fE (x) = fE+ (x).
E < V0 , -
. E < V0 ,
.
116
6. : .
E < V0 , fE+ .

ikx
1 ikx
2 (e + Re ), x < a2
1 (Cex + Dex ) a x a
, (6.58)

2
1 T eikx
2 2
2
x > a2
(6.59)

k = 2mE, = 2m(V0 E) C, D . T R
.
fE+ x = a2 , Cea/2 +
Dea/2 = T eika/2 Cea/2 Dea/2 = (ik/)T eika/2 , -
C D T ,
1 k 1 k
C = (1 + i )ea/2 eika/2 T, D = (1 i )ea/2 eika/2 T. (6.60)
2 2
fE+ x = a2 Cea/2 +
Dea/2 = eika/2 + Reika/2 (i/k)(Cea/2 Dea/2 ) = (eika/2 Reika/2 .
eika/2 = (1 ik
)ea/2 C + eika/2 = (1 + i
k
)ea/2 D. -
C D . (6.60),
eika
T = . (6.61)
[1 + 2i ( k k )]ea + [1 2i ( k k )]ea
, a >> 1. -
. (6.61) e ,
eika ea
T = , (6.62)
1 + 2i ( k k )
.
,
, -
. ,
.
. (6.61), ,
1 1
|T |2 = = , (6.63)
cosh (a) + k ) sinh (a)
2
( k
2 2 (2x1)2
cosh (b 1 x) + x(1x) sinh2 (b 1 x)
2

x = E/V0 b = 2mV0 a. . 6.4
|T |2 x = E/V0 ,
b.
6.5
( ) V0
a , = V0 a ,
,
V (x) = (x). (6.64)
117
. ,
6.4:
|T |2 . (6.63) x = E/V0 [0, 1],
= 2mV0 a.
,
.
,
(x) x0 -
. x0 . ,
V (x) = (x x0 ) . (6.51)
lim [ (x0 + ) (x0 )] = 2m(x0 ), (6.65)

0
.
(6.64). V (x) = (x), > 0. ,
{
A+ ex x > 0
(x) = (6.66)
A ex x < 0

A+ , = 2m|E|. x = 0 A+ = A ,
. (6.65) k = m. ,
m 2
E= . (6.67)
2
. V (x) = [(x a2 ) + (x a2 )], -

.
,
.

A+ ex x < a2
+ (x) = B+ cosh x 2 < x < a2 ,
a
(6.68)

Aex x > a2
118
6. : .

A+ , B+ = 2m|E|.

A ex x < a2
(x) = B sinh x a2 < x < a2 , (6.69)

A ex x > a2
A , B .
+
A ea/2 = B sinh(a/2), (1 2m/)A+ ea/2 = B+ sinh(a/2), (6.70)

A ea/2 = B sinh(a/2), (1 2m/)A ea/2 = B sinh(a/2). (6.71)
x = a/2 b = ma.
+
b
x= . (6.72)
1 + tanh x
.(6.72) [0, ) b x = 0
b/2 x . y = 1+tanh b
x

y = x, . (6.72) , x+ (b) (. . 6.5.a). b << 1, . (6.72)
x b(1 x), x+ (b) = b/(1 + b) b b2 . b ,
. (6.72) x = 2b x+ (b) = b/2.
+
b
x= . (6.73)
1 + coth x
.(6.73) [0, ) 0 x = 0 b/2
x . . (6.73) x = 0, , = 0
b
(x). , y = 1+coth x

1
y = x . coth x x , 1+coth x bx.
b
b > 1 b < 1 (. . 6.5.b).

. (6.73) x (b).
(1+tanh x)1 = cosh x/(sinh x+cosh x) > sinh x/(sinh x+cosh x) = (1+coth x)1 ,
b x+ (b) > x (b).
.
,
ma 1, -
E = ma
2 2
2 [x+ (ma)] .
ma > 1, ,
E+ = ma 2 2
2 [x+ (ma)] ,
E+ = ma
2 2
2 [x (ma)] .
. -
, ,
x = a2 x = a2 .

.
119
. ,
6.5: (a) . (6.72) b. (b) . (6.73)

b. b > 1.
6.6
L2 (RR ),

x, p H.
L2 (R
R ) , -
.
,
(.. ).
-
(x), .
6.6.1
x -
R + = [0, ).
x = 0 ,
, -
r (. 3.2.3).

x = 0: (0) = 0. -
R + ), D (Dirichlet),
L2D (R

.
(x) R+

dk
(x) = [a(k) cos kx + b(k) sin kx]. (6.74)
0 2
(0) = 0
a(k) = 0.
R + ) (x) = 0 dk2 b(k) sin kx. fk (x) = 12 sin kx
L2D (R
, L2D (R R + ),
|k. k|k , -
. 5.6. fk, =
120
6. : .
sin kxe 2 x ,
1 2
1
2

k|k = lim dxfk, (x)fk , (x) (6.75)
0 0

sin kx sin k xex = (k k )
1 2
0 dxfk, (x)fk , (x) = 2 0
(k + k ), . (5.31). 0, (k + k ) = 0,
k + k = 0, . (6.75)
k|k = (k k ). (6.76)
|k p = i x

2 +
LD (R
R ). sin kx k cos kx, x = 0
R + ). , sin kx k 2 sin kx
L2D (R
x = 0, pb2 = x 2 2
R + ),
2 LD (R
pb2 |k = k 2 |k. (6.77)
, p2 ,
p2 . p2 = pp,
p .
p , pb2 ,
b2
c ,
|p|.
.
,
x = 0 .
x(x) = x(x) -
. pb2 x H
= 1 pb2 +
2m
x). -
V (
(. 6.3) L2D (RR + ).
6.6.2
-
IL = [0, L], -
. (x)
x [0, L], IL ,
(0) = (L) = 0. L2D (IL ). ,
.
dk . 6.6.1, x = 0 (x) =
b(k) sin kx. x = L, sin kL = 0,
2
k,

kn = n , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . (6.78)
L
121
. ,

2
fn (x) = L
sin nx
L
,

L
2 a nx n x
dxfn (x)fn (x) = dx sin sin
0 L 0 L L
L
1 (n n )x (n + n )x
= dx[cos cos ] = nn nn ] = nn , (6.79)
L 0 L L
, nn = 0 n, n > 0. fn
L2D (IL ). , fn |n.
, p ,
b 2
p = x
2
2 ,
n2 2
pb2 |n = kn2 |n = 2 |n. (6.80)
L
pb2 ,
m, H = pb2
2m
2
En = n2 . (6.81)
2mL2
6.6.3
x = 0 x = L, -
L
L, R = 2 .
(0) = (L),
L
2 .
= x/R, 2,

a 2

| = (x)(x)dx = R d ()(), (6.82)
0 0
S 1 .
S 1
L2 (S 1 , Rd).
,

() = an ein . (6.83)
n=
2
fn () = 1L ein R 0 dfn ()fm () = mn
L2 (S 1 , Rd), |n.
= i
, n -
,
= n|n.
|n (6.84)
122
6. : .
p = i x
= 2
L
n 2
L
.
ib
p
, e (x) = (x + b).
x . -
, = 0 = 2
. ,

. s c
c() = cos () s() = sin (), (6.85)
.
f () -
f, c s.

. -
-
. ,
R R .
, V (x) , -
a < L. a L
L/a , N . ,
, .
Ta = eiap . Ta [V (x)(x)] =
V (x + a)(x + a) = V (x)(x + a) = V (x)Ta (x), [Ta , V ] = 0.
H = 1 p2 + V
2m
Ta ] = 0.
[H, (6.86)
Ta ,
n (x) H
Ta n (x) = Cn (a)n (x), (6.87)
|Cn (a)| = 1, Ta . Tam = Tma

m, Cn (a)m = Cn (ma). Cn (a) = ein (a) mn (a) = n (ma).
n (a) = ka k. , . (6.87)
n (x + a) = eika n (x). (6.88)
n (x) = eikx un (x), (6.89)
. (6.88) un (x + a) = un (x). . (6.88)

(F. Bloch).
k , k k =
k + 2 a
r r, . (6.88) .
a k < a , k .
n (x + L) = n (x), eikL = 1, k 2L
.
123
. ,
H
. (6.89) H, n =
En n ,
1 k k2
un i un + V (x)un = [En ]un . (6.90)
2m m 2m
H,
. (6.90) ,
un (x). L .
2 )1927 , (ii) (1 2 3 )2004 , (iii)

1. ; (i) ( 33 ;
2.
. ;
3.
.
4. ,
. ;
5. .
1. C 2 .
+
2. C 2 .
eiAs ,

3. eiAs a
A = 12 ( 2 ).
a2 + a
4. n|
x4 |n = 1
4m2 2
(6n2 + 7n + 3).
5. z|
x4 |z z|
p4 |z |z.
6. T E > V0 .
,
n
2m(E V0 ) = ,
a
n = 1, 2, 3, . . ..
7. ,
{
0 x (, a 2r ) ( 2r , 2r ) (a + 2r , )
V (x) =
V0 x [a 2r , 2r ] [ 2r , a + 2r ]
V0
a r.
()
T02
T = ,
1 R02 e2ik(r+a)
T0 R0 .
124
6. : .
() T0 = |T0 |ei R0 = i|R0 |ei , k
cos [2(k(r + a) + )] = 1,
|T | = 1, . -
.
8. V (x) = (x).
9. ,
V (x) = [(x a2 ) + (x a2 )].
10. x > 0.
11. x > 0
{
V0 , 0 < x < a
V (x) =
0 ax

E ,

x tan(b 1 x) = 1 x, x = |E|/V0 b = 2mV0 a. b
x = 1..
12. c, s L2 (S 1 , Rd)
[ = i
c, ] s, [ = i
s, ] c [ c, s] = 0.
13. H
[0, L], (L) = e2i (0), [0, 1]. = 2
L x,

= i .
Kronig-Penney V (x) =
14. H

n= (x na).
, .
Klauder Skagerstam [87].
, . Berezin
Shubin [86].
125
. ,
126
7

,
; , ,
..;.
, ,
.
. . [88]
. -
. ,
. -
, .

.
7.1
. 3, -
.
, (x) ( )
|(x)|2 x.
-
. .
(x) L2 (R R, dx)
. , Prob(U )
U R
( )
Prob(U ) = |x|| = |
2
dx|xx| | = |PU |, (7.1)
U U
PU U .
-
, .
127
. ,
3. |
Prob(U )
A.
U R
Prob(U ) = |PU |. (7.2)
(7.2) -
| ei |. (ei )
.
.
| + | | + ei |.
A -
|n, n = 1, 2, . . ., pn
|n
pn = |n||2 . (7.3)
A = an Pn
A
= an pn = an |Pn | = | an Pn |,
n
A n n n
A
= |A|.
(7.4)
A A
(A)2 = A2 A
2. (7.5)
B)
Cor(A, CAB
A B

Cor(A, = 1 |AB
B) +B
A|
|A||

B|. (7.6)
2
, AB
+B A .
Cor(A, B)
= Cor(B, A)
Cor(A, A)
= (A)2 . -
A B
|.
A A = d||,

p() = |||2 (7.7)
.
[ ]
2 1/4 (x q)2
q,p (x) = (2 ) exp + i
px , (7.8)
4 2
q p .

[ ]
1 (x q)2
|q,p (x)| =
2
exp , (7.9)
2 2 2 2
128
7.
q x = .

( )1/4
2 2 [ ]
q,p (k) = exp 2 (k p)2 i
qk , (7.10)

( )1/2
2 2 [ ]
|q,p (k)|2 = exp 2 2 (k p)2 , (7.11)

p p = (2)1 .
7.2
. 5.2
. H
.
.
7.2.1

.
A, n -
. pi , i =
n1, 2, . . . , n i .
i=1 pi = 1.
w A = (p1 , p2 , . . . , pn ).
qi

w B = (q1 , q2 , . . . , qn ).
,
, 1
. ,
pi + (1 )qi ,

w =

w A + (1 )

wB (7.12)
(7.12) 0 1 .

, . n -

e i ,

e 1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0),

e 2 = (0, 1, . . . , 0), . . . ,

e n = (0, 0, . . . , 1). (7.13)

e i -
, .
e i
129
. ,
, .

w = (p1 , p2 , . . . , pn )

n

w = pi

e i, (7.14)
i=1
.
. -
n
. -
pi
i = 1, . . . , n,
w = (p1 , p2 , . . . , pn ). -
-
: i pi .

. k ,

w r = (pr,1 , pr,2 , . . . , pr,n ), (7.15)
r
= 1, 2, . . . , k. r ,
kr=1 r = 1,

k

w mix = r

w r. (7.16)
r=1
, r
Nr ,

N = kr=1 Nr .
r = Nr /N ( Nr ).
, -
.

(7.13). -

.

w
. (7.14) .

.
7.2.2
.
, -
. -
.
, .
130
7.
-
H. ,
. -
.
.
|a wa .
A
.
Prob(U ) U (A) a |PU |a
, wa
( )
Prob(U ) = wa a |PU |a = T r PU , (7.17)
a

= a wa |a a | T r = 1.
7.1. H
T r = 1.
,
, .

= wn Pn ,
n
0 wn 1 Pn .
-
.
= || | .
. -
C = N 1 1.
, .
C N N . , -
N 2 . , N
(N 2 N )/2 - . N + (N 2
N ) = N 2 , -
, N 2 1.
.
1. . 2 .
.
. wn P
n .
0 wn 1, wn wn2 0, n (wn wn2 )Pn 0, 2 0.
wn = wn2 n, wn = 0 wn = 1. 1 =

n wn T r Pn , wn , , 1
. .
2. |n |m

. -
|n |n |n|
|m| n|
2
|nm|
|m,

|mn | nn mm . (7.18)
131
. ,
7.2.3
T r i = 0, o C 2
T r = 1
1
= (1 + r ), (7.19)
2
(r1 , r2 , r3 ).
ri
1 1
T r(

i ) = rj T r(
j
i ) = rj ij T r1 = ri , (7.20)
2 j 2 j
. (6.3).
. 6.1, (7.19) 12 (1 |rr |),
|rr | 1. C 2

B2 = {(r1 , r2 , r3 )|r12 + r22 + r32 1}.
2 = |rr | = 1,
, B2 .
.
| C 2

( )
i cos 2 ei
| = sin |0 + cos e |1 = , (7.21)
2 2 sin 2
, [0, ] [0, 2].

(7.20) r
r = |
| = (sin cos , sin sin , cos ). (7.22)
| |. -
| : ( = 0),
r = (0, 0, 1). | (7.21),
1 1
|||2 = cos2 = (1 + cos ) = (1 + r r ). (7.23)
2 2 2
||| = 0 r r = 1,
. 6,2.
.
7.2.4
L2 (R R, dx) -

, (x, x ) = x||x .
(x)
132
7.
7.1: . ,
. -
.
1. (x, x) 0, ( .)
2. (x, x ) = (x , x), ( .)

3. dx(x, x) = 1, ( T r = 1.)

4. |(x, x )| (x, x)(x , x ), ( . (7.18) ).
x p (x, x ) .
(i) x x(x, x ) x
x (x, x ).
x|x = xx|
x| |x = x(x, x ) x|
x|x = x x|
|x = x (x, x )
(ii) p i x

(x, y) p
i x (x, y). ,

-
: = n wn |nn|. ,

p|x =
x| p|nn|x = i
wn x| wn x|nn|x = i (x, x ). (7.24)
n n
x x
p|x = i x (x, x ).
x|
7.3
7.3.1
-
,
1 3 .
133
. ,
1. H

.
-
. N1 -
1 , N2

2 , . -
i = Ni /N , N = i Ni .

= i i . (7.25)
i
3.

A.
Prob(U ) U

( )
Prob(U ) = T r PU . (7.26)
1. -
|n,
nn = n|
|n. (7.27)
2. ,
x L2 (R
R ), -

p(x) = x|
|x. (7.28)

3. A =
n an Pn

A
= Prob(n)an = r Pn )
an T r(
n
( ) n

= T r an Pn = T r(
A). (7.29)
n
4.
[ ]
C(A, = 1 T r (AB
B) +B T r(
A) r(
A)T
B). (7.30)
2
A).
(A)2 = C(A,
134
7.
-
, -
.
, -
;
, . -
, (A. M.
Gleason) . 7.1. ,
-
. -
, .
.
,
.
. ||
| -
.
A.
A,
7.1.

H. -

H.
-
. ,
,
. ,
-
.
.
-
.
.
P
P , . (7.2).
() .
7.2. H
P H (P ) [0, 1],
1. (0) = 0.
2. (1) = 1.
3. P
Pi , P = Pi ,

(P ) = (Pi ). (7.31)
i

[0, 1], .
135
. ,
, [89].
7.3. . 2, -
,
( )
(P ) = T r P , (7.32)
P H.
-
. [90] .
. , -
( ),
.
7.3.2
. 4, -
.
.
, ,
,
, . (7.26).
-
. ,
.
.
.
.
. 1.4, -
. , -
,
. , -
(..
).
, -
,

. A
.
,
.

. , ,
..
, -
(
, ), ( ,
).
.
136
7.
7.2 -
.
.
. , , -
.
,
-
.
7.2.
. -
( )
.
, , -
.
...
. [44]
... -
:
...
- . .
. [91]
-
. .
, .
. [92]
,
. ,
3-
...
;
. [54]
, -
,
.
. [93]
... ,
.... ,
,
. .
: -
.
A. [58]
137
. ,
7.3.3

,
.
| | H.
H H,
| = 12 (| + |). -
:
1 = ||. (7.33)
H , -

1
2 = (|| + ||) . (7.34)
2
.
. ,
x, 1
1 1
p1 (x) = x|
1 |x = |x||2 + |x||2 + Re (|xx|) , (7.35)
2 2
2
1 1
p2 (x) = x|
2 |x = |x||2 + |x||2 (7.36)
2 2
. (7.35),
.
.
7.3.4
. 6.2.1, -
.
w ,
w -
.
, -
.
, . -
, -
.

= n wn |nn|.
.
|0 |1 21
. , = 12 1,
138
7.
7.2: (x) = (2 2 )1/4 exp[(x

L/2)/(4 2 ) + ikx] (x) = (2 2 )1/4 exp[(x + L/2)/(4 2 )]
-
2
L (R R). L.
(x) k. p1 (x)
p2 (x) , , . (7.35)
(7.36). () L/ = 0, 5, () L/ = 2, () L/ = 4.
L/, . (7.35) .
|00|+|11| = 1.
, -
. |0 |1 .

. ,

.
7.3.
(
) ( ).

(Claude
Shannon). ,
,
[94]. ,
.
7.4. . N

w = (p1 , p2 , . . . , pN )
. -

N
I[

w] = pi log pi , (7.37)
i=1
139
. ,
- .
f (x) = x log x
(f (x) < 0),
f (x1 + (1 )x2 ) f (x1 ) + (1 )f (x2 ), (7.38)
0 1.
.
1.
e i , . (7.13), I[

e i ] = 0.

. , e 0 1, p log p = 0, p = 0
i
p = 1.
2. I[
w ] = log N -
1
, pi = N , i = 1, . . . , N . N
. I[

w ] pi i=1 pi = 1 -
N
. p
i
[I + c( i=1 pi 1)] = 0, c
. 1 pi + c = 0, pi
, pi = N 1 .
3. Shannon

k : w r , r = 1, 2, . . . k
0 r 1 r=1 r = 1. ,

k
I[ r

w r] r I[

w r ]. (7.39)
r=1 r=1
. k = 2, (7.39) I(
w 1 + (1 )

w 2 ) I(

w 1 ) + (1 )I(

w 2 ),
(7.38).
k.
(7.39) Shannon . -
,
, .

, A = n an Pn .
an pn = T r(Pn ).

I( =
, A) pn log pn . (7.40)
n
(7.40)
A .
, -
r A = m , m .
P A (6.13). p
1 p = 21 (1 r m ). . (7.40)
[ ]
r 1 rx 1 [ ]
I(r, x) = log 2 + x log log 1 r2 x2 , (7.41)
2 1 + rx 2
r m = rx, r = |rr | |x| 1.

r, x = 0, = log 2.
I/x < 0 x > 0, x = 1
140
7.
. I(r, x) = I(r, x),

x = 1,
Imin (r) = w log w w+ log w+ , (7.42)
w = 1 r . A
,
.

. -
(7.40) A,
. S( )
.
, -
= n wn |nn|

A
, A = n an |nn|.

, ,

] =
S[ wn log wn , (7.43)
n
Dn Dn .
. (7.43)
] = T r(
S[ log ). (7.44)
-
.
1. , , S[
] = 0.
, S[U
2. U ] = S[
U ].
3. C N , von Neumann
= N 1
1. log N .
4.
: r , r = 1, 2, . . . k
k
0 r 1 r=1 r = 1.

k
k
S[ r r ] r S[
r ], (7.45)
r=1 r=1
7.4 -.

, ,
.
7.5. - [95, 96]. A B

. A B -
,
1 ( )
(A)(B) T r [A, B] (7.46)
2
141
. ,
. A = B = 0. ,
A A B B
. (A)2 = A2 =
A2 ) B.
T r(

2 ], (5.54)
A)
T r(A ) = T r[ A(
A B
( ) ( ) 2 2
2 T r( A(
(A)2 (B)2 = T r A2 T r B ) = T r(
B) .
AB) (7.47)
AB)
2T r( = T r(
(AB
+B
A))
+ T r( B]).
[A, (7.48)
. (7.48) . ,
2 1 2
2
T r(
AB) = CAB + T r(
[A, B]) . (7.49)
4
CAB A B.

(7.47)
1 2
,
(A)2 (B)2 CAB
2
T r( B])
[A, (7.50)
4
(7.46).
x p, . (7.46)
1
xp . (7.51)
2
, . (7.46) A B

. | A, = ||, A = 0

A| = 0. . (7.46) .
(7.51) (3.54) .
(7.51) -
. x p
. (3.54) x p
.
(7.51), x p ,
.
.
, (7.51) -
(7.8).
7.5
. 1.5, -
.
-
H. ,
142
7.

.
(Wigner),
- , () -
, ()
(
).
-
, ,
: . -
, -
, ,
.
, -
. L2 (R R )
= R 2 x p .
W : R

1 y y
W (x, p) := dyx |
|x + eipy . (7.52)
2 2 2
(7.52) -, -
A L2 (RR ) FA (x, p) ,

1 y y
FA (x, p) = dyx |A|x + eipy . (7.53)
2 2 2
-

x + x
x|A|x = dpFA (
, p)eip(xx ) . (7.54)
2
. . (7.54) . (7.53) -
.
(i) -
(ii) -

.
(i)

T r( = dxdpW (x, p)F (x, p),
A) (7.55)
A
A . . (7.55) -

. (7.52) (7.53).

dxdpW (x, p)FA (x, p) = dxdx x| |x x |A|x
= dxx|
A|x = T r( ,
A).
. (7.55)
, .
143
. ,
(ii)

dpW (x, p) = x|
|x (7.56)

dxW (x, p) = p|
|p (7.57)
. (7.56) , p . (7.52)
(y). . (7.57)

dkdk ikxik x
x|
|x = dkdk x|kk| |k k |x = e |k
k|
2
|k.
( )
1

W (x, p) = 2
dkdk dye iy(p k+k
2
)
|k
ei(kk )x k|
(2)

1 k + k i(kk )x
= dkdk (p )e |k .
k| (7.58)
2 2
k+k
K = = k k, . (7.58)
2

1
W (x, p) = dKd(p K)eix K /2| |K + /2
2

1
= dp /2| |p + /2eix . (7.59)
2

x, dxeix = 2(), .
(7.57).
. q,p
. (7.8). (1.38)
1 (xq2)2 22 (pp)2
W (x, p) = e 2 . (7.60)

(7.60) .

1
(x) = [q,p (x) + q ,p (x)] , (7.61)
2

. p = p = 0 q = L/2 = q ,
L.
[ ( )]
1 22 p2 (x+ L22 )2
(x L
2)
2
x2 pL
W (x, p) = e e 2 + e 22 + 2e 22 cos . (7.62)
2
L >> cos(pL/2) 1
. (7.62) . 7.3.
,
.
144
7.
7.3: (7.62) x
p L/ = 10. () p = 0, () p = /L, () p = 1, 5/L () p = 2/L. ,
p x: () x = 0, () x = , ()
x = 2, 8 () x = L/2.
7.6
7.6.1

,
,
.
. [97]
.
x| |x
p| |p .
. .
,
.
; .
, -
, .
.
.
A = n an Pn
B = bm Q n.
m
,
p(an , bm )
. , an bn
,
145
. ,

p(an , bm ) = T r(
Q m) Pn )
p(an , bm ) = T r( (7.63)
n m
p(an , bm )

.
Anm )
p(an , bm ) = T r( (7.64)
Anm . -
Anm .
. (7.63) ,

Anm = Q m Anm = Pn . (7.65)
n m
(7.65) .
, C 2
.
, n m , 1 2. (7.65)
A11 + A12 = P1 . A1m A1m P1
P1 , A1m = 0 A1m = P1 . ,
[A1m , P1 ] = 0. [A2m , P2 ] = 0. P2 = 1 P1 ,
[A2m , P1 ] = 0.
(7.65), Q m = A1m + A2m . [Q m , Pn ] = 0,
[A, B]
= 0.
A B ()
.

.
7.6.2
-
-
.

. (
) .

. . 7.1,
r R 3 |rr | 1. ri -
i .
i .
, .
:

i .
146
7.
7.4: -
[98]. -
150 .
.
. -
, .
-
. : -
(
) .
( r
) . . 7.4.
.
(.. )
. -
-
.
-
.
7.4.
7.5.
, -
. ,
.
,
, . -
,
. -

, .

, -
.
147
. ,
7.5: Wigner
|0 + |n, |n .
,
.
. [99].
7.4.
A
x
p ,
A = x
cos + p sin , (7.66)
. , x
p -
,
.
|a, A , fa, (x).
A
dfa,
i sin + cos xfa, = afa, . (7.67)
dx

1 i cot 2
e
a
fa, (x) = 2 x +i sin x , (7.68)
2| sin |

a, |a , = dxfa,
(x)fa , (x) = (a a ).
A

|a, = dxdx fa, (x)x|
p (a) = a, | |x fa, (x ) (7.69)
X = (x + x )/2 y = x x

1
|X + /2ei( sin X cot )y
a
p (a) = dXdX /2|
2| sin |

1 a
= dXW (X, X cot ), (7.70)
| sin | sin
. (7.52).
148
7.

1 1
p (a) = dzp (z)eiaz , W (x, p) = dudveiux+ivp W (u, v). (7.71)
2 2

( )
W (u, v) = p tan1 (v/u) u2 + v 2 . (7.72)
p (a)
(7.72).

1989 [100].
[101].
1.
| = cos |0 + sin |1 = cos2 |00| + sin2 |11|;
2. - -
.
3. -
.
4. . -

.
5. .
t
w(x) .
t
w(p)
.
t;

1 0 i
1. = 14 0 1 1
i 1 2

1 0 0
A = 0 3 0 , > 0.
0 0 1
;
2. C 3 (-
1).

0 1 0 0 i 0 1 0 0
1 1
J1 = 1 0 1 J2 = i 0 i J3 = 0 0 0 .
2 0 1 0 2 0 i 0 0 0 1
J1 = J2 = 0, J3 = a.
149
. ,
() a = 1 .
() .
() a = 0.
3. A Z(x) :=

eixA ).
T r(

() A = (i) dxn Z(x) (A) = dx2 log Z(x) .
d n d2
n n 2
x=0
da x=0
() Z(x), p(a) = 2 Z(x)eixa
A.

() p(a) A = i ai Pi .
2
4. (x) = (2 2 )1/4 exp[ (1+ir)(xx
4 2
0)
+ ip0 x],
, r, x0 , p0 .
()
x = x0
p = p0 .
() (x)2 , (p)2 Cxp .
() . (7.51);
() (x)2 (p)2 Cxp 2 . (7.50).
5. x|
|y = C exp(ax2 by 2 + 2cxy).
() C.
() a, b, c .
;
() x2 ,
p2 Cxp . (7.50);
() ;
() .
6. (x)2 , (p)2 Cxp |n

. (x)2 (p)2 Cxp 2
. (7.50).
2
7. (x) = C sin(x/a)
x , -
x p . -

(k)
x p .
xp.
, . Mielnik
[102] Beltrame Cassinelli [103].
, . Wehrl [105]. -
, . Balazs [104]. , .
D Ariano et al [106].
, . 7.6.1
, Davies [107].
150
8
,
.

, . .
, , , .
, ,
. .

.
.
. [108]
. -

. -
,
. ,

.
8.1
8.1.1
3, ,
.
,
Anm .
Amn (t) = ei(Em En )t Amn (0), (8.1)
En .
151
. ,
, (x
x1 , . . . , x N )
N ,
1
i = 2i + V (x
x1 , . . . x N ). (8.2)
t i=1
2mi
. 3.3.2 -
. .

1
=
H 2i + V (x
x1 , . . . x N ) (8.3)
i=1
2m i
N .
H , -

H|n = En |n |n .
H i t
| = H|.

n| i t n| = En n|, n|(t) = eiEn t n|(0).

|n

|(t) = |nn|(t) = eiEn t |nn|(0) = Ut |(0), (8.4)
n n

eiEn t |nn| = eiHt

Ut = (8.5)
n
, .
. (8.5)
= iU t Ut = iUt U t ,
H (8.6)
t.
A .

= Ut A(0)
A(t) Ut . (8.7)
Amn (t) = m|A(t)|n,

|m |n H

.
,
(8.5).
8.1.2
,
.
152
8.
1. .
| Ut | , .
,
|i ,

= wi |i i |. (8.8)
i
|i |i Ut |i , bra i | i |Ut ,
Ut Ut .

(t) = Ut (0)Ut . (8.9)
. (8.9)
(t)
= Ut (0)Ut + Ut (0)Ut = Ut Ut (0)Ut Ut , (8.10)
t
. (8.6) -

(t) (t)],
i = [H, (8.11)
t
von Neumann.
2. .
. (8.7), .
. (8.7) . (8.6) -
A,

A(t)
i A(t)].
= [H, (8.12)
t
, . (8.12) .

.
0

t = 0. A = n an Pn
t. an
Prob(an , t) = T r(Ut 0 Ut Pn ). (8.13)
t Pn ) t = Ut (0)Ut t
. (8.13) tr(
.
A =
n an Pn

, Ut AUt = n an Ut Pn Ut A(t) =
153
. ,
an Pn (t). . (8.13) T r[
n 0 P (t)]. ,
,
.

.
4. , -
eiHt |(t) =

eiHt |(0), t o H
, ( -
) .
8.2
8.2.1
H .
, -
. , -
.
.
, -

.
, H , -
. -
, -
.
. -
.
, -
p2 2
H = 2m er ,
r . , . 3,
, .
. -
.
-
.
.
-
, , .
, -
. , -
. , -
,
,
.
154
8.
-
8.1: H
. () ( ). () -
.
-,
( ) ( -
) () ( ) .
. () (..
). () . -
.
. 6,
.
,
. -
, ,
, .

.
.
.
. 8.1.

. 8.1. , -
. -
, .
E1 = 13, 6eV E2 = E1 /4
. 2E1 .
E = E1 ,
.
, E = 2E2 = 21 E1 > E1 ,

.
, -
, ,
, . , -
155
. ,
,
[109].
8.2.2
, t -
. -
. ,
.
. 3.3 -
. ( ), -
: .
, T,
eiHt TeiHt = T + t1.

(8.14)
. (8.14) T , -
.
, -
8.1. ( . [110]) H

T . (8.14).
. t . (8.14) 0, [T, H]
= i1. -

T . (5.15) eiaT He iaH = H
a1, a R . |E
( ) H E,
iaT |E = (H
He a1)|E = (E a)|E,
eiaT |E H
E a. a
, E E a .
, ,
. T .
-
.
,
. -
,
.
,
-
. ,
.

. T , -
, .
8.2.3 -
. 7.4 - -
- .
156
8.
,
-. ,
,
.
-,
(. ) (. ) [111]. -
H H.

A. - (7.46) ,
1
HA |[H, A]|. (8.15)
2
(8.12), . (8.15)
1 A
HA | | (8.16)
2 t
. (8.16) -.
A
TA =
(8.17)
| tA |

. A.
A ,
A .
TA t , . (8.16)
1
Ht . (8.18)
2
H = 0, -
, .
. (8.16), A = ||
. , |

. A = A , A = a a2 , a = A.
2
. (8.16)
|a|

2H. (8.19)
a a2
a(0) = 1, t = 0
|. a 0. (8.19)
0 t

arcsin a(t) + Ht (8.20)
2

t > 2H , . (8.20) , t < 2H
a(t) cos2 (Ht). (8.21)
|, a( ) = 12 . . (8.21)

1
H arccos = . (8.22)
2 4
157
. ,
8.2.4

. ,
F ,
{F, H} = 0, (8.23)
H . (1.7) . (8.23) -
F = 0.
, -
: (i) ()
.
. . (8.23) -
Q = q q Pq H ,
H]
[Q, = 0. (8.24)
H]
. (8.24) [f (Q), = 0 f [Pq , H]
=0

Pq Q. -
, [H, H] = 0.
, -
. ,
c1 |E1 + c2 |E2 , |c1 |2 + |c2 |2 = 1, |c1 |2
E1 |c2 |2 E2 .
, [H, Q] = 0, Q(t)

. -
Q
.
. ,
-
.
Q
. ,
Q.
-
q Q.
.. 4.2.
.
,
. ,
N -
N N = N .
.
,
. -

158
8.
, . ,

. -
,
.
8.3
8.3.1
H = a . H E+ = |aa|
E = |aa|, P = 12 (1 |aa| ) (. . 6.1).
a
Ut = eiHt

1 a 1 a
Ut = ei|aa|t (1 + ) + ei|aa|t (1 )
2 |aa| 2 |aa|
a
= cos (|aa|t) 1 i sin (|aa|t) . (8.25)
|aa|
|0 = |0. |t t
( )
a3 a1 ia2
|t = Ut |0 = cos (|aa|t) i sin (|aa|t) |0 i
sin (|aa|t) |1. (8.26)
|aa| |aa|
t
3 .

a21 + a22 2
Prob(+1, t) = |1|t |2 = sin (|aa|t) (8.27)
|aa|2
a2
Prob(1, t) = |0|t |2 = cos2 (|aa|t) + 32 sin2 (|aa|t) . (8.28)
|aa|
|aa|
a1 , a2 .
8.3.2
-
a
.
H =
a a
.
a . (5.15),
iHt (it)2
+ . . .) = eit a

a
(t) = e iHt
a
e (1 it +
=a . (8.29)
2
. (8.29) |z
eiHt |z = zeit |z.

eiHt a (8.30)
159
. ,
| = eiHt |z, a | = zeit |, | -

it
a
ze . | |zeit .

eiHt |z = |zeit .

(8.31)

-
( 6.2.iv),
2 2
iHt
d z iHt
d z it
e | = e |zz|| = |ze z|. (8.32)

8.3.3
m -
. |0
|t = eiHt |0 ,

H = 1 p2 . t (x) := x|t 0 (x) := x|0 -

2m

t (x) = x|eiHt |0

iHt
|x x |0 = dx Gt (x, x )0 (x ),

= dx x|e (8.33)
Gt (x, x ) = x|eiHt |x ,

(8.34)
. . (8.33)
t -
t = 0.

k2
iHt
= dkei 2m t |kk|,

e (8.35)
|k .

k2
i 2m dk i k2 t+ik(xx )
Gt (x, x ) = dke t
x|kk|x = e 2m (8.36)
2
. (8.36) k
k .
, t (t i) > 0. . (8.36) -
k2
e 2m , .

160
8.
[ ]
1 m(x x )2
Gti (x, x ) = ( ) exp i 2(t i) . (8.37)
t
2 + i 2m
0,

m i m(xx )2
Gt (x, x ) = e 2t . (8.38)
2it
8.3.4
m
V (x), . 6.1, [a, b].
. 6.3.3,

|k, , k = 2mE. (i) V (x)
x|k, = x|k, + (ii) ,
. ,

k2
iHt
dkei 2m t (|k, +k, +| + |k, k, |) .

e = (8.39)
0
[a, b] |k, (6.42),

{
1 (eikx + Rk eikx ), x < a
x|k, + = 2
1 Tk eikx
(8.40)
2
x>b
|0 x0 < a. x0 -
a 0 (x) .
1 ikx
0 (k) = 2 dxe 0 (x) -
p0 > 0, 0 (k) 0 k < 0.
.

1
k, +|0 = dx(eikx + Rk eikx )0 (x) = 0 (k) + Rk 0 (k) = 0 (k)
2
1
k, |0 = Tk dxeikx 0 (x) = Tk 0 (k) = 0,
2
0 (k) = 0, k > 0.
t

k2
iHt
x|k, +0 (k)ei 2m t .

t (x) := x|e |0 = (8.41)
0
x > b,

1 k2
t (x) = dkTk 0 (k)eikxi 2m t (8.42)
2 0
. (8.42) Tk = |Tk |eik , -

p0
(. 2.2).
161
. ,
|Tk | Tp0 .
p0
kp0 . k = p0 +p 0 (kp0 ) k 2 = p20 +2p0 (kp0 ).

k .

.(8.42) 12 dkeik(xp0 t/m+p0 ) 0 (k) = 0 (xp0 t/m+
p 0 ).
p2
0 tip
t (x) = Tp0 e i 2m 0 p0
0 (x p0 t/m + p 0 ). (8.43)
|t (x)|2 = |Tp0 |2 |0 (x p0 t/m + p 0 )|2 , (8.44)
,
|Tp0 |2 . Prob(x > b, t) x > b
t

Prob(x > b, t) = dx|t (x)| = |Tp0 |
2 2
dx|0 (x)|2 . (8.45)
b bp0 t/m+p 0
t, , -
. Prob(x > b, t) = |Tp0 |2 .
|Tk |2 . p 0
. (8.43), . 7.
8.4
8.4.1
-
. ,

i | = H(t)|.
(8.46)
t
|(t) = U (t, t0 )|(t0 ), t0 , -

U (t, t0 )
U (t, t0 ),
i U (t, t0 ) = H(t) (8.47)
t
U (t0 , t0 ) = 1.
162
8.
(8.47)
t t s1
U (t, t0 ) = 1 i

dsH(s)ds + (i)2
ds1 1 )H(s
ds2 H(s 2) + . . .
t0 t0 t0

t s1 sn1
= 1 + (i)n ds1 ds2 . . . 1 )H(s
dsn H(s 2 ) . . . H(s
n ). (8.48)
n=1 t0 t0 t0
U (t, t0 ) t n-
(8.48) (n 1)- iH(t),
. (8.47).
i t dsH(s)

U (t, t0 ) T e t0 , T
, . (8.48), -
( me-ordered) .
8.4.2
H =H 0 + V , H
0

eiH0 t V . eiHt ,

O(t) = eiH0 t eiHt ,

iHt iHt
= eiH0 t V eiHt = eiH0 t V eiH0 t eiHt = V (t)O

i Ot = eiH0 t H 0e + eiH0 t He t , (8.49)
t
iH 0t
V (t) = eiH0 t H 0e .
(8.47), V (t)

. O(t)
t
= T ei
O(t) 0 dsV (s)
. (8.50)
V ,
(8.48) . (8.50). V V ,
<< 1. 2 . (8.48),
t s
2 t
Ot 1 i
dsV (s)
ds ds V (s)V (s ). (8.51)
0 2 0 0
t .
. (8.51) , O
i
t e , A . -
A
, O

A
At = A1 + 2 A2 + . . . , (8.52)

eiA
,
( )
2 1
t = 1 + iA1 + iA2 A 2
O (8.53)
2 1
163
. ,
. (8.53) (8.51) .
t
A1 =
dsV (s) (8.54)
( t t
0
t s )
1

A2 = ds ds V (s)V (s )
ds
ds V (s)V (s )
2i 0 0 0 0
t
1 t
= ds ds V (s)V (s ). (8.55)
2i 0 s
t . (8.50)
2 , O
[ t t ]
1 t
Ot = exp i

dsV (s) + ds
V (s)V (s ) (8.56)
0 2 0 s
V .
8.4.3
-
.
a a
t =
H + f (t) a ,
a + f (t) (8.57)
a
:
(t) = U (t)
a aU (t), (8.58)
U (t) 8.48.
. (8.12)
ia(t)
a(t) + f (t)1
= (8.59)
. (8.59) -
aeit -. ,
a (t) = b(t)eit , . (8.59)

b(t) = ieit f (t)1, (8.60)
b(t) = K(t)1,
t
K(t) := i dseis f (s). (8.61)
0
U (t)
aU (t) = eit [
a + K(t)1]. (8.62)
. (8.62) |z
U (t)
aU (t)|z = eit [z + K(t)]|z, (8.63)
164
8.
a U (t)|z = eit [z + K(t)]U (t)|z. U (t)|z a

it it
e (z + K(t)), |e (z + K(t)). -

U (t)|z = |eit (z + K(t)), (8.64)
U (t) -
( 6.2.iv).
8.4.4
.

t = (1 +
H + + gf (t)
3 ) + gf (t) , (8.65)
2
> 0 g . (8.65) , -
, (|0) (|1)
() -
f (t).
(8.65) H 0 + V , H 0
V -
.
( )
0 = 1 0
H (1 +
3 ) =
2 0 0
( )
0 f (t)
V = gf (t) + + gf (t) = g , (8.66)
f (t) 0
U (t) (8.65).
= eiH 0 t U (t) t
O(t)

i O(t) = V (t)O(t),
(8.67)
t
( )
0 f (t)eit
V (t) = eiH0 t V eiH0 t = g[f (t)eit
+ + f (t)eit

] = g it , (8.68)
f (t)e 0
eiH0 t = eit

eiH0 t
. (5.15).
(8.67) f (t), -
. (Random Wave Approxima on,
RWA)
. f (t) = cos(
t),
| | << . (8.68)
( i(+ )t i(
)t
)
g 0 e + e
V (t) = . (8.69)
2 ei(+)t + ei()t 0
165
. ,
, | | << , -
+ |
|.
.
1
.
ei(+)t . (8.69)
, . ,
( i( )t
)
g 0 e
= eiH1 t V1 eiH1 t ,

V (t) (8.70)
2 ei()t 0
1 = 1
H 3
g
V1 = 1 . (8.71)
2 2
=
.
. (8.67), O 1 (t) = eiH 1 t O(t),
. (8.70) -

i O 1 (t) = H2 O1 (t), (8.72)
t
H 2 = H 1 + V1 . . (8.72) O 1 (t) = eiH 2 t , .
(8.25)
1 (t) = cos(R t)1 + i sin(R t) (g
O 1 +
3 ), (8.73)
2R

1 2
R = + g2, (8.74)
2
(Rabi) .
U (t) = eiH0 t eiH1 t eiH2 t

[ ]
ei(+/2)t cos(R t) + i 2R sin(R t) i 2gR ei(+/2)t sin(R t)
U (t) = [ ] (8.75)
.
i 2gR eit/2 sin(R t) eit/2 cos(R t) i 2R sin(R t)
t = 0, |0,
|1 t
g2
p(1, t) = |1|U (t)|0|2 = sin2 (R t). (8.76)
42R
Rabi ,
R -
. ,
-
. , g
. -
,
(), g
, .
166
8.
1. H = 3 , > 0,
0 (t = 0). t A = 1 ,
; 0 .
2. C 3 . -
|1, |2, |3, E1 = 0, E2 = , E3 = 3,
> 0. (t = 0)
2 1
0 = |+ + | + | |, (8.77)
3 3

| = 12 (|1 2|2+|3). t
A = k|+ a+ | k| a |, k > 0. ,
;
3. m , H = p2 .
2m
()
[ ]
2 1/4 x2
0 (x) = (2 ) exp 2 + ipx ,
4
> 0 p . t (x) t.
() t.
x(t). t << 1/(m 2 )
t ;
4.
x
.
t , Ht.
5. , -
E = v|p|, v .
6. . (8.31)
m
[ ]
m im ( 2 2
)
Gt (x, x ) = exp (x + x ) cos(t) 2xx
2i sin(t) 2 sin(t)
7. m V (x), -
[a,b], . 8.3.4.
() . (8.43) -
[a, b] = pm0 [p 0 + (b a)].
() E < V0 ,
, . (6.62),
2m
= .
p0 2mV0 p20
,
. -
[112]. , [113, 114].
167
. ,
, . Zeh, Time in Quantum Theory, Compendium

of Quantum Physics [115], Zeh [116] -
J. C. Muga [117].
Isham [118].
-, . Busch
[117].
168
9
...
.
.
. ,
.

.
. .
. [120]
. -
, .
, -
. ,

. .
9.1

. ,

. -

( ) -
( ).
.
.
-
p(x). ,
F G. C
F , (F (x) = ) D
G (G(x) = ).
169
. ,
F

Prob() = p(x)dx = dxC (x)p(x) (9.1)
C
.
G,
Prob(, )
C D ,

Prob(, ) = dxp(x) = dxC D (x) = dxD (x) [C (x)p(x)] . (9.2)
C D
Prob(|) -

Prob(, ) C (x)p(x)
Prob(|) = = dxD (x) . (9.3)
Prob() Prob()
Prob(|)

C (x)p(x)/Prob().
, -
.
.
p(x),
F ,
C (x)p(x)
.
Prob()
9.2
9.2.1
, -
. 5.7.

A = n an Pn B = m bm Q m , an bm Pn Q
m
.
|. .
5. |,
A an

Pn |
|; an = . (9.4)
|Pn |
170
9.
Pn = |nn|, -
|n,
n|
| |, an = |n. (9.5)
|n||
bm an

|Pn Q
m Pn |
Prob(bm |an ) = ; an |Q
m |; an = . (9.6)

|Pn |
an
bm
Prob(an , bm ) = Prob(bm |an ) Prob(an ) = |Pn Q

m Pn |. (9.7)
-
:
Prob(an , bm ) = Prob(bm , an )
[Pn , Q
m ] = 0 n m, [A,
B]
= 0.
(9.2), -
.
.
9.2.2
5 -

.
|i , = i wi |i i |,
5 |i . .
5. ,
A an

Pn Pn
(an ) = .
T r(Pn )
Prob(an |bm ) bm -
an
m Pn Pn )
T r(Q
Prob(bm |an ) = , (9.8)
Pn )
T r(
171
. ,
Prob(an , bm )
m Pn Pn ) = T r(Pn Q
Prob(an , bm ) = T r(Q m Pn ) (9.9)
(9.9) .
H Ut = eiHt

.
t1 t2
m Ut2 t1 Pn Ut1 Ut Pn Ut t )
Prob(an , t1 ; bm , t2 ) = T r(Q (9.10)
1 2 1
9.2.3
-

. -
.
.
N
p(x). -
N Prob() Prob(), -

C (x)p(x)
p (x) = . (9.11)
Prob()
( N )
(9.11) Prob(),

p (x) = Prob()p (x) = C (x)p(x) = 1 p(x) = p(x). (9.12)

,
.
,
. an -
N Prob(an ) ,
Prob(an ),
Pn Pn
(an ) = . (9.13)
Prob(an )

= Prob(an )
(an ) = Pn Pn , (9.14)
n n
.
,
.
. -
.
172
9.
. :
,
.
, -
; .

: = U U
U , . (9.14).
9.2.4 :
,
A = =
1 B 3 . .

(6.13), P Q A B
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
P+ = P = Q+ = Q = (9.15)
2 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 1
| = |1.
, (9.9),
+ P+ |1 = 1 Prob(a = 1, b = 1) = 1|P+ Q
Prob(a = 1, b = 1) = 1|P+ Q P+ |1 = 1
4 4
1 P |1 = 1
Prob(a = 1, b = 1) = 1|P Q
+ P |1 = Prob(a = 1, b = 1) = 1|P Q
4 4
-
. B A
Prob(b = 1, a = 1) = 1|Q + |1 = 1 Prob(b = 1, a = 1) = 1|Q

+ P+ Q + |1 = 1
+ P Q
2 2
Prob(b = 1, a = 1) = 1|Q |1 = 0 Prob(b = 1, a = 1) = 1|Q
P+ Q |1 = 0.
P Q
Prob2 (b = 1) +1
.
1 1 1
Prob2 (b = 1) = Prob(a = 1, b = 1) + Prob(a = 1, b = 1) = + = . (9.16)
4 4 2
, b = +1
1|Q
+ |1 = 1. ,
.
9.3
9.3.1
-
, .
;
173
. ,
9.1: ,
, . -
. r0 z0
.
. 2.3, ,

, .
,
.

-
( ),
. , -
.
-
,
. ,
[121],
, - .
, 1980,
.
9.3.2

, . , -
-
. (W. Paul),
-
. 9.1
. ( , . 9.1).
9.1.
9.1. U
V (t) = V0 cos(t). ,
174
9.
[U + V0 cos(t)](r2 2z 2 + z02 )
= , (9.17)
r02 + 2z02
r0 z0 9.1.
m -
r = e.
m
(9.17)
d2 x
+ [a1 2b1 cos(2 )]x = 0, (9.18)
d 2
d2 y
+ [a1 2b1 cos(2 )]y = 0, (9.19)
d 2
d2 z
+ [a2 2b2 cos(2 )]z = 0 (9.20)
d 2
= 12 t
8eU 4eV0
a1 = a2 = b1 = b2 = . (9.21)
2 (r02 + 2z02 ) 2 (r02 + 2z02 )
, . -
x, y , z -
, .
.
u +[a2b cos(2 )]u = 0, -
(Ma hieu).
|a| < |b| << 1. , u( ) = f ( ) + v( ),
f -
, v(t)
.
2
f ( ) ddf2 2b cos(2 )v = 0 ,
f = 21 bv cos(2 ). f u = f + v,

[ ]
d2 v ab
+ a cos(2 ) + b2
cos 2
(2 ) v = 0, (9.22)
d 2 2
v( ) .
[a ab 2 2
2 cos(2 ) + b cos (2 )] cos(2 ).

d2 v b2
2
+ (a + )v = 0, (9.23)
d 2
( ) a + b2 /2 > 0. .
(9.21) x y ( a1 > 0),
z
eV0
> 1. (9.24)
U 2 (r02 + 2z02 )
(9.24), .
-
. . 9.2.
,
175
. ,
9.2: .
9.3:
|1 |2.
|1. |1

. .
.
-
|1 |2, 9.3. -

|1 |2 .
|2 |0 -
|1 |0. |2
( ).
, = E2 E0
= E1 E2 .
|1 |0. -
|1 |2, . |2
.
|2 |0, .
,
|1 |2 |2 |0, .
176
9.
9.4: 8.5. -
|1 ,
|1 |2. -
. Ba+
493nm 650nm.
9.4.
|1 |2 |2
. ,

.
. -
, -
[122, 123] . 9.5. ,

( )
.
-
,
.
, , -
. -

, -
-
[124].
-
. .
, -
. -

.
9.3.3
-
, -
177
. ,
. -
( ) . . (9.10)
,
.
-
,
,
, -
. , -
, -
.
-
.
.
, -
.
-
. .
.
-
. -

.
;
. -
, .
-
.
,

.

[125]. ,
, .
, -
.
-
. -
, , -
.
, .
,
, .
,
.
.
178
9.

. [91]
U R.

. -
, .
,
U R.
,
21 .
, -
,
. -
[126, 127].
,

.

.
, -
[128, 129].

, -
[130]. ,
,
.
.
9.4
9.4.1
-
, -
.

, A = n an Pn
B = bm Q m , an bm -
m
Pn Q
m .
-
, b1 . , -
Prob(an |b1 )
b1 . (9.8), -
b1 .
179
. ,
Prob(an , b1 ) T r(Pn Q
1 Pn )
Prob(an |b1 ) = = . (9.25)
n Prob(an , b1 ) Pn Q
n T r(
1 Pn )
. (9.25) b1 -
.
Q 1 = ||
1 Q
, = ||, (9.25)
||Pn ||2
Prob(an |b1 ) = . (9.26)
n ||Pn ||2
. -
| .

, | ( -
) | .
9.4.2

-
. , -
,
,
.
[131].
-
.
|a C 3 .
Pc = |cc| 1 Pc , |c
C 3 . , 1 Pc
.

Pc .
. ,
. -
, .
Pb = |bb| 1 Pb Pb . -
|b Pb Pc
. a|Pb Pc Pb |a = a|Pc |a,
|a|bb|c| = |a|c|. (9.27)
. (9.27), Pc ,
Pb .
180
9.
. (9.27) |b -
. , . (9.27) , |b1 |b2 ,
b1 |b2 = 0.

1 cos
|a = 0 , |c = sin , (9.28)
0 0
[0, /2].
|y, . (9.27) -
y [0, 1].

cos
1 .
|y, = y sin
(9.29)
cos2 + y sin2 sin y y 2
y, |y, + |y,
, .
y, +|y, = 0
2 sin2 y 2 sin2 y + cos2 = 0, (9.30)
tan 21 2 . b1 = |y, + b2 = |y,

y . (9.30), .
(9.27) .
Pb1
Pb2 . Pb1 Pb2
Pb1 Pb2 = 0. .
, ,
[132]

( ) ,
.
, -
, . -
,
Pc , -
Pb+ Pb .

,
.
, .
1.
.
181
. ,
2.
U =
U
Pn .
n Pn
3. .
4. |E H -
E. t . ()
;
1. 12 (|0 + i|1)

1
2 . . -
.
2. |0 1 ,
2

3 . +1 ;
3. H = 1 . t = 0
| H -

A = 3 . A
t.
() .
()
A +1.
.
4. 1, C 3 .
J1
J3 ,

0 1 0 1 0 0
1
J1 = 1 0 1 J3 = 0 0 0 . (9.31)
2 0 1 0 0 0 1
J3 +1.
()
( ).
() .
()
0 J3 .
-
Wheeler Zurek [39]. . -
. 8 Isham [10] . 14 d Espagnat [133].
. March [134]. -
. Carmichael, Quantum Jump Experiments Compendium
of Quantum Physics [115] Bla Zoller [135]. -
(H. Dehmelt) [136] (W. Paul) [137].
182
10
, ...
()
().
( ,
, ),
.
. [138]
.
.
. -
. , -
:
-, - .
10.1
10.1.1
-
.
.

1 1
2 2
=
... C
n
=
... C
m
(10.1)
n m
n m , -
, ( )ij = i j , i = 1, 2, . . . , n j = 1, 2, . . . , m.
183
. ,

1 1 2 1 . . . n 1
1 2 2 2 . . . n 2
= ...
(10.2)
... ... ...
1 m 2 m . . . n m
C n C
C m

r
(k) (k) ,
k=1
r- (k) C n (k) C m , k = 1, 2, . . . , r r
. , k r -
, ,
. (10.1). C n C m

( , )C n CC m = (, )C n (, )C n (10.3)
(10.3)
. ,
((1) (1) + (2) (2) , ) = ((1) , )( (1) , )
+ ((2) , )( (2) , ). (10.4)
(10.3) nm,
C n C m C nm n m ,
C n C m = C nm . (10.5)
H1 H2 ,
H1 H2 .
,
10.1.
10.1.
F (S) S. F (S) -
, |s
1 1 s S.
Dirac ,
S .
, S n , F (S) = C n .
H1 H2 |1 |2 .
H1 H2 (|, |). F (H1 H2 )

r
= ci (|i , |i ) = c1 (|1 , |1 ) + c2 (|2 , |2 ) + . . . + (|r , |r ) (10.6)
i=1
ci C .
184
10.
F (H1 H2 )

r
r
r
ci (|i , |i )2 = ci cj j |i j |i . (10.7)
i=1 i=1 j=1
(10.7) ,
F (H1 H2 ), = 0.
F (H1 H2 ) = 0. , -
[] F (V1 V2 ) = 0.

| | + , (10.8)
= , [] .
[] [],
[], F (H1 H2 ),
H1 H2 [] .
[(|, |)] | | H1 H2 .
10.1.2
r -
. H1 H2 k=1 |k |k ,
|k H1 |k H2 ,
( r )( r ) r
r
l | l | |k |k = l |k l |k . (10.9)
l=1 k=1 k=1 l=1
| | H1 H2 .
| | |, -
.
|n H1 |i
H2 , |n, i =|n |i
H1 H2 . | H1 H2 | = n,i an,i |n, i,
an,i = n, i| (10.10)
H1 H2

1 = |n, in, i|. (10.11)
n,i
10.1.3
A H1 B H2 .
H1 H2 |i |i
A B i

(A B)
|i |i = i B|
A| i . (10.12)
i i
185
. ,

(A B)(
C D)
= AC B
D.
(10.13)
: , -
.
.
H1 H2 A B -
. X
H1 H2 -
X = i Ai B
i , Ai H1 B
i
H2 .
|n |i H1 H2
|n, i = |n |i H1 H2 . ,

T r(A B)
= n, i|A B|n,
i
n,i

= n|A|n
i|B|i
= T r(A)T
r(B)
(10.14)
n i
10.2
10.2.1

, . -
1 2 . ,
1 (q1 , p1 ) . -
2 .
(q1 , p1 )
(q2 , p2 ) . o
(q1 , q2 , p1 , p2 ), 1 2 .
-
1 2 . . . n
i .
,
H1 H2
H 1 H 2 . E 1 |n1 H 1 E 2 |n2 -
n n
H 2 . ,
H
H, E 1 + E 2
n n

n n .
.

H = H1 H2 H =H 1 1 + 1 H 2 , |n, n = |n |n ,
n = H
H|n, 1 1|n, n + 1 H 2 |n, n = H
1 |n 1|n + 1|n H
2 |n
= En1 |n, n + En2 |n, n = (En1 + En2 )|n, n . (10.15)
186
10.
-
|n, n , H1 H2 .
.
6. H1
H2 . . . Hn Hi .
10.2.2
1.
.
C n .
() 2(n 1). , -
4(n 1).
2
C n C n = C n -
2n2 2, 2n2 2 4(n 1) = 2(n 1)2
.
2. 1 (x), (x R )
2 (y) (y
R ), -
(x, y), (x, y) R 2 .
R , dx) L2 (R
L2 (R R 2 , dxdy).
R , dy) = L2 (R
,
L2 (R
R n , dn x) L2 (R
R m , dm y) = L2 (R
R n+m , dn xdn y). (10.16)
3. -
. H1 -
H 1 H2 H
2 .
H1 H2 .
, ,
Ut = eitH1 eitH2 A.

1 eitH 1 eitH 2 + eitH 1 H

2 eitH 2
i Ut = H
t
= (H 1 1 + 1 H 2 )Ut . (10.17)
Ut i t
Ut ,
Ut = H

H 1 1 + 1 H
=H 2. (10.18)
4. ,
A1 = A 1 A2 = 1 A.
,
L (R 2
R ) L2 (R
3
R 3 ),
x 1 = x 1 x 2 = 1 x .
187
. ,
10.2.3
H = H1 H2 .
H | |, | H1 | H2 .
(entangled). -
,
.
H1 H2 .
|i H1 |n H2 . -
|i, n = |i|n H1 H2 .
1 H1 -
2 H2 ,

i1 |
1 |i2 = i1 , n|
|i2 , n
n

n1 |
2 |n2 = i, n1 |
|i, n2 . (10.19)
i
1 = T rH2 2 = T rH1 . 1 2 -
.
.
= || H . |
( | |) . : 1 = ||
2 = ||. | , -
.
, .
10.2.
10.1. (Schmidt). | H1 H2

N
| = ci |i |i , (10.20)
i=1
ci > 0 , |i , i = 1, 2, . . . , N
H1 |i , i = 1, 2, . . . , N
H2 . N
H1 H2 |.
N = 1, | N > 1,
| .
.
, 1
2 |.

N
N
1 = |ci | |i i |
2
2 = |ci |2 |i i |. (10.21)
i=1 i=1
(. 7.3) 1 -
|.
188
10.
N = dim H1 = dim H2 c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = N1 ,
H1 H2 ,
. |
.
10.2.
,
.
10.2. ( .) n m A A = U V ,

(i) U n n ,
(ii) nm , ,

(iii) V m m .
A.
,
| C n C m
n m
n n
|i |k C C . | , = i=1 k=1 Cik |i |k,
n m Cik . C,

n
m
Cik = Uij jl Vkl . (10.22)
j=1 l=1
n m,

c1 0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0
0 c2 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0
= ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ,
(10.23)
0 0 0 . . . cn 0 0 ... 0
c1 , c2 , . . . , cn A. ci -
. - ci N ,
. (10.22) 1 N ,

N

Cik = cj Uij Vkj .
j=1

N
n
m
N

| = cj Uij Vkj |i |k = | = ci |i |i , (10.24)
j=1 i=1 k=1 i=1
n m
|j = i=1 Uij |i |j = k=1 Vkj |k C n
m
C , U V .
10.3.
, -
. 1 2
. ,
189
. ,
,
.
rho
H1 H2 ,

r
(k) (k)
= k 1 2 , (10.25)
k=1
r
k 0 k=1 k = 1. -
.

. -
,
.
[139].
, -
PPT (Posi ve Par al Transpose, ),
- [140, 141].
|m H1 |n H2 . -
T2 ,
|n H2
]|m , n = m, n |
m, n|T2 [ |m , n. (10.26)
(10.25)

r
(k) (k)
T2 [
] = k 1 [
2 ]T , (10.27)
k=1
T . -
, T2 [ ] -
( ) .
, , .
= ||. |
2, | = cos |1|a+sin |2|b, |1, |2
H1 |a, |b H2 .
= cos2 |11| |aa| + sin2 |22| |bb|

+ sin cos (|12| |ab| + |21| |ba|) , (10.28)
] = cos2 |11| |aa| + sin2 |22| |bb|

T2 [
+ sin cos (|12| |ba| + |21| |ab|) . (10.29)
| = 1
2
(|1 |b |2 |a) T2 [
] -
,
]| = sin cos |.
T2 [ (10.30)
T2 [
] .
PPT. H1 H2 ,
T2 [
] ( ),
.
190
10.
PPT , .
, .
, C 2 C 2 C 2 C 3 PPT
.
10.3
H = C 2 C 2 .
10.3.1
H.
1
| = (|1, 0 |0, 1) (10.31)
2
1
| = (|1, 1 |0, 0) . (10.32)
2
.
(10.19)
1|
1 |1 = 1 0|
1 |0 = 1, 1||1, 1 + 1, 0||1, 0
1|
1 |0 = 1, 1||0, 1 + 1, 0||0, 0, (10.33)
2 .
(10.33) | |

1
1|
1 |1 = 0|
1 |0 = +|
1 | = 0. (10.34)
2
1
1|
2 |1 = 0|
2 |0 = +|
2 | = 0. (10.35)
2
1 = 2 = 21 1.
4 | | .
| | .
10.3.2
A =
m B = n , m n
.
A B.

A P = 12 (1 m )
B = 1 (1 n ). A B
Q Pa Q
b ,
2
a = 1 b = 1.
, Prob(a, b)
a b
Pa Q
Prob(a, b) = T r( b ). (10.36)
191
. ,
, Pa 1 1 Q b ,
.
Prob(a, b) = | | . (10.31).
(
Prob(a, b) = |Pa Q b | = 1 1|Pa |10|Q b |0 + 0|Pa |01|Q b |1
2 )
1|Pa |00|Q b |1 0|Pa |11|Q
b |0 . (10.37)
1 1 1
0|P |0 = (1 m3 ) 1|P |1 = (1 m3 ) 0|P |1 = (m1 + im2 )
2 2 2
1 1 |1 = 1 (n1 + in2 ),
0|Q |0 = (1 n3 ) 1|Q
|1 = (1 n3 ) 0|Q
2 2 2
. (10.37)
1
Prob(+, +) = Prob(, ) = (1 m n) (10.38)
4
1
Prob(+, ) = Prob(, +) = (1 + m n) (10.39)
4
10.3.3
Cor(mm, n)
A = m

B = n
m, n ) = Cor(A 1, 1B)
Cor(m A B).
= T r( (10.40)
= | |.
1(
Cor(m
m, n) = 1|A|10|B|0
+ 0|A|01|

B|1
2 )
1|A|00|
0|A|11|
B|1
B|0 (10.41)
m, n ) = m
Cor(m m n. (10.42)
. (10.42) . A B

A B
= P+ Q
+ + P Q
P+ Q
P Q
+, (10.43)
m, n ) = Prob(+, +) + Prob(, ) Prob(+, ) Prob(, +),

Cor(m (10.44)
(10.39) (10.42)
192
10.
10.4
10.4.1
(J. Bell) [143] -
. ,
. -

, -
.

m , m
.
-
. -
,
. . -
A = m f [m m](), ,
m ( ) +1 1, A
.
, -
1 2 ,
f1,2 [m m] : 1,2 {+1, 1},
.
-
. 1
m 1 2 m 2 . -
N , k-
ak {1, 1} bk {1, 1} .

1
N
Cor(m
m1 , m 2 ) = ak bk (10.45)
N k=1
Cor(mm1 , m 2 ) ,
m 1 m 2 . (10.45)
N , -
. -
1 2 ,
(1 , 2 ) (1 , 2 ) 1 2 .
N , (10.45)

Cor(mm1 , m 2 ) = d1 d2 (1 , 2 )f1 [m
m1 ](1 )f2 [m
m2 ](2 ). (10.46)

,
:
193
. ,
. -
. ,
,
.
4 .
1. m 1 m 2 -
Cor(m
m1 , m 2 ).
2. m 1 n 2 -
Cor(m
m1 , n 2 ).
3. n 1 m 2 -
Cor(n
n1 , m 2 ).
4. n 1 n 2 -
Cor(n
n1 , n 2 ).
= Cor(m
m1 , m 2 ) + Cor(m n1 , m 2 ) Cor(n
m1 , n 2 ) + Cor(n n1 , n 2 ). (10.47)
4
( (1 , 2 )),

= d1 d2 (1 , 2 )(1 , 2 ), (10.48)
m1 ]f2 [m
= f1 [m m2 ] + f1 [m
m1 ]f2 [n
n2 ] + f1 [n m2 ] f1 [n
n1 ]f2 [m n1 ]f2 [n
n2 ]. (10.49)
m1 ](f2 [m
= f1 [m m2 ] + f2 [n
n2 ]) + f1 [n m2 ] f2 [n
n1 ](f2 [m n2 ]). (10.50)
m2 ] f2 [n
f2 [m n2 ] 2, 0 +2. ,
f2 [m n2 ] = 2, f2 [m
m2 ] + f2 [n m2 ] f2 [n
n2 ] = 0,
f2 [m m2 ] f2 [n
n2 ] = 0, f2 [m
m2 ] + f2 [n n2 ] = 2.
, |f2 [m
m2 ] f2 [n
n2 ]| = 2, |f2 [m
m2 ] f2 [n
n2 ]| = 0.

|| |f1 [m
m1 ]||f2 [m n2 ]| + |f1 [m
m2 ] + f2 [n m2 ] f2 [n
m1 ]||f2 [m n2 ]|
= |f2 [m
m2 ] + f2 [n n2 ]| + |f2 [m
m2 ] f2 [n
n2 ]| = 2. (10.51)
, . (10.47),
,
|| 2, (10.52)
194
10.

. .
|
H, = |D|,

= m1 m2 + m1 n2 + n1 m2 n2 n2 .
D (10.53)
| , E. (10.31), , . (10.42),
= m
m1 m 2 m 1 n 2 n 1 m 2 + n 1 n 2 . (10.54)
m1 = (1, 0, 0) m2 = (cos , 0, sin )

n 1 = (0, 0, 1) n 2 = (cos , 0, sin ),
.
, . (10.54) || = 2| sin + cos |.

||max = 2 2 > 2, (10.55)
= /4.
.
, -
. ,
1. . -
.
,
. -
.
2. . -
,
. (10.46).

,
. .
3.
.
.

, , , -
.

.
195
. ,
10.1: Bell -
. : . m , n : ,
. A :
. E: , .
10.4.2
Bell
(A. Aspect) 1980 [144, 145]. -
.
. 9.1.
. m
n
1. N++ , A+ m A+ n .
2. N+ , A+ m A n.
3. N+ , A m A+ n .
4. N , A m A n .

N++ + N N+ N+
Cor(m
m, n ) = . (10.56)
N++ + N + N+ + N+
, .
. 9.2.
10.4.
-
, .
,
. ,
. ,
, , -
,
. (loopholes)
196
10.
.
.
1. .
. ,
m n , ,

.
2. .
. ,
Cor(m m, n ). -

.
-
. , ,

, ,
,
.
1980,
2015
. , , ,
.
.
1.
[144, 145] 1980,
. [145], m -

.
2. 1998, (N. Gisin) [146, 147] -
10km.
3. 1998, (A. Zeilinger) [148] -
,
. ,

.
4. 2001, [149]
Be+ .
.
5. 2006, [150]
,
-, .
6. 2010, (J. M. Mar nis) [151]
, -
. ,
.
7. 2013, [152]
( ).
8. 2015, (R. Hanson) [153] -
,
1, 3km.
197
. ,
10.4.3
-
. , ,
. ,
.
-
. ,
,
.
. ,
- , ,
.
, -
. ,
,
. [154],
-
. -

.
- ,
,

. -
.
[155, 156], -
. -

,
. -
,
.
.
; ;
. ,

.
. ,
( -
),
,
.
,
.
,
,
198
10.
[150]. -
-
(D. Bohm) [157], -
- . ,
, .
,
.

, .
,
,
.
, , -
, ( ),

. -

. , -
,
. ,
,
.
10.4.4
||, . 10.47),
. ,
|| 4.
|| 2. (B. S. Cirelson)
|| 2 2 [158].
,
.

10.3. ( ) || 2 2.
. (10.53)
. D
m1 , n 2 ] [m
2 = 41 + [m
D m2 , n 1 ]
A B ||[A,
B]|leq||
AB||+||
B 2||A||||
A|| B||,
- .
||[m
m , n ]|| ||[m
m || ||[n
n || = 2.

||D
2 || 4 + ||[m
m1 , n 2 ]|| ||[m
m2 , n 1 ]|| 2 + 2 2 = 8.

|, ||2 = |D|
|D 2 | ||D|| 2 = 8, || 2 2.
10.4.5
-
.
199
. ,
, -
. (Greenberger),
(Horne) [159] GHZ.
(D. Mermin) [160].
, H = C 2
C 2 C 2 .
1
A = 2 2
=
2 , B 1 2
2 , C = 2 1
=
1 , D 1
1 . (10.57)
. ,
AB
= 2
1 1
2 3
22 = 3 1, A =
B 1
2 2
1 3
22 = 3 1,
B]
[A, = 0. [A,
C]
= [B,
C]
= 0. ,
AD 12
= 1
2 1 = 1
2 3
3 , 12
A =
D 2
1 2 = 1
1 3
3 ,
D]
[A, = 0. [B,
D]
= [C,
D]
= 0.

AB
C D
= 1
22
1 2
1 1
2 12 = 1 1 1
22 (10.58)
(i) (i)
GHZ (10.58). f1 f2
1
2 i (i = 1, 2, 3),
, 1. AB C D

( )2
(1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3)
[f1 f2 f2 ][f2 f1 f2 ][f2 f2 f1 ][f1 f1 f1 ] = f1 f1 f1 f2 f2 f2 = 1,
.(10.58).
B,
A, C D
-
( 1)
( +1).
A, B, a = 1
C D.
b = 1 B
A, c = 1 C.
|a, b, c
A, B,
C D.
2 -
3
H = C 8 . GHZ
1 1
|, , = (|1, 1, 1 + |0, 0, 0) |+, +, + = (|1, 1, 1 |0, 0, 0)
2 2
1 1
|+, +, = (|1, 1, 0 + |0, 0, 1) |, , + = (|1, 1, 0 |0, 0, 1)
2 2
1 1
|+, , + = (|1, 0, 1 + |0, 1, 0) |, , + = (|1, 0, 1 |0, 1, 0)
2 2
1 1
|, +, + = (|0, 1, 1 + |1, 0, 0) |, , + = (|0, 1, 1 |1, 0, 0) . (10.59)
2 2
A, B
C -
a, b c , D
200
10.
1/(abc). 1/(abc).
-
, .
[161], -
,
, A,

B, C D. ,
. -
.
10.5
,
.
10.5.1 -
- -
,
.
,
.
, () B().
HA
H.
,
.
H HB .

= Si Ti , (10.60)
i
Si Ti HA HB .
.
H

Ca C , (10.61)
a

Ca H a Ca Ca = 1 -
. ,
.
Ca
HA . -
HA HB ,
201
. ,
Ca 1. ,

= (Ca 1) =
(Ca 1) (Ca 1)(Si T) (Ca 1)
a a i

= Ca Si Ca Ti . (10.62)
a i
, .
Y = un Pn HB . -

HA HB , B
1 Y = n yn (1 Pn ).
( )

Prob(n) = T r[ (1 Pn )] = T r[Ca Si Ca ] T r(Ti Pn )
[ ( ) i
]a
[ ]
= T r Si Ca Ca T r(Ti Pn ) = T r(Si ) T r(Ti Pn ) , (10.63)
i a i
B Ca ,
.
,
, -
.
10.5.2 -
.

.
,
.

.
[162, 163]. -
| H.
|e ( -
.)
U H H,
U (| |e) = | |. (10.64)
| .
|1 |2 , (10.64), U (|1, 2 |e) =
|1,2 |1,2 . ,
1 |2 = (1 |2 )2 , (10.65)
1 |2 = 0 1 |2 = 1. -
, .
202
10.
( U )
.
, -

.
10.5.3

.
, () (),
|+ , . (10.32). A
HA
H |+ AB .
, C,
HC , |C = |0C + |1C ,
. |+ AB |C ,

1
|+ AB |C = [|+ AC (|0B + |1B ) + | AC (|0B |1B )
2
+ |+ AC (|0B + |1B ) + | AC (|0B |1B )] . (10.66)
( C)
| AC , | AC . (10.66)
,
14 . ,

|+ AC (|0B + |1B ), | AC (|0B |1B ),
|+ AC (|0B + |1B ), | AC (|0B |1B ). (10.67)
.

1. |+ AC , .
2. | AC ,
U =
3 .
3. |+ AC ,
U =
1 .
4. |+ AC ,
U =
2 .
, ,
A
B. B C
. () C
. .

203
. ,
1. |C ,
.
2. .
.

.
3. C B,
. - .
4. -
.
.
1993
[164], 1997 -
[165]. 2004 -
[166, 167]. ,
143 km 2012 [168].
1. H1 H2 H1 H2 ;
2. ,
- ;
3. ;
4. -
, .
.
5. -
, .
6. = 3.1 0.1;
7. -
;
1. . ,
1
| = (|1, 0 + ei |0, 1
2

|p = p|1, 1 + 1 p|0, 0.
,
1
A = 2i ( 2
2
1 ).
2. Cor(m
m, n ) (10.31,10.32).
204
10.

3. |p = p|1, 1 + 1 p|0, 0
.
4.
1
K = 2
2
1 ,
L 1
= 2
1 + 3
2 + 3
.
5.
1
| = (|1, 0 + ei |0, 1).
2
H 2 3 1 + 12 2 1
= 1 1 3 . t1

1 t2 1 .
.
6.
( )
=
H 3 1 + 1 1
3 + g 1
2
, -
eiHt .

7. ,
1
| = (|0, 0, 0 + |1, 1, 1)
2

1
2
3 .
, . . 8.4 9.3 -
Isham [10].
. 20 Ballen ne [169].
, . Horodecki
[139].
, ,
, Bells Theorem, Shimony [170]
Goldstein et al [171]. GHZ, . Greenberger, GHZ Theorem and GHZ
States, Compendium of Quantum Physics [115].
, . Mermin [172]
[138]. Lalo. [173]
-
Sudbury [174]. wikipedia
[175].
205
. ,
206
11
: .

... ...
, , ;
.
. [176]
. -
,
. -
.
11.1
11.1.1

, , -
.

, -
.
-
(3.6).
,
.

, .
.
,
.
.
207
. ,
. .
,

.
.

.
, .
: -
. -
,
.
, -
, -
.
.
,
. ,
( -
),
. , -

. .

, . -
, -
. , -
.
. -
,
-
. -
.
, .

.
11.1.2

. -
, -
.
, U -
| | = U |.
, . A
208
11. : .
| |,
| = |, (11.1)
U U = 1, U .
U = U U
A A U AU ,
A ) = T r(
T r( A ). (11.2)
-
(11.1) .
.
S |
H S|,

S(c| + |) = c S|

+ S|, (11.3)
c C |, | H. (
S(c| + |) = cS|

+ S|.) -
.
S S
|S|
= |S |, (11.4)
|, | H.
U U = 1. | = U | | = U |, | = |U | = |U | =
|U U | = | = (|) .
, .

| ,
|||2 .
1931 [177]
.
11.1. ( ) H
(, ). S : H H
|(S(), S())| = |(, )| (11.5)
, H. S S() = ei U , ei
U .

S ( ), -
.
11.1.3
1. . 5.4.1, V (a, b)

.
209
. ,
2. eiHt

.
R ), P
3. L2 (R
P (x) = (x). (11.6)
P . , P 2 (x) = P (x) = (x), -

P = 1, P
2 . P
(parity).
4. L2 (R R ), T , T
(x) =
(x). , T 2 = 1.
1 2
, (x, t) i t = 2m

x2
+
V (x), (x, t)
1 2
i = + V (x) , (11.7)
(t) 2m x2
t t.

dx (x)T (x) = dx (x) (x) = dx(T ) (x)(x),
. (11.4) T = T . T 2 = 1
T T = 1, T .
, -
.
-
, .
. -

, ,
, -
, .
11.2
11.2.1 .

( ) .
x1
r= [0, 2) 2 2,
x2
( )
cos sin
O() = , (11.8)
sin cos
r r O()r.
O(1 )O(2 ) = O(1 + 2 ) (11.9)
210
11. : .
O(0) = 1.
0, O() 1 + J,
( )
0 1
J= = i2 . (11.10)
1 0
eJ = ei2 = cos 1 + i2 sin = O().
J
O() . , J
O().
11.2.2

.
r R 3 rT r.
3 3, O
r r = Or, (11.11)
rT r = rOT Or = rT r, OT O = 1, O
.
OT O = 1, det O = 1. ,
det O = 1, det O = 1 .
-
3 . -
,

1 0 0 cos 0 sin
O1 () = 0 cos sin , O2 () = 0 1 0 ,
0 sin cos sin 0 cos

cos sin 0
O3 () = sin cos 0 , (11.12)
0 0 1
(11.8)
1, 2, 3 . -
O1 ()O2 ()O3 ()
, .
O1 , O2 , O3 ,

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
J1 = 0 0 1 , J2 = 0 0 0 , J3 = 1 0 0 . (11.13)
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
O1 () = eJ1 , O2 () = eJ2 O3 () = eJ3 .
. (11.13) [J1 , J2 ] = J3 , [J3 , J1 ] = J2 [J2 , J3 ] = J1 ,

[Ji , Jj ] = ijk Jk , (11.14)
k
ijk (6.4). (11.14)

.
211
. ,
11.2.3
OT O = 1 O
O . C 3 -
3 3 , . 3
, O 1 , 2 , 3 -
det(O 1), .
det O = 1 2 3 ,
1. 1.
2. 1 1.
3. 1 ei .
O = 1
= .
n O 1. -
O , n
(n1 , n2 , n3 ).
On = n, (11.15)
n . ei
On n.
n, O = 1 + Jn . (11.15)
Jn n = 0. (11.16)
, OT O = 1 1 + (Jn + JnT ) = 1, Jn = JnT , Jn

.
3 3
Jn = i ai Ji , Ji
. (11.13). . (11.16) a1 = n1 , a2 = n2 , a3 = n3 ,

0 n3 n2
Jn = n3 0 n1 . (11.17)
n2 n1 0
Jn
On n e .
0 1 0
. n = 12 (1, 0 1). . (11.17), Jn = 12 1 0 1 .
0 1 0
Jn
e , iJn -
C3 , .
(0, 1, 1) iJn

1 0 1 1 2i 1 1
2i 1

1 + (1) 1 2i 2 2i ,
iJn = (0) 0 0 0 + (1) 2i 2
2i
4 4
1 0 1 1 2i 1 1 2i 1
212
11. : .
eJn = ei(iJn )

1 0 1 1 2i 1 1
2i 1

1 + ei 1 2i 2 2i
eJn = 0 0 0 + ei 2i 2 2i
4 4
1 0 1 1 2i 1 1 2i 1
11.2.4
O det O =
1.

1 0 0
P = 0 1 0 , (11.18)
0 0 1
: Pr = r.
P det P = 1 P 2 = 1. .
det O = 1, O = PO = det O = 1.
P
.
, P Ji
PJi P = Ji , (11.19)
, .
11.3
11.3.1
-
. H.
H, -
.
. Ji 1i Ji Ji
H. ,

[Ji , Jj ] = i ijk Jk . (11.20)
k

Ji , eiJi ,
i.
H, Ji . (11.20),
. -
Ji ,
.
.
213
. ,

2
J = J12 + J22 + J32 , (11.21)
2
(J1 , J2 , J3 ). J

2
[J , Ji ] = 0, i = 1, 2, 3. (11.22)
2
J . J3
2
J , |, m,
2
J |, m = |, m (11.23)
J3 |, m = m|, m. (11.24)
Ji , -
|, m ( )
m. , -
. :
, |, m -
.
11.3.2
J+ J
J = J1 iJ2 . (11.25)
, J+ = J ,
[J+ , J3 ] = J+ (11.26)
[J , J3 ] = J (11.27)
2
[J , J ] = 0 (11.28)
J+ J = J12 + J22 i[J1 , J2 ], . (11.21)

2
J+ J = J J32 + J3 . (11.29)

2
J J+ = J J32 J3 . (11.30)
. (11.26) |, m.
J+ J3 |, m J3 J+ |, m = J+ |, m. . (11.24)
J3 J+ |, m = (m + 1)J+ |, m. (11.31)
214
11. : .
. (11.28)
2 2
J J+ |, m = J+J |j, m = J+ |, m. (11.32)
2
. (11.23, 11.24), J+ |, m J
J3 m + 1,
J+ |, m = cm |, m + 1, (11.33)
cm . |, m + 1
2
|cm |2 = , m|J J+ |, m = , m|J J32 J3 |, m = ( m2 m), (11.34)
. (11.30).

J+ |, m = m(m + 1)|, m + 1. (11.35)

J |, m = m(m 1)|, m 1. (11.36)
11.3.3
. (11.35) m , -
m, . (11.35)
. m j. m = j
J+ |, j = 0, J+
m.
= j(j + 1). (11.37)
, . (11.36) mmin
m, J |, mmin = 0. = mmin (mmin 1) .
(11.37) mmin = j. m j j.
J+ m,
N m = j m = j. j + N = j,
N
j=, (11.38)
2
j .
j 2j + 1 m: j, j + 1, . . . , j 1, j. -
, j , m j ,
m . j 2j + 1,
C 2j+1 .
, j
, |, m |j, m.
2
J |j, m = j(j + 1)|j, m, (11.39)
J3 |j, m = m|j, m, (11.40)

J+ |j, m = j(j + 1) m(m + 1)|j, m + 1, (11.41)

J |j, m = j(j + 1) m(m 1)|j, m 1 (11.42)
215
. ,
11.3.4
. (11.3911.42) -
. . j, -
|j, m C2j+1 ,

1 0 0
0 1 0

|j, j = . . . , |j, j 1 = . . . , . . . |j, j =

... (11.43)
0 0 0
0 0 1
. (11.40) J3 ,

j 0 ... 0
0 j 1 ... 0
J3 =
... ... ... ...
(11.44)
0 0 . . . j
. (11.41) J+ , -

,
cj,m = j(j + 1) m(m + 1). , . (11.42)
J , -
, cj,m = j(j + 1) m(m 1).
, j = 12 ,
( ) ( )
0 1 0 0
J+ = , J = . (11.45)
0 0 1 0
J1 = 12 (J+ + J ) J2 = 1
2i
(J+ J )
1
Ji = i , (11.46)
2

i .
j = 1,

0 2 0 0 0 0
J+ = 0 0 2 J = 2 0 0 , (11.47)
0 0 0 0 2 0

0 1 0 0 i 0 1 0 0
1 1
J1 = 1 0 1 J2 = i 0 i J3 = 0 0 0 (11.48)
2 0 1 0 2 0 i 0 0 0 1
11.3.5 2
J3 ( j)

eiJ3 3,
216
11. : .

eij 0 ... 0
0 ei(j1) ... 0
= .

eiJ3 ... (11.49)
... ... ...
0 0 . . . eij
= 2, .
1. j , (11.49) ei2k

k 1. e2iJ3 = 1 2
| .
2. j -, (11.49) eik

k 1. e2iJ3 = 1 2 -
| |. 2
|.

2
. , j -

.
11.3.6
. ,
-
O det O = 1. ,
P P . (11.18). P

P,
P 2 = 1, (11.50)
P JiP = Ji.

(11.51)
. (11.50) P 1, P : P =
P = P . . (11.51) . (11.19) [P , Ji] = 0.
1
|j, m P ,
P |j, m = aj,m|j, m, (11.52)
aj,m 1. [P , J ] = 0, P
J+ |j, m =
J+ P
|j, m aj,m = aj,m+1 . aj,m m,
P |j, m = aj |j, m, (11.53)
aj 1. aj .
.
. ,
217
. ,
, -
T
T JiT = Ji, (11.54)

.
. (11.54)

3
3
T J 2T = T JiT T JiT = (Ji )(Ji ) = J 2 . (11.55)
i=1 i=1
. (11.54) (11.55) T
J3 = J3 T
T
J 2 = J 2T
,
|j, m
J3 T
|j, m = mT
|j, m J 2T J 2T
|j, m = j(j + 1)J |j, m. (11.56)
T |j, m J3 J 2 m
j(j + 1) .
T |j, m = bj,m|j, m (11.57)
bj,m .
T , . (11.54) T

J+ T
= J , -
T J+ = J T . . (11.57) T

J+ |j, m = j(j + 1) m(m + 1)bj,m+1 |j, m
1 J T
|j, m = j(j + 1) m(m + 1)bj,m |j, m 1, bj,m+1 = bj,m . -

bj,m = (1)jm eij , (11.58)
eij m. eij = 1
|j, m. eij = 1, |j, m = eij /2 |j, m,
T |j, m = T ei /2|j, m = ei /2T |j, m = ei /2ei (1)jm|j, m

j j j j
= eij /2 (1)jm |j, m = (1)jm |j, m ,

eij
T |j, m = (1)jm|j, m. (11.59)
T
2 |j, m = (1)2j |j, m,
T 2 = (1)2j 1, (11.60)
j, T 2 = 1. -
j ,
( 2).
-
T 2 ,
T 2 . | = c1 |j1 , m1 +c2 |j2 , m2 j1 j2 ,
T 2| = c1|j1, m1 c2|j2, m2 |,
. | -
, T 2 [181].
j.
218
11. : .
11.4
11.4.1
: H1
1Ji H2
2Ji .
H1 H2 . H1 H2
Ji = 1Ji 1 + 1 2Ji . (11.61)
Ji
[Ji , Jj ] = [ 1Ji 1 + 1 2Ji , 1Jj 1 + 1otimes 2Jj ]

= [ 1Ji , 1Jj ] 1 + 1 [ 2Ji , 2Jj ] = i ijk 1Jk 1 + ijk 1 2Jk
k k

= i ijk ( Jk 1 + 1 Jk ) = i
1 2
ijk Jk (11.62)
k k
2
H1 H2 , |J, M J
J3 ,
2
J |J, M = J(J + 1)|J, M (11.63)
J3 |J, M = M |J, M . (11.64)
, H1 |j1 , m1 1 H2
|j2 , m2 2 , |j1 , m1 1 |j2 , m2 2 H1 H2 .
,
, |J, M
|j1 , m1 1 |j2 , m2 2 .
. -
, 1 2
.
11.4.2
H1 -
j1 H2 j2 . -
.
j1 j2 , H1 = j1 Hj1 H2 = j2 Hj2 ,
H1 H2 = j1 ,j2 Hj1 Hj2 , -
Hj1 Hj2 .
, H1 = C 2j1 +1 H2 = C 2j2 +1 , H1 H2 = C (2j1 +1)(2j2 +1) .
J3 |j1 , m1 1 |j2 , m2 2 = 1J3 |j1 , m1 1 |j2 , m2 2 + |j1 , m1 1 2J3 |j2 , m2 2
= (m1 + m2 )|j1 , m1 1 |j2 , m2 2 , (11.65)
m1 m2 M ,
M = m1 + m2 (11.66)
219
. ,
M j1 +j2 . |J, M ,
M j1 + j2 , J j1 + j2 .
M ,
J j1 + j2 1, j1 + j2 2 , J,
Jmin = j1 + j2 N (11.67)
N . Jmin = |j1 j2 |.
J 2J + 1 ,
H1 H2
J
max
N
(2J + 1) = N + 1 + 2 (Jmax n) = 2Jmax + 1 + 2Jmax N N 2 , (11.68)
J=Jmin n=0

N 1
n=1 n = 2 N (N + 1).
H1 H2 , (2j1 + 1)(2j2 + 1),

N 2 2(j1 + j2 )N + 4j1 j2 = 0, (11.69)
N = j1 + j2 |j1 j2 |. N+ Jmin < 0, ,

N , Jmin = |j1 j2 |. J

|j1 j2 | J j1 + j2 . (11.70)
. (11.70) .

j1 = j2 = 12 , J 0 1.
j1 = 1, j2 = 12 , J 1
2
32 .
j1 = 2, j2 = 12 , J 3
2
52 .
j -
. -
j1 , j2 j3 ,
j1,2 .
J |j1,2 j3 | J
j1,2 + j3 , j1,2 .
, j1 = j2 = 21 j3 = 32 . j1,2 = 0, 1.
j1,2 = 0, J = 23 . j1,2 = 1 J = 12 , 23 .
J J = 12 , 32 ,
|J, M , |j1 , m1 1 |j2 , m2 2
j1 j2 ,
j1 j2 .
220
11. : .
1
11.4.3 j1 = j2 = 2
, J 0 1. .
(11.66), J = 1, M = 1 m1 =
m2 = 21 .
1 1 1 1
|1, 1 = | , 1 | , 2 . (11.71)
2 2 2 2
|1, 1 J+ ,
J+ = 1J+ 1 + 1 2J+ . (11.72)

J+ |1, 1 = 2|1, 0. (11.73)

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
J+ |1, 1 = 1J+ | , 1 | , 2 + | , 1 2J+ | , 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= | , 1 | , 2 + | , 1 | , + 2 (11.74)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(11.73) (11.74)
( )
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
|1, 0 = | , 1 | , 2 + | , 1 | , + 2 . (11.75)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
J+ |1, 0, |1, 1.
, M, m1 , m2
M, m1 , m2 .
1 1 1 1
|1, 1 = | , 1 | , 2 . (11.76)
2 2 2 2
J = 1. |0, 0 -
J = 0. a| 12 , 21 1 | 12 , 12 2 + b| 12 , 12 1
| 21 , + 12 2 . (11.66). |0, 0 |1, 0
2
J , 0, 0|1, 0 = 0, a + b = 0.
|a|2 + |b|2 = 1, a = b = 12 ,
( )
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
|0, 0 = | , 1 | , 2 | , 1 | , + 2 . (11.77)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 2, J = 1 ,
|0, 0 |0, 0.
| 12 , 12 = |1, | 12 , 21 = |0,
(11.75) |+ (11.77) |
. (10.31, . ,
|J, M .
J, M , |1, 1 .
221
. ,
1
11.4.4 j1 = 1, j2 = 2
J = 12 , 32 . | 23 , 32 -
,
3 3 1 1
| , = |1, 1 | , . (11.78)
2 2 2 2
J+ , . (11.72).
3 3 3 3
J+ | , = 3| , . (11.79)
2 2 2 2

3 3 1 1 1 1
J+ | , = 1J+ |1, 1 | , + |1, 1 2J+ | ,
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
= 2|1, 0 | , + |1, 1 | , . (11.80)
2 2 2 2
(11.79) (11.80)

3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
| , = |1, 0 | , + |1, 1 | , . (11.81)
2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2
| 32 , 12 ,

3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
| , = |1, 0 | , + |1, 1 | , . (11.82)
2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2
3 3 1 1
| , = |1, 1 | , . (11.83)
2 2 2 2
J = 12 . | 21 , 21
a|1, 0 | 12 , 12 + b|1, 1 | 12 , 12 , |a|2 + |b|2 = 1. 32 , 21 | 12 , 21 = 0

2a + b = 0, a = 3 , b = 23 .
1

1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1
| , = |1, 0 | , |1, 1 | , . (11.84)
2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2
,

1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1
| , = |1, 0 | , |1, 1 | , (11.85)
2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2
11.4.5
,
|J, M j1 j2 .
1. J = j1 + j2 M = (j1 + j2 ).
, |j1 , j1 1 |j2 , j2 2 .
222
11. : .
2. J+ . (11.72) -
J = j1 + j2 .
M, m1 , m2 .
3. J |J, J
M = J .
4. J+
J.
5. , J -
J = |j1 j2 |.
|J, M -
J,M
|J, M = Cj1 ,j2 ,m |j1 , m |j2 , M m, (11.86)
m
CjJ,M 1 ,j2 ,m
J, M, m j1
J,M
j2 . Cj1 ,j2 ,m - (Glebsch-Gordan)
.
11.4.6

. -
J 1 J 2 ,

3
J 1 J 2 := Ji 2Ji .
1
(11.87)
i=1
2
J , . (11.61),
2 1 2 2 2
3
J = J 1 + 1 J + 2 Ji 2Ji ,
1
(11.88)
i=1
1 ( 2 1 2 2 2)
J 1 J 2 = J J 11 J . (11.89)
2
|J, M ( j1 j2 )
1
J 1 J 2 |J, M = [J(J + 1) j1 (j1 + 1) j2 (j2 + 1)]|J, M . (11.90)
2
1. . ;
223
. ,
2.
V (x) T
P
;
3. 3 j = 2;
4. j;
5. j1 = 21 , j2 = 1, j3 = 23 .
; j1 = j2 = 12 j3 = 52 .
1.
( ) (
)
c
T c2 = c .
c1 2
1
() T
= T T
2 = 1.
() T .
() T
i T
=
i .
() H = n
.
n n n.
2. n =
( 35 , 0, 4
5 ).
1
3. X H = 12 ij Iij Li Lj , Iij
Li .

3 Iij 1 I1 , I2 , I3 ,
H = 2
i=1 2Ii Li .

3
1 2
=
H J ,
2Ii i
i=1
Ji .
I1 = I2 .
4. |J, M -
j1 = j2 = 1.
5. |J, M -
j1 = 32 j2 = 12 .
6. j1 = 7, m1 = 7 j2 = 12 , m2 = 12 .
;
7. j1 = 1 j2 = 32 , H =

gJ 1 J 2 , g . .
. Mouchet [179] -
. 2 Weinberg [180].
, -
, . Edmonds [182].
224
12
: .

,
,
.
.
. [183]
. . -
-
.
. ,
.
12.1
. 11, -
. , .
-
:
.
:
.
,
. -

. .
12.1.1
12.1. G,
g1 , g2 G G, g1 g2 .
.
225
. ,
(i) . g1 (g2 g3 ) = (g1 g2 )g3 g1 , g2 , g3 G.

(ii) . e G ( ), eg = ge = g
g G.
(iii) . g G, g 1 G,
gg 1 = g 1 g = e.
.
H G G,
G. G {e} G.
G H GH
(g1 , h1 )(g2 , h2 ) = (g1 g2 , h1 h2 ), g1 , g2 G h1 , h2 H.
, g1 g2 = g2 g1
g1 , g2 G.
G H f : G H
f (g1 )f (g2 ) = f (g1 g2 ), g1 , g2 G.
G H
.
.
G .
G , G
(S. Lie).
.
12.1.2
Z ()
.
n- {eir/n |r = 0, 1, . . . , n 1}
. n
Z n .
An n . An =
{1, 2, . . . , n}.
: An An . -
n ((1), ((2), . . . , (n)).

Sn . An
. Sn n! .
1. S2 , e = (1, 2) a = (2, 1).

Z 2 .
2. S3 6 , e = (1, 2, 3) (3, 1, 2), (2, 3, 1),
(2, 1, 3), (3, 2, 1), (1, 3, 2). a = (3, 1, 2) b = (2, 1, 3)
(2, 3, 1) = aa = a2 , (3, 2, 1) = ab (1, 3, 2) = a2 b, a b
S3 .
226
12. : .
12.1.3
.
.
G D
.
G
g G.
-
R N N .

1. R n
n.
2. (general linear group) GL(n, R ) -
n n -
. -
. n2 -
GL(n, R ), GL(n, R ) D = n2 .
GL(n, R ) -
. , ,
1 -
, .
GL(n, C ),
D = 2n2 . GL(n, C ) ,

0.
3. (special linear groups) SL(n, R ) SL(n, C ) -
GL(n, R ) GL(n, C ) ,
. SL(n, R ) D = n2 1 SL(n, C )
D = 2(n2 1). - .
4. O(n) -
n n, O OOT = 1.
OOT = 1 n(n+1)/2 , n
21 (n2 n) .
O(n) D = n2 n(n + 1)/2 = n(n 1)/2. ,
||O||2 1 ||O|| 1.
det OT O = (det O)2 = 1,
1. ,

.
SO(n) O(n) -
. SO(n) D = n(n1)/2.
SO(n) .
227
. ,
5. O(p, q) nn,
n = p + q, OOT = ,
p +1 q 1. O(p, q)
D = n(n 1)/2. O(p, q) - .
SO(p, q) O(p, q)
. SO(p, q)
O(n), D = n(n 1)/2. O(p, q) -
.
6. U (n) ()
n n. U (n) D = n2 .
( ||U || 1) .
SU (n) U (n) -
.
, ei . SU (n)
D = n2 1,
= 0. SU (n) .
7. En x Ox + a,
x, a R n O O(n). (, a).
(O1 , a1 ) (O2 , a2 ) x 21 x + O2 a1 + a2 ,
(O2 , a2 )(O1 , a1 ) = (O2 O1 , Os a1 + a2 ).
n(n 1)/2 + n = n(n + 1)/2.
12.1.4
(
) .

.
A G, -
1.
A , A = 1 + T .
T G.
, . 11.3.
A1 = 1 + T1 A2 = 1 + T2
A1 A2 = 1 + (T1 + T2 ) + O(2 ), (12.1)
A1 A2
T1 + T2 .
. ,

.
A = 1 + T + O(2 ) = eT + O(2 ), eT = 1 + T + O(2 )
R , .
G .
A, B G, ABA1 G.
B = 1 + T , AT A1
228
12. : .
G. A = 1 + S , A1 = 1 S + O(2 ).

AT A1 = 1 + (ST T S) + O(2 ), (12.2)
[S, T ] = ST T S G.
.
G G
g. , sl(n, C ), o(n) su(n)
SL(n, C ), O(n) SU (n) . g -
, D G.
T g exp(sT ),
s R . exp(sT ) = limn (1 + ns T )n 1 + ns T
G , esT
n 1 + ns T ) G G.
G ,
esT . BCH ( 5.19)
G.
.
T g 1 T g, g G g G
adg (T ).
d 1 sT
adg (T ) = (g e g)|s=0 . (12.3)
ds
-
.
12.2. detA = exp(T r log A) A, det A = 0.

. A
, A U AU 1 .
log ai
log
ai A. detA = i ai = i e =e i a i = eT r log A .
12.2
det A = 1 A = 1 + S
elog(1+S) eT rS = 1, T rS = 0.
SL(n, R ) SL(n, C ) ,
.
OOT = 1 O = 1+T
1 + (S + S T ) + O(2 ) = 1, S T = S. o(n)
n n.
U U = 1 O = 1 + T
1 + (S + S ) + O(2 ) = 1, S = S. u(n)
n n iA, A
.
g D, -
D Ta , a = 1, 2, . . . , D.
229
. ,

S G S = a ca Ta ca . -
Ta -
.
, -
[Ta , Tb ]
,

[Ta , Tb ] = fabc Tc . (12.4)
c
fabc g. -
: fabc = fbac .
(. 5.4.1) [[Ta , Tb ], Tc ] +
[[Tc , Ta ], Tb ] + [[Tb , Tc ], Ta ] = 0,

D
D
(fabd fdce + fcad fdbe + fbcd fdae ) = 0. (12.5)
d=1 e=1
D D

D
D
wab = facd fbdc , (12.6)
c=1 d=1
(Cartan) g. -
. Xa
(Xa )bc = fabc , (12.7)
. (12.6) wab = T r(Xa Xb ) = T r(Xb Xa ) = wba .

D
fabc = fabd wdc , (12.8)
d=1
, fabc = fbac

fabc = facb . (12.9)
. (12.9), . (12.5)
Xa . (12.7),

D
[Xa , Xb ] = fabc Xc . (12.10)
c=1
D
T r([Xa , Xb ]Xc ) = Dc=1 fabd T r(Xd Xc ) = c=1 fabd wdc = fabc . , T r([Xa , Xb ]Xc ) =
T r(Xa Xb Xc Xb Xa Xc ) = T r(Xc Xa Xb Xa Xc Xb ) = T r([Xa , Xc ]Xb ) = facb . -
. (12.9).
230
12. : .
12.1.5
1. SO(2). SO(2) (11.8),
. 11.3.1. SO(2)
U (1), U () = ei , [0, 2).
2. SO(1, 1). SO(1, 1)
( )
cosh u sinh u
O(u) = , (12.11)
sinh u cosh u
u R . O(u1 )O(u2 ) = O(u1 + u2 )
u = 0. u 0, O() = 1 + uK,
( )
0 1
J= . (12.12)
1 0
so(1, 1) K R , so(1, 1) =
R.
SO(2), SO(1, 1) ,
O(u) u .
3. SO(3). SO(3)
. . 11.3.2. J1 , J2 , J3
. (11.13), [Ji , Jj ] = k ijk Jk ,
so(3) -
.
so(3)

wij = ikl jlk = 2ij . (12.13)
kl
4. SU (2). su(2) - 2 2
D = 3. Ji = 2i i , i
i = 1, 2, 3, su(2). . (6.3),
Ji . (11.14), su(2) so(3) .
, SU (2) SO(3) ,
2 1, SO(3)
SU (2). , r R 3
C 2 : r = . r 2 = ||||4 .
U C 2 , || || = ||||.
r |rr | = |rr |, -
-
Orr = r . U ei U
r . U SU (2), ei U SU (2)
ei = 1. 2 1 SU (2) SO(3).
5. SL(2, R ). sl(2, R )
2 2 . sl(2, R ) 3 . -

( ) ( ) ( )
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
K1 = , K2 = , K3 = . (12.14)
2 1 0 2 1 0 0 1
231
. ,
[K1 , K2 ] = K3 , [K3 , K1 ] = K2 [K2 , K3 ] = K1 ,

sl(2, R ) f123 = 1, f312 = 1, f231 = 1.
sl(2, R )

2 0 0
w = 0 2 0 (12.15)
0 0 2
12.2
12.2.1

. -
,
H. , -
, .
G
g G V (g),
g1 , g2 G,
V (g1 )V (g2 ) = V (g1 g2 )ei(g1 ,g2 ) , (12.16)
ei g1 g2 . G
g U (g) .

V (g) ||.
V (g1 )V (g2 )||V (g2 )V (g1 ) = V (g1 g2 )||V (g1 g2 ). (12.17)
V (g) (g), -
U (g) = U (g)ei(g) . . (12.16)
U (g1 )U (g2 ) = V (g1 g2 ) exp[i(g1 , g2 ) (g1 g2 ) + (g1 ) + (g2 )]. (12.18)
(g1 , g2 ) = (g1 g2 ) (g1 ) (g2 ),

(g), U (g),
U (g1 )U (g2 ) = U (g1 g2 ), (12.19)
g1 , g2 G. U (g) ( ) -
G H. . (12.19) U (e) = 1
U (g 1 ) = U 1 (g).
[184].

. G esT , T g s R .
U (s) = U (esT ), U (s) = U (s/2)U (s/2), U (s/2)
, U (s) . U (s)
s.
232
12. : .
,
.
G D U (g)
H. T g,

T := i U [exp(sT )]s=0 . (12.20)
s
G H. -
1i T T ,
.
( )
12.3. eisT = U esT .
. U (s) = U [exp(sT )]. 1 [U (s + s) U
(s)] = 1 [U
(s +
s s
1 1
s)U (s) 1]U (s). U (s + s)U (s) = U [e
(s+s)T e sT sT
] = U [e ],
s 0 . (12.20)

i Us = TU
s ,
s
.
Ta , a = 1, . . . , D g. Ta
. (12.20)

D
[Ta , Tb ] = i fabc Tc , (12.21)
c=1
fabc g. , i . (12.21)
g 1i T H.
12.3 U (g)
T. U (g)eisT U (g) = U (g 1 esT g),

g G. s . (12.3)

[
U (g)eisT U (g) = ad gT , (12.22)
ad[g T
adg T g.

. . (12.16)
, . (12.21)

D
[Ta , Tb ] = i fabc Tc + ic1, (12.23)
c=1
c. . (12.23) g
c .
H1 H2 . H1 -
U1 (g) G H2 -
U2 (g) G. ,
233
. ,
-
. ,
H.
U1 (g) U2 (g) H
V H,
V U1 (g)V = U2 (g) (12.24)
g G. U1 (g)
U2 (g) .
12.2.2
U (g) G H.
H1 H2 , H1,2
G, U (g) .
.
- . -

G, .
-
(Schur).
12.4. . U (g) G
H. A [A,
U (g)] =
0 g G A = 1, R ,
.
. A [A, U (g)] = 0
g G 1. P = 1,
[P , U (g)] = 0 g G. P ,
P U
(g)P G, (P U (g1 )P )(P U
(g2 )P ) =

P U (g1 )U (g2 )P = P U (g1 g2 )P . U (g) .
G, ,
A T -
.
12.5. (Casimir) ,
U (g) K U (g)] = 0 g G
[A,
.
.

. Ta , a = 1, . . . , D g

K = (w1 )ab Ta Tb , (12.25)
a,b
w1 , . (12.6), .
234
12. : .
. (12.25) .
12.6. K
.
. (12.21)
[ ]
Ta ] = i
[K, (w1 )cd fdab + (w1 )db fdac Tc Tb .
bcd

(w1 )cd fdab = fadb (w1 )cd = fade wef (w1 )f b (w1 )cd = fadf (w1 )f b (w1 )cd
d d def df

1 1 1 1 1
= faf d (w )f b (w )cd = faf d (w )dc (w )f b = faf c (w )f b = fdac (w1 )db ,
df df f d
.
Ta ] = 0.
[K,

SU (2) SO(3) K
= 1 J 2 ,
K (12.26)
2
. 11.
12.3
12.3.1 -

[36]. (
)
x, p] = i1,
[ (12.27)
[ x, 1] = [ = 0
p, 1]

x, p 1, - H1 .

x ib
U (a, b, c) = exp[ia p + ic1]. (12.28)
. (5.18) . 5.4.2
1
U (a1 , b1 , c1 )U (a2 , b2 , c2 ) = U (a1 + a2 , b1 + b2 , c1 + c2 + (a2 b1 a1 b2 ). (12.29)
2
- (a, b, c) R 3
1
(a1 , b1 , c1 )(a2 , b2 , c2 ) = (a1 + a2 , b1 + b2 , c1 + c2 + (a2 b1 a1 b2 )). (12.30)
2
n- - Hn 2n + 1 ,
n xi , n pi 1 ( i = 1, 2, . . . , n).

[
xi , xj ] = 0 [
pi , pj ] = 0 xi , pj ] = iij 1,
[ (12.31)
235
. ,
U (aa, b , c) = exp[iaa x ibb p + ic1]

1
U (aa1 , b 1 , c1 )U (aa2 , b 2 , c2 ) = U (aa1 + a 2 , b 1 + b 2 , c1 + c2 + (aa2 b 1 a 1 b 2 )) (12.32)
2
BCH. Hn
(aa, b , c) R 2n+1
1
(aa1 , b 1 , c1 )(aa2 , b 2 , c2 ) = (aa1 + a 2 , b 1 + b 2 , c1 + c2 + (aa2 b 1 a 1 b 2 )). (12.33)
2
, Hn -
, L2 (R R n , dn x), xi (x x) = xi (x x) pi (xx) =
i xi (x

x). , , -
L2 (R R n , dn p), x(pp) = i p i (pp)
p(pp) = pi (pp). , , -
-
.
(!)
(M. Stone) [75, 76] [178, 77].
12.7. Hn
.
-
-
.
Hn .
- n. -
,
.
12.3.2

(12.27) ;
-
. .
, ,
;
[185, 49].

, F G
{F, G} , . (1.8). (. . 1.2.2)
.
= R 2n (xi , pi ), i = 1, 2, . . . n,
{xi , xj } = 0, {pi , pj } = 0, {xi , pj } = ab . (12.34)

, . (12.31), -
.
236
12. : .
1. xi pi xi pi
H.
2. {, } 1i [, ], [, ]
H.
, .
(H. J. Groenwold) [186].
( n = 1)
1
{x3 , p3 } + {{p2 , x3 }, {x2 , p3 }} = 0. (12.35)
12
1 2
1 3 3 1 1 2 3 1 2 3
[
x , p ] + [ [ x , p ]] = 3.
p , x ], [ (12.36)
i 12i i i

1 2, .
x3 p2 x3 p2 ,
.
. (12.34) -
. G
F F (s)
F ,
F (s)
= {F (s), G}, (12.37)
s
F (0) = F . G
G
.
F F (s) (12.37)
LG G
s , (12.37) F (s) = Ls F .
G = a x b p .
s x = x sb
LG b s p = x sa
LG a, (12.38)
a x b p .
LG s -
, . (5.19).

.
. -
, ,
R
. -
.
,
(12.38)
237
. ,
.
-
( ),
.
1.
G. G .
-
= R 2n .
2. - G
.
3. -
. - -
, ( ).

(C. Isham) [187] - -
.

.
.
, -
. . . 4
.
.
H3 -
R 3 ) L2 (R
H6 , L2 (R R 6 ) .
-
12.1.
12.1.
. . 6.5.1
R + ) -
L2D (R

(0) = 0. (12.39)
p = i x

R+ ),
L2D (R
(12.39) (12.39).

i (x) i

(x) = [x + ] = ix (12.40)
2 x x x 2
(x). (12.39). ( p ,
= 12 ( ).)
xp + px
[
x,
] = i
x, (12.41)
x

.
238
12. : .
U (a, b) = eiaxib
. (x, a, b) = U (a, b)(x)

1
= x + icx, (12.42)
b x 2
c = a/b. (x, a, b) = eb/2+iax (eb x) .
(12.42) (x, 0, 0) = (x),
(a, b)(x) = eb/2+iax (eb x).
U (12.43)

(a1 , b1 )U
U (a2 , b2 ) = (a2 + a1 eb2 , b1 + b2 ). (12.44)
(a, b) R 2
(a1 , b1 )(a2 , b2 ) = (a2 + a1 eb2 , b1 + b2 ). (12.45)
(ane group).
,
= R+ R (x, p). G = ax bxp -
x esb x, p p as, s R.
. . 6.5.3
L2 (S 1 ) ( )

c() = cos (), s() = sin (), () = i . (12.46)

[ = i
c, ] s, [ = i
s, ] c, [
c, s] = 0, (12.47)
.
(a, b, ) = eiac+ibs+i
U
(a, b, )() = eia cos +ib sin [( + )mod2]
U (12.48)
(a1 , b1 , 1 )U
U (a , b , (1 + 2 )mod2),
(a2 , b2 , 2 ) = U
( ) ( ) ( )( )
a a1 cos sin a2
= + (12.49)
b b1 sin cos b2
(a, b, c) R 2 SO(2)
(a1 , b1 , 1 )(a2 , b2 , 2 ) = (a , b , (1 + 2 )mod2)) (12.50)
12.4
12.4.1
U (g) G H
.
|(t) H,

239
. ,
U (g) ,
U (g)|(t),
i U (g)|(t) = H (12.51)
t
g G. i t
|(t) = U (g)H
U (g)|(t).
|(0) H, U (g)
, g G
U (g)H
U (g) = H.
(12.52)
. (12.52)
[U (g), H]
=0 (12.53)
(i) (ii)
G.
|n En H. . (12.53)
U (g)H|n
=H U (g)|n,
U (g)|n = En U (g)|n,
H (12.54)
U (g)|n H
.
: H = En Pn , [U (g), Pn ] =
n
0 , g G. G
Vn H, Pn U (g)Pn .
G, . (12.52)
Ta ] = 0,
[H, (12.55)
Ta . -
,
.
, (E. Noether).
G , -
U (g). -
, P . (11.6) ,
[P
, H]
= 0
P, P .

12.4.2
, |0 .
G, -
U (g) ,
U (g)|0 = |0, (12.56)
240
12. : .

G U (g) = eisTa

Ta . . (12.56) eisTa |0 = |0. s s = 0,
Ta |0 = 0, (12.57)
.
|0 , U (g)|0 = |0. -
, .
,
. , H
H
. -
, U (O)
SO(3) H, [H, U (O)] = 0. H M i
.
, U (O)

U (O)M
i U (O) = j.
Oij M (12.58)
j
|0 .
U (O)|0 = |0. mi = 0|M
i |0,
. (12.58)

mi = Oij mj . (12.59)
j
. (12.59) O SO(3), mi = 0.
, ,
,
.
, ,
mi . mi = 0, . (12.59)
, . ,
m
n = |m m|
, |n n -
. -
, (
, ) -
. , |n n
, U (O)|n n = |nn.

, ,
V -
N N /V . -
.
-
, H = 1 p2 + V (
x),
2m
241
. ,
Vmin , -
.
. 6.4.4, ,
, -
.
1. ;
2. ;
3. -
SU (n), ;
4. N , -
N - . ;
1. SU (2) .
2. () so(2, 1).
() K1 , K2 , K3 so(2, 1) ( so(3))
.
() exp(sK1 ), exp(sK2 ), exp(sK3 ) SO(2, 1).
3. , a i
i , a
, i = 1, 2.
a1 a
() J1 = 21 ( 2 a
2 + a 1 ), J2 = 2i
1
a1 a
( 2 a
2 a a1 a
1 ), J3 = 12 ( 2 a
1 a 2 )
SU (2).
2
() J = J12 + J22 + J32
.
4. , a i
i , a
, i = 1, 2.

1 = 1 (
() K 2 a1 a
2 +
a1 a 2 = 1 (
2 ), K 2
2i a1 a a1 a
2 ), K 2 a1 a
3 = 1 (1+ a2 a
1 + 2 ),
[K1 , K2 ] = iK3 , [K3 , K1 ] = iK2 , [K2 , K3 ] = iK1 . (

so(2, 1).)
() K2 = K 2 + K 2 K 2 .
1 2 3
5. . (12.35) (12.36).
-
. Par cle or Wave [4] Zee [188].
Jones [189]
Ramond [190]. Barut Raczka [191].
242
13
. (-) ,
3 . , -
,
.
.
13.1
13.1.1
, -
. ,
.
, o R 6 . -
. ,

.
,
.
.
.
,
. ,
,

.
, H

[
xi , xj ] = 0 [
pi , pj ] = 0 xi , pj ] = iij 1,
[ (13.1)
i, j = 1, 2, 3. . 12.3 -
, ()
H L2 (R R 3 ), () o xi (rr ) =
xi (rr ), () pi (rr ) = i x i (rr ), r = (x1 , x2 , x3 ).
243
. ,
=
m, H 1 2
p ,
2m
V (rr ),
= 1 p2 + V (rr ),
H (13.2)
2m
.
-

x 1 x 2 . ,
m1 m2 , -
V (x 1 x 2 ).
p21 p22

H= + x 1 x 2 ),
+ V ( (13.3)
2m1 2m2
x a , pa , a = 1, 2 . -
R = (m1x 1 + m2x 2 )/(m1 + m2 ), P = p + p ,
1 2
r = x 1 x 2 p = (m1p1 m2p2 )/(m1 + m2 ).
R , P r, p .
(13.3)
=H
H KM + H
rel . (13.4)
. (13.4),
KM = 1 P 2
H (13.5)
2M
, M =
m1 + m2 ,
2
rel = p + V (
H r) (13.6)
2

. = m1 m2 /(m1 +
m2 ). .
-
,
.
13.1.2
V (rr ) 0 r, H (13.2) ,
p 0. , Vmin , H
2 Vmin 1.
V (rr ) : limr V (rr ) =
0, r = |rr |. , -
, . -

244
13.
, ,
.
(. 6.3), .
, -

.
-
.
[192, 193].
.
13.1.
, V (rr ) 0 r,
. E> 0, r
2 + 2mE = 0, eikk rr , |kk | = 2mE,
.
13.1.
V (rr )
, [192].
= E (13.2)
H
2
V =E+ , (13.7)
2m

sin kr
(rr ) = f (r), (13.8)
kr
r = |rr |. f (r) ra
a > 21 .
k2
f (r) = 1, (13.8) . (13.7) V = 0, E = 2m .
k E .
. (13.8) . (13.7)
1 f 1 f
V (r) = kcot(kr) + . (13.9)
m f 2m f
V (r) , f /f cot(kr),
sin(kr) = 0.
1
f (r) = , (13.10)
C2 + (2kr sin(2kr))2
C . f r2 , -
k2
. . (13.9) E = 2m
64C 2 k 2 sin4 (kr)

V (r) = +
m[C 2 + (2kr sin(2kr))2 ]2
48k 2 sin4 (kr) 8k 2 [2kr sin(2kr)] sin(2kr)
. (13.11)
m[C 2 + (2kr sin(2kr))2 ]
245
. ,
(13.11) V (r) r4 . V (r) sin(kr)/r,

.
(13.8) f . (13.10)
(13.11 .
13.1.3
. 8.2.1, -
, .
,
2
. V (r) = er
. , -
r 0. -
.
-
.
13.1. ( (Hardy)) | L2 (R
R 3 ),
1
| r2 |.
p 2 | | (13.12)
4

. | p2 | = d3 x 2 = d3 x ( ) + d3 x||2 .
, ,
S d2 ( ) S .

, . |p2 | = d3 x||2 .

(rr ) = g(rr )/ r.
g(0) = g() = 0. ,
r |g|

1 ||2 |g|2 2
||2 = + .
4 r2 r 2r2
, d3 x = r2 sin drdd. -
2 3 1 ||2
0 dr |g|
r = g() g(0) = 0. , d x[|| 4 r2 ]
2
3 |g|2
d x r 0 .
1 2
|H|
| 8m r + V (
r )|. H H
1
V (rr ) + 8mr 2 ,
V0 ,
1
V (rr ) + V0 . (13.13)
8mr2
r , V0 .
(13.13).
r 0 r2 . .
246
13.
,
.
H H V0 1, -
E0 E0 V0 . ,
2
V (r) = Ze
4r
, V (r) + 8mr1 2
2 r = /(Ze m)
2 4
V0 = Z 8e 2m (2.16)
E0 , .

. .
13.2. .
0 (rr ) .
, [194, 81]. . 13.3,
.
13.2
13.2.1
-

= r p. (13.14)
ijk , . (13.14)

i = ijk xj pk . (13.15)
jk
[1 , 2 ] = i3 , i -

[i , j ] = i ijk k . (13.16)
k
2
= .
2
= r2p2 (
r p)2 + i(
r p). (13.17)
(6.6), -
r p .
.
,
r3 .
.
,
.
,
.
247
. ,
. (13.17) (6.5).
2 = 2
j pk xl pm . . (6.5) = jklm (jl km jm kl ) xj pk xl pm .
ijklm ijk ilm x

jklm jl km ( xj xl pk pm ikl xj pm ) = r p i
2 2
r
p ,
pk xl .
(r p)2 2ir p. . (13.17).
13.2.2
, . (13.15),
2
( + 1) 3 m = , + 1, . . . , .
j.
- . ,
-
2 . -
, 2 - 1,
.
2
.
.

i , i = i jk ijk xj x k
(r, , ), r 0, [0, ), [0, 2),
. (.13). x i r
,

(.14).

1 = i(sin + cot cos ) (13.18)

2 = i( cos + cot sin ) (13.19)

3 = i (13.20)

( )
2 1 1 2f
= sin + 2 . (13.21)
sin sin 2
r -
i . , i , , -
2
S 2 . ,
, . (.18).

Ym (, ) .
.
HS 2 = L2 (S 2 , sin dd) -
, sin dd. -
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) (r, , )
d3 x = r2 sin drdd
R 3 , d3 x) = Hr HS 2 ,
L2 (R (13.22)
248
13.

Hr f (r) 0 r2 dr|f (r)|2 <
f (0) = 0. Hr = L2D (R
R + , r2 dr), o D
r = 0 (. . 6.5.1).
2
i
i = 1 li (13.23)
2 2
= 1 l , (13.24)
2
li l (13.1813.21) i
2
, (, ) (r, , ).
,
( )
l = ei
+ i cot (13.25)

2
|, m l3 l , Ym
( ). ,
l+ |, = 0,
Y Y
+ i cot = 0. (13.26)

|, l3 , i

Y = Y , Y (, ) =
i
e F (), F . . (13.26), -

dF
cot F = 0, (13.27)
d
F () = C sin , C .
Y (, ) = C sin ei . (13.28)
Y (, + 2) = Y (, ) e2i = 1,
, .
C sin dd|Y |2 = 1.
1
2, = cos 2|C |2 1 d(1
2 ) = 1.
1
1

! !
d(1 ) =
2
(1) k
d 2k
=2 (1)k , (13.29)
1 k=0
(k!( k)! 1 k=0
(2k + 1)k!( k)!
v
u
u k!(2k + 1)( k)
C = t (1)k . (13.30)
k=1
4!
249
. ,
|, m l |, , -
. (11.42),
1
|, m = lm |, .
(13.31)
1 2 . . . [( + 1) m(m + 1)]
.(13.28) -
C ei
Ym (, ) =
1 2 . . . [( + 1) m(m + 1)]
( )m

+ i cot ei sin . (13.32)

. r rr -
r r, + .
P |, m, |, , -
. (11.53), P .
. (13.28) Y ( , + ) = ei Y (, ) = (1) Y (, ).
P |, m = (1)|, m. (13.33)
13.3
13.3.1
V (r) ,
,
. .
3.2.3 , -
, .
i p2
r2 . , i
, p2 r2 ,
.

= 1 p2 + V (
H r), (13.34)
2m

, r = r2 ,
i ] = 0.
[H, (13.35)
. (13.35) ,
.
(13.35)
.
.
250
13.
. (13.17)
2
p2 = r2 [( r p)] + r2 .
r p)2 i( (13.36)

r p = ir i xri x i = ir i xi
r xi
= ir r

. r2 [(
r p)2 + i(
r p)]
2
r2 [(
r p)2 i(
r p)] = . (13.37)
r2 r r
(13.22) L2 (R R 3 )
2
r p) + i(
r [( 2
r p)] =
r 1,
r = 2 .
(13.38)
r2 r r
Hr .
. (13.24) (13.34)
[ ]
1 1 2 2
H = r) 1 +
r + V (
r l . (13.39)
2m 2m
H | |, m, | Hr -
[ ]
1 ( + 1) 2
r + V (
r) + r | = E|. (13.40)
2m 2m
= 1
H r + V (
r) +
( + 1) 2
r (13.41)
2m 2m
Hr . H |E, .
, RE, (r) := r|E, , . (13.40)
[ ]
1 2 RE, 1 RE, ( + 1)
+ + V (r) RE, = ERE, , (13.42)
2m r2 mr r 2mr2
. (3.32). , , -
L2 (R R 3 ) -
Hr .
RE, (r) r = 0. V (r)
r12 r = 0, r 0
( + 1)/r2 . RE, r > 0, . (13.42),
( + 1) = ( + 1), = .
. (13.42) RE, r r 0.
251
. ,
13.3.2
(13.34) -
RE, r .
, .
. 3.2.3, uE, = rRE, . (13.42)
,
[ ]
1 d2 uE, ( + 1)
+ + V (r) uE, (r) = EuE, (r), (13.43)
2m dr2 2mr2
Vef f (r) = (+1)
2mr2
+ V (r).
, (13.43) (-
6.3). (6.4)
. (13.43) nr = 0, 1, 2, . . ., nr - -
nr .
n = nr + + 1, n > .
En, .
nr ,
En+1, > En, . (13.44)
. (13.42) -
.
1. En, m
, 2 + 1 m
, g(En, ) En,
g(En, ) 2 + 1. (13.45)
, n
, g(En ) = n2 . -

. 13.2.
2. H . (13.41) H = +1 r2 0.
+1 H
m
5.24 n- H +1 n-
H . nr
. ,
En+1,+1 > En, . (13.46)
3. . (13.46) -
-
, = 0. 6.3, H
. E1,0 .
6.4, R1,0 H
, , . . (13.28) -
Y00 . (r, , ) =
R1,0 (r)Y00 (, ) .
, 13.2 -
.
252
13.
13.1:
.(13.47). (n, ) (n , ) En, < En , .
,
.
4. -
r < r0 r0 .

[195]. 2 V (r) < 0 r > 0,
En, En,+1 , (13.47)
2 V (r) > 0 r > 0,
En, En,+1 . (13.48)
r1a r 0, (13.47)
a < 1 (13.48) a > 1. , -
.
(13.47), (13.44, 13.46)
.
En, < En+1, < En+1,+1 (13.49)

En, < En,+1 < En+1,+1 . (13.50)
. ,
En+1, En,+1 .
. 11.1.
11.2. .
1926 ,
[203].
, , -
SO(3).

2 + 1.
, H = p2 ar1 .
2m
253
. ,
- (Runge-Lenz)
= 1 (
A r r1 ,
p + p) a (13.51)
2m
. A
L
= 0,
.
2i
[i , Aj ] = i ijk Ak [Ai , Aj ] = ijk k H,
(13.52)
m
k k
2 = a2 1 + 2 H(
A 2 + 1). (13.53)
m
Ai ] = 0.
[H, (13.54)
. (13.54) - -
, .
VE H E < 0. B
i = m
2|E| Ai ,

1 1
S = ( B
) T = ( + B
). (13.55)
2 2

[Si , Tj ] = 0 [Si , Sj ] = i ijk Sk [Ti , Tj ] = i ijk Tk . (13.56)
k k
VE
2 2
so(3), Si Ti . S = T , -
2 2
. S = T = t(t + 1)1, t
0, 21 , 1, . . .. so(3) so(3) VE ,
, Si Ti . ,
VE ( ) (2t + 1)2 .
. (13.53)
( 2
)
2 + 2 = 1 + a m 1.
B (13.57)
2|E|
2 + 2 = 4T 2 = 4t(t + 1)
B 1, . (13.57
a2 m
|E| = . (13.58)
2(2t + 1)2
2t + 1 = n, n 1, 2, 3, . . .,
2
En = a2nm 2
2 g(E) = n .
254
13.
13.3.3
, -

1 3
V (r) = m 2 r2 , (13.59)
2 2
32 0. -
,
, .
,
. -
|n1 , n2 , n3 , ni = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
EN = N (13.60)
N = n1 +n2 +n3 g(N ) = 12 (N +1)(N +2),
(n1 , n2 , n3 ) .
, (13.43).

. 3.2. -
= mr = E/, . (13.43)
u + (2 + 3 2 ( + 1)/ 2 )u = 0, (13.61)
.
u 2 u = 0, u e /2 .
2
u +1 . 11.2.1 0,
2
u() = +1 e 2 f (). (13.62)
. (13.61)
+1
f + 2( )f + 2( )f = 0. (13.63)

, f () = n cn n
cn . . 3.3,
,
. nr 0 (. 2),

= 2nr + . (13.64)
. (13.60) N = 2nr + .
n = nr + + 1,
. . (13.64)
En, = [2(n 1) ], (13.65)
En, > En,+1 .
(13.48), 2 V (r) = 3m 2 > 0.
N ,
, N . ,
2 + 1,
.
255
. ,
13.2: .
13.3.4
, -
.
. (13.42)
,
. , V (r) -
r > r0 , r0 .
, E 0.
k2
k > 0, E = 2m . r > r0 , . (13.42)
d2 Rk, dRk, [ 2 ]
x2 2
+ 2x + x ( + 1) Rk, = 0, (13.66)
dx dx
x = kr. . (13.66) ,
(Bessel).
j (x) (x),
( ) ( )
l 1 d sin x l 1 d cos x
j (x) = (1) x , (x) = (1) x (13.67)
x dx x x dx x
j0 (0) = 1 j (0) = 0 1,
(0) = . x .
. 11.1.
, . (13.66)
Rk, (r) = A (k)j (kr) + B (k) (kr). (13.68)
, . (13.66) r > r0 . (V (r) =
0)), . (13.66) r 0, (13.68) r 0.
, r = 0, , . (13.68)
. , (13.66)
Rk, = A (k)j (kr). (13.69)

( ) ( )
cos x sin x
j (x) 2
(x) 2
. (13.70)
x x
256
13.
r , Rk, (r)
( ) ( )

A (k) cos x B (k) sin x ,
2 2
( )
C (k) cos x
2
+ (k) ,

C (k) = A (k)2 + B (k)2 , (k) = tan1 [B (k)/A (k)]. (13.71)
,
( )
cos kr
2
+ (k)
Rk, (r) = C (k) . (13.72)
kr
(k) . =
0, -
.
Rk, (r)Ym (, ) |k, , m -
|E, , m. C (k) . (13.72) -
E, , m|E , , m = (E E ) mm . (13.73)
|E, , m ,
.
13.4 -

13.4.1
, -
() (E E , B ) , . (1.14). -

.
.
( -
) , -
.
. m q HM (E E , B ).
1 2
H = 2m p
1. H q(
H r , t), (rr , t) ,
2. p p qA r , t), A (rr , t) .
A(
(E
E , B ) . (1.19),
A
A
E = B = A.
t
257
. ,
c = 1.

= 1 (
H p qA r , t))2 + q(
A( r , t). (13.74)
2m

[
A = A
pi , Aj ] = i xij p A A
p i ,
. (13.74)
( )2
= p2 2qA
p qA A
p + iq + q 2A 2 . (13.75)

, (1.20).
, A
A = 0. ,
2
= 1 p2 + q q A
H p + q A2 (13.76)
2m m 2m
mq A p B .
A = 2 B r ,
1
. A p = 1 (B
2
r p) = 12 B ,
B r) p = 12 B (
A B ) C = A (B
(A B C )
. , , (13.76)
q
V = B , (13.77)
2m
. -
B , .
q
= 2m .
q
m A p
, .(13.76) .
13.4.2
E = (E, 0, 0),
= Ex1 A = 0. 2 3 -
,

2
= p qE x.
H (13.78)
2m
(13.78) x -
. ,
.
() -
, (k),
258
13.

, p(k) = k(k), , x = i k .

H
d k2
iqE E = (E )E , (13.79)
dk 2m
i k3
E (k) = Ce qE (Ek 6m ) . E |E, k|E =
E (k). C
E |E = (E E ). (13.80)
ik
E |E = dkE (k)E (k) = |C|2 dke qE (EE ) = |C|2 qE2(E E ),

C = 1/ 2qE
1 i k3
E (k) = e qE (Ek 6m ) (13.81)
2qE

1 i k3 k3 k k
iHt iEt
dEeiE( qE t)

k |e |k = dEk|EE|ke = e 6mE
2qE

1 k k k k3
3 k3 k3
= ( t)ei 6mqE = (k k qEt)ei 6mqE . (13.82)
qE qE
k qEt (
), (
). ,
0 ,

(kqEt)3 k3
k|t = dk k|eiHt |k k |0 = ei 6mqE k qEt|0 ,

(13.83)
pt (k) = |k|t |2 = |k qEt|0 |2 , (13.84)
p0 (k) = |k|0 |2 qEt.
13.4.3
B = (0, 0, B).
A = (0, Bx1 , 0).
,
x1 x2 .
R 2 ). (13.76)
L2 (R
= 1 ( qB q2 2 2 1 2 1 1
H p21 + p22 ) x1 p2 + B x1 = x1
p1 + mc2 ( p2 )2 ,
2m m 2m 2m 2 mc
c = qBm
. 1 -
c p2 . p2
259
. ,
1. ( x3
.)
: -
,
.
c , .
| |k, k -
p2
[ ]
1 2 1 k 2
H(| |k) =
2
p + mc (x1 ) | |k (13.85)
2m 1 2 mc
| |k H,
| -
|n mk
c
.
a eiap , | = ei mc p|n.
k
(13.85) En = c (n + 21 ), n =
0, 1, 2, . . .,
|n, k = ei mc p|n |k.

k
(13.86)
k ,
.
(Landau).

1 1
dkc (n + )ei mc p|nn|ei mc p |kk| =
k k
=
H c (n + )Pn (13.87)
n=0
2 n=0
2

dkei mc p|nn|ei mc p |kk|
k k
Pn = (13.88)
.
, -
x1 x2 L. k
2/L: k = n 2 L
, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .. H
k
m c
( ) L,

mc
|n| A := nmax , (13.89)
2
A = L2 . g
n nmax , 2nmax + 1. -
nmax >> 1,
mc
g 2nmax = A. (13.90)

260
13.
13.3: R x1 x2 .
13.4.4
m q
, . . 13.3. ( , -
-
.) C R x1 x2 . B
3, ,
r. A = A (r)ee , e

. = B dS S
H C.
= A dS S = C A d = A (R)2R

A (R) = . (13.91)
2R
,
= 1 ( i qA )2 = 1 ( i q )2 .
H (13.92)
2m R 2mR2 2
q

H() = E, () = ei 2 (),
d2
2
+ 2mR2 E = 0, (13.93)
d

() = ei 2mR2 E
.
[ ( ) ]
q
E () = C exp i 2mR E + 2 . (13.94)
2

(2) = (0) 2mR2 E + q 2
= n n.
,
( )2
1 q
En = n , (13.95)
2mR2 2
n = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
1
() = ein . (13.96)
2
261
. ,
n = 0,
n0 q2
.
,
.
13.5
13.5.1
, E
B A
f
= A A = A + f, (13.97)
t
f (rr , t). (13.97) -
. ,
-
.
, -
. (13.97)
|.
| | = eiqf (r ,t) |. (13.98)
eiqf (r ,t)peiqf (r ,t) = p q

f (
r , t), (13.99)
q
p , eiqf ] = qei c f f .
[
eiqf (r ,t) (
p qA A ,
A)eiqf (r ,t) = p qA (13.100)
-
,
eiqf (r ,t)reiqf (r ,t) = r. (13.101)
|(t) = eiHt | H
. (13.74) A . -
q
| (t) = ei c f (r ,t) |. ,
f
i | (t) = eiqf (r ,t) (i q )|(t). (13.102)
t t t
. (13.10013.102)
| (t),
i | (t) = H (13.103)
t
H . (13.74)
A , . (13.97).
.
262
13.
13.4: -.
,
B .
. (13.99), p
. , . (13.100),
= p qA
A :
eiqf (r ,t) .
,
p . ,
.
. [i ,
j ] =
j
A i
iq(xi
A
xj
). [
1 , 3 .
2 ] = iq B
, -

[
xi , xj ] = 0, [
xi ,
j ] = iij , [
i ,
j ] = iq k .
ijk B (13.104)
k
13.5.2 -
, ,
.
B E . ,
(Y. Aharonov) (D. Bohm) 1959 [196].
. 13.4, -
, .
, -
, .
,
.
(0) (x
x, t) , -
( ),
. x , -
(0)
1 (x x, t) + (0) x, t), (0)
2 (x x, t)
1 (x
(0)
2 (x x, t) .
263
. ,
, -
. A
H B = A = 0.
dx x AA = A A dSS = B dS S=
, . = 0, -
.
, B = 0, -
A = f f . -
1 (x x, t)
.
x,t) (0)
iqf1 (x
, e 1 (xx, t). x
, f1 (x) = c1 dx x f1 = c1 dx x A , c1
1 . , 2 (x x, t)
x,t) (0)

e iqf2 (x
1 (x x, t), f2 = c2 dx x A c2
2 .

x, t) = eiqf1 (xx,t) (0)
(x 1 (xx, t) + eiqf2 (xx,t) (0)
2 (xx, t) (13.105)

|(x x, t)|2 exp(iq(f1 f2 ) =
exp[iq dx x A], x0 x c1
x x 0 c2 .
dxx A = , eiq .
[ ]
|(x x, t)|2 = |(0)
1 x
(x , t)|2
+ |
(0)
2 x
(x , t)|2
+ 2Re e iq (0)
1 x
(x , t)
(0)
2 x
(x , t) . (13.106)

.
[197]
, .
1. | |
p | = 0.

.
2. ;
3. ( ) -
.
4. ;
5.
.
.
6. , ;
7. ;
8. ( -)
.
;
264
13.
= T + V , T =
1. H 1 2
2m p
. | H

|2T r V (
r )| = 0.
V (r) = a/rn .
2. r2 -
p 2
.
3. -
(i) V (r) = kra , k 0 < a < 2 (ii) V (r) = V0 log(r/r0 ), V0 , r0
.
4. 2, . (13.32).
5. (13.64) . (13.63).
6. ,
{
0 r<R
V (r) =
r R.
2
zn,
() En, = 2mR2
, zn, n-
j (x) = 0.
() zn, -
En, n = 4.
7. (13.42) .

r b2 , u , b ,
,
.
.
8.

3

J(A) = i Aij a
a j ,
i=1,j=1
ij 3 3 .

() [J(A),
J(B)] 1 [A, B]). ( J(A)
= iJ(
i
, U (3),
.)
[H,
() H J(A)]
=
0 A. ( .)
9. () j , . (13.67)
2 + 1
j+1 (x) + j1 (x) = j (x)
x

j (x) = j (x) j+1 (x),
x
(x).
265
. ,
() , j
, (13.66).
() x 0, j (x) x (x) x+1 .
() , . (13.70).
10. (V (r) = r < R V (r) = 0 r R)

j (kR)
(k) = tan1 .
(kR)
0 , 1 2 , kR 0.
11. . (13.74)
(1.14).
12. |E -
, . (13.81),
( )1/6
4m2 E
x|E = Ai[(2mqE)1/3 (x + )], (13.107)
qE qE
1
t3
itzi 3
Ai(z) = 2 dte (Airy).
[ ]
13. 0 (x) = (2 2 )1/4 exp
x2
42
.
(x)2 .
14. x1 , x2 |Pn |x1 , x2 -
, . (13.88), x1 x2 .
15. B, . 13.4.4.
n0 .
n0 ,
p = Ri

.
16. B = (0, 0, B) x1 x2 .
A = 21 B r .
2 , |kx , y,
1 x

1 |kx , y = kx |kx , y x
2 |kx , y = y|kx , y.
() |kx , y .
() |x, ky x
1
2 -
.
() kx , y|x, ky .
3 , . . 6
Galindo Pascual [198].
-, . Peskin Tonomura [199] Aharonov-
Rohrlich [200].
266
14

,
,

.
[201]
14.1

, .
-
( n, , m ).
, -
,
. , -
.

,
.
[202].

. , -
, .
.
. ,

. , , ,
(O. Stern) (W. Gerlach) [204].

. -
,
267
. ,
14.1: . : .
Ag
. : -
.
.
.
, -
. ,
. . -
, ( )
.
-
(S. Goudsmit) (G. E. Uhlenbeck) [205]. -

.
,
.

-.
. -
Ag.
. -
,

.

.
,
. ,
r0 .
, 1920
r0 1015 m. -
~,
m~e r0 > 1012 m/s, . .
268
14.
4 He 39 K 3 He 4 He
1 1 1 1 3 1
s 2 2 2 2
0 2 2
0
14.1: ,
-
,
.

.
14.2
14.2.1
-
. 13. -
j , -
j.
j .
, -
, -
.
R 3 ), -
L2 (R
Vs .
L2 (RR 3 ) Vs . Hs
. , si
,

[
si , sj ] = i ijk sk . (14.1)
k
Vs |s, ms
s2 |s, ms = s(s + 1)|s, ms s3 |s, ms = ms |s, ms . s
, ms s, s + 1, . . . , s 1, s.
To s
, .
, .
s . 14.1 s
. , , ,
s = 12 .
s , Vs = C 2s+1 ,
s Hs = L2 (R R 3 )CC 2s+1 .

J = 1 + 1 s. (14.2)
, ms
s3 , , , s
.
269
. ,
,
(, m ) (j, mj ).
. (14.2)
J = L
+ S , (14.3)
L i = i 1 Si = 1 si . Pi = pi 1
Xi = xi 1, , Hs .

, - , m
s Hs = L2 (R R 3 ) C 2s+1 ,

[Xi, X j ] = 0, [Pi , Pj ] = 0, [X
i , Pj ] = iij , [Ji , Jj ] = i ijk Jk . (14.4)
k
. (14.4) . (14.3) - -
.
14.2.2 Hs
|n L2 (R R 3 ) |n, ms = |n |ms Hs .
s . -
L2 (R R 3 ), |rr |kk . ,
|rr , ms |kk , ms Hs .
|n, , m L2 (R R 3 ),
Hs |n, , m , ms . ,
, |n, j, mj ,
2
J J 3 ,
. 11.4.
Hs -
ms ms (rr ) ,

s (rr )
s1 (rr )
(14.5)
... .
s (rr )
(rr )cms Hs .
Cor(Pi , Sj ).
- Hs
.
14.2.3
, .
, m1 m2 s1 s2 ,
V (|x 1
x 2 |). . 13.1,

H = HKM + Hrel , H KM
270
14.
rel
M = m1 + m2 , H
.
, H KM ,
. -
.
, H rel , -
.

J = L
KM + L
rel + S 1 + S 2 , (14.6)
KM = X P , L
L rel = r p
S 1 , S 2 .
, L KM .
. (14.6) . (14.3)
rel + S 1 + S 2 .
S =L (14.7)
o ,
.
, rel = 0,
S = S 1 + S 2 .
rel > 0, S 2 . , -
, s
. , s

.
. (14.7) s1 s2 -
,
. rel , s
s1 +s2 s1 +s2 .
N N si .
i=1 si .
14.3 -

14.3.1
-
.
B . -
(13.74). -
q, m s (E
E , B ),
( )2
= 1 P qA
H B S
A + q B (14.8)
2m
271
. ,
B B S . (14.8)
(13.77)
.
,
. , -
(q = 0). g
2m
g= , (14.9)
q
, . (14.8) -
2m
q
B (L S ),
L + gS
q
= L + gS
(L S ). (14.10)
2m
e
, 2m
, B
.

.
s1 s2 1 2 . s > 0
.
1B S 1 2B S 2 .
, B B S .
S = 1S 1 + 2S 2 . (14.11)
2 2 2
2S = 12S 1 + 22S 2 + 21 2S 1 S 2 .
, S = S 1 + S 2 ,
S 1 S 2 . (11.90).
1 s1 (s1 + 1) 2 s2 (s2 + 1)
2 = 1 2 + (1 2 ) . (14.12)
s(s + 1)
, ,
. ,
g ( ge ) -2.
ge = 2.00231930436153(53)
10 , ge
.
14.3.2 -
.(14.8) -.
Ag , B (x x) = (0, 0, B(x
x)).
1
Ag (q = 0) s = 2
. (14.8)
= 1 P 2 B(X)
H S3 . (14.13)
2m
272
14.

d Pi ]S3 = B (X
)S3 .
Pi = i[B(X), (14.14)
dt xi
H ms = 12 , . (14.14)
d B
Pi = (X), (14.15)
dt 2 xi
, ms .
,
.
14.3.3

,
. -
. C2s+1
H = B B s B . -
,

s i = i[H, si ] = i sj , si ] =
Bj [ ijk Bj sk , (14.16)
j jk
s = B
B s. (14.17)
. (14.17) B = (0, 0, B), s 1 = B

s2 , s 2 =
B s1 , s 3 = 0. s = s1 i
s2
s = iB
s s 3 = 0, (14.18)
s (t) = s (0)eiBt , s3 (t) = s3 (0). (14.19)
s1 (t) = s1 (0) cos(Bt) + s2 (0) sin(Bt), (14.20)

s2 (t) = s1 (0) sin(Bt) + s2 (0) cos(Bt), (14.21)
s3 (t) = s3 (0). (14.22)

= B.
(Larmor). -
. To
, /B.
273
. ,
14.2: . -
.
, ,
. s B , cos =
s B
B
B | .
|ss||B
d = B s
cos =
s3
, (14.23)
s(s + 1)B s(s + 1)

d (-
(2s + 1) ms / s(s + 1). cos
) B B s.
.
14.3.4
, -
( ).
.
,
, .
m, s -
(r),
1
VLS = r ( L S,
r)L (14.24)
2m
LS -. -
,
1
2
[206].
,
1 2 [5]
1
E= 1 n )(
[3( 2 n ) 1 2 ] , (14.25)
4r3
r n
.
-
(14.10) -
L 1 L
2 S 1
S 2 .
274
14.
14.3.5
g = 2 -

12 .
s = 12 , C 2 . -
H 1
2

3
=
K i
K i . (14.26)
i=1
K i , i = 1, 2, 3, L2 (R
R 3 ).

)2 =
(K K j
iK i
j = K iK j (ij 1 + i ijk
k )
ij ij k

1 + i
=K
2
ijk [K j]
i, K k (14.27)
2 ijk
. (6.3).
-
( )
= 1 [(
H p qA
A) ]2 + q (14.28)
2m
. (13.104), . (14.27)

p qA
[( A) ]2 = (
p qA
A)2 1 + q Bi si , (14.29)
i
si = 12
i .
( )2
= 1 P qA
H
q
A + q + B S (14.30)
2m m
. (14.8) = q/m, g = 2.
, . (14.28) - ,
, -
.
1. -
s;
2.
;
3. s;
4. ;
275
. ,
5. ;
6. ,

; 100T
.
1. s
. (14.17).
() s = 12 , (t)
0 .
() s = 1 s1 .
t s1 .
;
2. . (14.17) B = (0, 0, (t t0 )). -

3.
3. s = 12 > 0,
B0 > 0 3 .
t = 0 B1 1.
3 12
t > ;
4. s = 12 a.
.
(14.25). -
.
5. s = 12 1 2 -
B .
H = 1B S 1 2B S 2 + aS
S 1 S 2 , a .
.
s = 1.
. Goudsmit [208],
Giulini [209] Tomonaga [210].
276
15
. [211]
. , -
.
, , -
, .
-
. ,
.
.
15.1
15.1.1
, ,
m s. -
. . 9,

. , -
, .
,
. , m s.
; ,
, .
,
.
,
.
. -
, ,
.
277
. ,
, , -
.
, .

,
. H. -
H2 = H H. |a
H, |a, b = |a |b
H2 . V ,
V |a, b = |b, a. (15.1)
V 2 |a, b = V |b, a = |a, b, V 2 = 1, V +1

1, V .

1 1
|a, bS = (|a, b + |b, a) |a, bA = (|a, b |b, a). (15.2)
2 2

V |a, bS = |a, bS V |a, bA = |a, bA . (15.3)

V +1, |a, bS .
, HS2
PS .
V 1, |a, bA .
, HA 2
-
PA .
H2 = HS2 HA
2
PS + PA = 1
V = PS PA (15.4)
,
| V | H2 .
A H2 ,
|A|
= |V AV | |, V AV = A,

V ] = 0.
[A, (15.5)
(15.5) H

, [H, V ] = 0.
A H2 A = (PS + PA )A( PS + PA ) = PS APS +
PS APA + PA APS + PA APA . PS APS V = PS APS (PS PA ) = PS APS =
V PS APS , [PS APS , V ] = 0. [PA APA , V ] = 0 [PS APA , V ] =
2PS APA . . (15.5) PS APA + PS APA = 0,
A = PS APS + PA APA . (15.6)
278
15.
| HS2 , | HA2
| = | + |, .
A |A|
= |A|
+ |A|,

.

H2 .
.
15.1.2 -
-
.
, . ,
HS2
HA2
.
[213].
( ). -
HS2 -
HA
2
. HS2 HA
2

.
(
. )
( . ). -
| V | = |
| V | = |.
-
.
-. s -
.
-
1920 ,
1942 [212].
, ,
.
.
- , -
.
[214],
. ,
s, 2
(1)2s . -

2.
279
. ,
Hs s |rr , m -
, r m ( -
ms ). Hs2 s
|rr 1 , r 2 , m1 , m2 = |rr 1 , m1 |rr 2 , m2 . | Hs2

m1 m2 (rr 1 , r 2 ) = rr 1 , r 2 , m1 , m2 |, (15.7)
-
. , m2 m1 (rr 2 , r 1 ) = m1 m2 (rr 1 , r 2 )
m2 m1 (rr 2 , r 1 ) = m1 m2 (rr 1 , r 2 ).
, . ,
r 1 r 2 ,
m1 m2 .
s = 21 .
,
m1 m2 (rr 1 , r 2 ) = (rr 1 , r 2 )cm1 m2 , (15.8)
cm1 m2 2 2 . cm1 m2
C2 C2 .
s = 1 , cm1 m2 = cm2 m1 s = 0
cm1 m2 = cm2 m1 .
s = 0, (rr 1 , r 2 ) ,
s = 1,
(rr 1 , r 2 ) ,
15.1.3 N
, N . H
,
HN = H
| H
{z. . . H} . (15.9)
N
|a H.
|a1 , a2 , . . . , aN := |a1 |a2 . . . |an
H. P (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) a1 , a2 , . . . , aN
sgn(P ) , sgn(P ) = 1 sgn(P ) =
1 .
1
|a1 , a2 , . . . , aN S = |P (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) (15.10)
N! P
1
|a1 , a2 , . . . , aN A = sgn(P )|P (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ), (15.11)
N! P
280
15.
( N !) a1 , a2 , . . . , aN .
, ai aj +1 |a1 , a2 , . . . , aN S
1 |a1 , a2 , . . . , aN A . |a1 , a2 , . . . , aN A
ai aj ,
|a1 , a2 , . . . , aN A = |a1 , a2 , . . . , aN A .
,
= 3,
1
|a1 , a2 , a3 S = [|a1 , a2 , a3 + |a3 , a1 , a2 + |a2 , a3 , a1 + |a1 , a3 , a2 + |a2 , a1 , a3 + |a3 , a2 , a1 ]
6
1
|a1 , a2 , a3 A = [|a1 , a2 , a3 + |a3 , a1 , a2 + |a2 , a3 , a1 |a1 , a3 , a2 |a2 , a1 , a3 |a3 , a2 , a1 ]
6
HN |a1 , a2 , . . . , aN S
HSN . HN
|a1 , a2 , . . . , aN A
HAN
.
. |a |n H.
|a1 , . . . aN |n1 , . . . nN HN . ,
(15.1015.11) -
HN .
|a1 , . . . , aN A |a1 , . . . aN
HA N
.

n1 |a1 n1 |a2 . . . n1 |aN

1 n2 |a1 n2 |a2 . . . n2 |aN

n1 , . . . , nN |a1 , . . . , aN A = (15.12)
N! . . . ... ... ...
nN |a1 nN |a2 . . . nN |aN .
. (15.12) 1
. (15.11). (Slater). . (15.12)
N = 2 N .
|a |n .
. , H -
,
. H = C d ,
d. ai 1, 2, . . . , d. , dimHN = dN .
HSN
|a1 , a2 , . . . , aN S . -
N d ,
(N + d 1)!
dimHSN = . (15.13)
N !(d 1)!
HA N

|a1 , a2 , . . . , aN A . -
N d
281
. ,
. N > d -
, dimHAN
= 0. N d,
N d!
dimHA = . (15.14)
N !(d N )!
d,
N , N d.
, N .
( N ).
N HSN ()
HA N
(). HSN HA
N
, - N .
.
r s .
a = 1, 2, . . . , r (
, a = 1 , a = 2 ) b =
1, 2, . . . , s .
a Ha b Kb .
Na a a
Mb b b.
A (H2 )A (Hr )A (K1 )S (K2 )S . . . (Ks )S .

(H1 )N N2 Nr M1 M2 Ms
1
(15.15)
-
-
, .
15.2
15.2.1
N - .
- HN
1 . . . 1 + 1 h
=h
H . . . 1 + . . . + 1 1 . . . h,
(15.16)
h H .
h . |n -
h|n
h, = n |n. n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
0 1 2 . . .. g -
g n .
282
15.
(15.10, 15.11), |n1 , n2 , . . . , nN S |n1 , n2 , . . . , nN A -

(15.16),
( N )

1 , n 2 , . . . , n N S =
H|n n |n1 , n2 , . . . , nN S (15.17)
i
i=1
( N )

1 , n2 , . . . , nN A =
H|n ni |n1 , n2 , . . . , nN A . (15.18)
i=1
n1 , n2 . . . , nN .
H
HS,A
N
.
. . -
(|0) .
N |0, 0, . . . , 0S E0 = N 0 .
g0 , -
+g0 1)!
N (N N !(g0 1)!
.
HS , H = C , H 0 .
N g0
. ,
ni , . . -

.
, -
N |0, 1, 2, . . . N 1A ,
N .

N 1
E0 = n . (15.19)
n=0
F -
(15.19), F = N 1 .
N , E0
n n1 .
. .
(), h
,

() = 1. (15.20)
n,n
() h -
. F (F ) = N .
,
d
g() = . (15.21)
d
283
. ,
g()
+ , << .
,
n
dg(). , . (15.19)
F
E0 = g()d. (15.22)
0
15.2.2 :
N .
n = n, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .. ,
-.
. N , |0, 0, . . . , 0S
N 0. K K =
i=1 ni N -
ni , i = 1, 2, . . . N K.
.

1 0 |0, 0, 0, . . . , 0S 1
2 |1, 0, 0, . . . , 0S 1
3 2 |1, 1, 0, . . . , 0S 2
|2, 0, 0, . . . , 0S
4 3 |1, 1, 1, 0, . . . , 0S 3
|2, 1, 0, . . . , 0S
|3, 0, 0, . . . , 0S
. N |0, 1, 2, . . . , N

1
E0 = (0 + 1 + 2 + . . . + N 1) = N (N 1). (15.23)
2
E0 + k, k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
N - ni , i = 1, 2, . . . N , -
21 N (N 1) + k.
.

1 E0 |0, 1, 2, . . . , N 3, N 2, N 1S 1
2 E0 + |0, 1, 2, . . . , N 3, N 2, N S 1
3 E0 + 2 |0, 1, 2, . . . , N 3, N 2, N + 1S 2
|0, 1, 2, . . . , N 3, N 1, N S
4 E0 + 3 |0, 1, 2, . . . , N 3, N 2, N + 2S 3
|0, 1, 2, . . . , N 3, N 1, N + 1S
|0, 1, 2, . . . , N 2, N 1, N S
284
15.
15.2.3 :
N s,
L.
n1 , n2 , n3 = 1, 2, 3, . . .,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
n = (n + n + n ) = n , (15.24)
mL2 1 2 3
mL2
n = (n1 , n2 , n3 ).
2s + 1, .
N ,
() .

() = (2s + 1) 1, (15.25)
n|<a
n ,|n
a2 = mL2 /(2 2 ). mL2 / 2 >> 1

, 2 /L2
. ,

4 V
() = (2s + 1) d3 n = (2s + 1) a3 = (2s + 1) 2 (2m)3/2 , (15.26)
|n
n|<a 3 6
V = L3 |n n| < a
a. , (F ) =
N ,
( )2/3
1 6 2 N
F = . (15.27)
2m (2s + 1) V

V
g() = (2s + 1) 2
(2m)3/2 . (15.28)
4
2 2
. (15.22). 0 = mL 2
, 0 = 0.

F
V 3/2 V 5/2
E0 = (2s + 1) 2 (2m) 3/2 d = (2s + 1) 2
(2m)3/2 F
4 0 10
CF N 5/3
= , (15.29)
m(2s + 1)2/3 V 2/3
3
CF = 10 (6 2 )2/3 . = E0 /V
n = N /V ,
CF
= 2/3
n5/3 . (15.30)
m(2s + 1)
285
. ,
15.3
1015 m. -
(> 1011 m)
+Ze, Z , -
. ,
. -
N K .
i = 1, 2, . . . , N . K
, a = 1, 2, . . . , K,
Za Ma .
, -
N
p2i K 2
P a
=
H + + V ( a ),
r i, R (15.31)
i=1
2m a=1
2M a
a , pi Pa ,
ri , R
2
m , = 4e
137
1
V

N
K
Za Za Zb 1
V (rr i , R a ) = + + . (15.32)
i=1 a=1
|rr i R a | 1a<bK |R
Ra R b |
1i<jN
|rr i r j |
. (15.32) -,
-
.
(15.31)
, -
, .
E0 .
(15.31)
, K = 1.
, K 2 .
K
K, N 1023 N = a=1 Za .
, ,
E0 > , . 8.2. -
. ,
,
E0 > C(Z)(N + K), (15.33)
N K, C(Z)
, Z = maxa Za , N + K .
.
286
15.
K = 1 (), (15.33), N -
E0 /N N . N -
,
. , .
, -
.
(15.33) ,
2N N
. -
.
. -
,
. 2N
N
. . (15.33)
,
.

.
. ,
.
1967 (F. Dyson) (A. Lenard) [215],
20 . -
.
[216].
15.1. . -
(15.31) (15.33) C(Z) 1, 72 Z 2 .
. -
, E0 N 7/5 [217, 218],
N . ,
. - .
,
, ,
.
15.4
15.4.1
, -
: . (15.15), Na
Mb . , -
.
287
. ,
1. -
. :
, .
,
. ,
, -
.
2. ,
.
3. -
,
.
,
. (Fock).
. H -
.
0 , ,
... .
N > 1
, .

FB (H) = C H HS2 HS3 . . . (15.34)
FF (H) = C H HA
2
HA
3
... (15.35)

, -
H
.
, .
H.
( ) |a H. | H
,
a = a| (15.36)
a = |a. a H a H .
H
| = a a , (15.37)
: ,
( a ).

a|a = a a .
288
15.
H ,
. , ha b b h| f a b hb c c -
fh|.
.
, h
a ha b b .
|a, b = |a |b H2 ,
H2 ab . abc H3 , abcd H4 .
() []
.
1 1 abc
(ab) = ( ab + ba ), (abc) = ( + cab + bca + bac + cba + acb )
2 3!
1 1 abc
[ab] = ( ab ba ), [abc] = ( + cab + bca bac cba acb )
2 3!
,
a1 a2 ...an = (a1 a2 ...an ) a1 a2 ...an HSn ,
a1 a2 ...an = [a1 a2 ...an ] a1 a2 ...an HA

n
.
(15.34), | ( -
)

a

1 2
a a

| = , (15.38)
. . .
a a ...a
1 2 n
...
C . a1 a2 ...an HSn , | FB (H), a1 a2 ...an

HAn
| FB (H).
(, , )
, (, , )
n.
| | FB (H) FA (H)

+
| = a1 a2 ...an a1 a2 ...an . (15.39)
n=1
15.4.2
a H FB (H)
b
b ba

2b ba a
3b 1 2
a
()| = , (15.40)
. . .

nb 1 2 n1
ba a ...a
...
289
. ,
HSn HSn1 .
a H

0
a
(a b)

2(a a b)
a
()| = 3 1 2 , (15.41)

...

n (a1 a2 ...an1 b)
...
HSn HSn+1

[ =a
a()] (), (15.42)

[ a
a(), (
)] = 0 a (), a
[ ()] = 0. (15.43)

0
c c a

c c(a b)
2
a
() )| =
a(
,
(15.44)
...
n
c c(a1 ...an1 an )

...

c c c c
2 (a c) c c c a + a c c

3 (ab c) c c c ab + 2 c (ca b)
a
( a ()| =
)

=

.

... ...
(n + 1) (a1 ...an c) c c a1 ...an
c + n c c(a1 ...an1 an )
... ...
[
a( a () a
) ()
a( c c )| | FB (H).
)]| = (
[
a( ()] = (
, a c c )1. (15.45)
a () a , a ( +) = a ()+ a
()
C . a () = a
a a . , a =a
() a a .
, . (15.45)
[ b ] = a b 1.
aa , a (15.46)
a
FB (H) .

1
0

0

|0 = FB (H), (15.47)
. . .

0
...
290
15.
0 . ,
a |0 = 0 a.
a

1
|Na1 , Na2 , . . . , Nan = aa1 )Na1 (
( aa2 )Na2 . . . (
aan )Nan |0, (15.48)
Na1 !Na2 ! . . . Nan !
n- {a1 , . . . Nan } n = 0, 1, 2, . . .. (15.48) -

Na1 a1 , Na2 a2 ,
. (15.48) N = a Na , -
HSN . (15.48) N ,
(15.10).
(15.38) ,
A

A00 A01 A02 . . . A0n . . .
A10 A11 A12 . . . A1n . . .

A20 A21 A22 . . . A2n . . .
A =
... ... ... ... ... ...
(15.49)

Am0 Am1 Am2 . . . Amn . . .
... ... ... ... ... ...
Amn HSn n HSm

m . Amn n
n
m m . -
n
m , n m,

A = b1 . . . a
Ka1 a2 ...an b1 b2 ...bm a bm a
a1 . . . a
an , (15.50)
n=0 m=0
Ka1 a2 ...an b1 b2 ...bm . . (15.71)

. -
(normal-ordered) A.
F = a a f a b a
b , f a b -
f H. . (15.44)

0
f abb

2 c(a b)
f
F | =
c .
(15.51)
...
n c(a1 ...an1 f an ) c
...
F
f). . (15.51)
d(
291
. ,
f) = 0 f (f 1 + 1 f) (f 1 1 + 1 f 1 + 1 1 f) . . . . (15.52)
d(
u H. ( u) FB (H)
u) = 1 u (
( u u) (
u u u) . . . . (15.53)
u) , (
( u1 )(
u2 ) = (
u1 u2 ).
G H
FB (H).

u = eif t f H.
ift ) i d (e
(e ift )|t=0 .
dt
. (15.53) (e ift ) d(
f) (
).
[ ]
ift ) = exp id(
(e f)t . (15.54)
| ,
. (15.38) a1 a2 ...an . . (15.51)
( )
f)| = nba1 ...an1 f b c ca1 ...an1 = nT r (1) f ,
|d( (15.55)
(1) H ,
((1) )b c = ba ...a ca1 ...an1

1 n1 (15.56)
. , 1 -
f)
. . (15.55) d(
n.
|a H f fa ,

(15.48) d(f ) ni=1 Nai fai ,

( n )

f)|Na , Na , . . . , Nan =
d( 1 2 Na fa |Na , Na , . . . , Nan
1 2 (15.57)
i i
i=1
n
f = 1, d(
1)

i=1 Nai .
N ,
= d(
N a a
1) = a a . (15.58)
. H = C n ,
[aa , a
b ] = [ b ] = 0 [
aa , a b ] = a b 1, a, b = 1, 2, . . . , n,
aa , a
FB (C
C n ) n . C n
U (n), ( u)
U (n) . xa = 12 ( aa + aa ) pa = 12i ( aa ),
aa
[
xa , xb ] = 0 [ xa , pb ] = iab 1,
pa , pb ] = 0 [ (15.59)
- Hn .
-,
a a .
a a
292
15.
15.4.3
a H FF (H)
b
b ba

2b
3b 1 2
ba a

c()| = , (15.60)
. . .

nb ba1 a2 ...an1
...
HSn HSn1 .
a H

0
a
[a b]

2[a a b]

c ()| = 3 1 2 , (15.61)

...

n [a1 a2 ...an1 b]
...
HSn HSn+1

[ = c (),
c()] (15.62)
[ c(
c(), )]+ = 0 c (), c ()]+ = 0,
[ (15.63)
[A, B]
+ = AB +B A.

,

0
c c a

2
c[a
b]

c () c( )| =

c ,
(15.64)
...
c c[a1 ...an1 an ]
n
...

c c c c
2 [a c] c c c a a c c

[ab
3 c c] c c ab 2 c [ca b]
c( c ()| =
)
=

(15.65)
,
... ...
(n + 1) 1 n c c c a1 ...an n
[a ...a c]
c c[a1 ...an1 an ]
... ...
[ , c ()] = (
c( c c )1. (15.66)
293
. ,
c () = ca a c()
= ca a , . (15.66)
ca , cb ] = a b 1.
[ (15.67)
(15.63)
ca )2 = 0
( ca )2 = 0
( (15.68)

1
0

0
|0 =
. . . FB (F), (15.69)

0
...

ca1 )Na1 (
|Na1 , Na2 , . . . , Nan = ( ca2 )Na2 . . . (
can )Nan , |0, (15.70)
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . Nai = 0, 1. Na
. (15.68), . (15.48)
Na1 a1 , Na2 a2 , .
(15.48) N = a Na ,
HAN
. (15.48) N ,
(15.11).
A

A= Ka1 a2 ...an b1 b2 ...bm cb1 . . . cbm ca1 . . . can , (15.71)
n=0 m=0
Ka1 a2 ...an b1 b2 ...bm .

u H ( u) FA (H)
. (15.53). G H -

FF (H). u = eif t f H, -
d( f) = d (e ift )|t=0 . d(
f) . (15.52)
dt
a b
ca f b c . | , . (15.55).
|a H f fa ,
(15.48) d( f)
i=1 Nai fai , . (15.57).

f = 1, d(1),
= d(
N 1) = c ca . (15.72)
a
n
i=1 Nai .
. H = C d , (15.35)
, HA n
= n > d. HA n
-
2d
(dn)!n! , FA (C
d!
C ) n=0 (dn)!n! = 2 , FA (C
d d d! d d
C ) = C , -
d .
C d U (d), ( u)
d
U (d) C 2 . d = 1, FA (C C ) = C 2 , c

+ c .
294
15.
15.5
15.5.1
H
M s, L2 (R R 3 ) C
C 2s+1 . -
.
|a = |pp, m H, p m
3.
cm (pp) cm (pp)
cm (pp), cm (pp )]+ = 0, [

cm (pp), cm (pp )]+ = 0, [
[ cm (pp), cm (pp )]+ = mm 3 (pp p )1. (15.73)
2
, H h = p 1.
2m
iht
, Ut = (e ),
3 p2
H = d( h) = d p 2M cm (pp) cm (pp).
m
, 3 (

) = d() = m d pcm (p )
P p p p p
cm (p ).

d3 p px d3 p
x) =
m (x c
m p
(p )e ip x
m x
(x ) = c (pp)eippxx . (15.74)
(2)3/2 (2)3/2 m

[m (x x )]+ = 0 [m
x), m (x
x), m
(x x )]+ = 0 [m (x
(x x), m x )]+ = mm 3 (x
(x x x )1.(15.75)
P , N
H,

1
H=
d3 xm x)2 m (x
(x x) (15.76)
2M m

P = i d3 xm m (x
x)
(x x) (15.77)

m

=
N d3 xm x)m (x
(x x) (15.78)
m
, -

3 3 =
.
3
, . (15.7615.78) H = d x(xx), P = d x x) N
(x
d x x),
(x
1
x) =
(x x)2 m (x
m (x x) (15.79)
2M m

x) = i
(x m m (x
x)
(x x) (15.80)
m
295
. ,
,

x) = i
(x m x)m (x
(x x) (15.81)
m
.
. (15.55) -
| n. ,

| x)| =
(x (1) x, x ),
mm (x (15.82)
m
(1) .
h , s, q
-
A . (14.8).
, H = d(h)
( 2
)
1 iq + q
H = d xm (x
3
x) + q + A
2
A m (x
2
x)
2M m 2m

m

+ d3 xm B S mm m (x
x)B
(x x), (15.83)
mm
S mm . (15.83) -
(13.76)
.

B
[A, C]
= [A,
B]
+ C + B[
A,
C]
+, (15.84)
.

d(h),
m (x
i x) = h
m (x x), (15.85)
t
,
. ,
, -
,
.
15.5.2

d(h) h
. -
,
.
296
15.
, ,
V (x x, y ). H2 ,
V ab cd ab H2 V ab cd cd .
V , V ab cd cd = V (a, b) ab .
n ,
1
V (ai , aj ) a1 ...ai ...aj ...an , (15.86)
2 i,j
12 -
i j. ,

1 1 1
V = ca cb cb ca =
V (a, b) ca ca cb cb
V (a, b) ca ca .
V (a, a) (15.87)
2 a,b 2 a,b 2 a
.(15.86) i = j,
.
V (a, a) = 0,
1
V = ca ca cb cb .
V (a, b) (15.88)
2 a,b
, V ( x , y),
. (15.88)

1
V = d3 xd3 yV (x
x, y ) x)
(x (yy ), (15.89)
2
(x
x) (15.81).
(15.76)

1 3 2 1
H=
x) m (x
d xm (x x) + d3 xd3 yV (x
x, y ) x)
(x (yy ) (15.90)
2M m 2
,
.
1. 4 4 a, b, c, d .
() , () , () ;
2.
.

. He
;
3. -
;
4. .
;
297
. ,
1. . (A 11A)
2
|a, b,
|a, bS , |a, bA . A
|a, |b, .
2. 5 4 -
, () , (ii) (iii)
.
3. s = 0,
.
4. 4 3 -
(i) s = 21 (ii) s = 1.
( ).
5. N 1
2 .
6.
2
g() = 2 3 , . -
N s, N .
. [219]
Straumann [220]. -, . Duck
Sudarshan [221]. , . Leinaas, Anyons Greenberg,
Generaliza ons of Quantum Sta s cs Compendium of Quantum Physics [115].
, . Lieb Seiringer [216]
, . Berezin [222].
298
16
. .
,
-

.
16.1

. , -
. , -
H

H|n = En |n, (16.1)
n = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
-
|0, -
. ,
,
.
En Em .

, -
. , .
299
. ,
, -
.

.
, -
,
. ,
N . N -
( P )
k < N H. (
P H
). H P ,
,
|n|H
P H
P |n|
<< 1, (16.2)
|En |
0 n < k.
Z.
Hs = L2 (R R 3 ) C 2 . (
) ()
6- L2 (R R 3 ) -
. 6Z -
. P Z = 15, -
4 1011 , 8B ,
3T B -
.
, o Zn Z = 30, -
1012 T B, (2016) -
.
1050 T B Hg Z = 80. -
, -
, .
-
.
16.2
16.2.1
H =H0 +
V , H
0 ,
0 |n0 = En(0) |n0 ,

H (16.3)
V ,
.
300
16.

, H
,
En = En(0) + En(1) + 2 En(2) + . . . (16.4)

|n = |n0 + |n1 + 2 |n2 + . . . . (16.5)
(i)
|ni En , i > 0 i -
, .
. (16.4) (16.5) . (16.1),
0 + V )(|n0 + |n1 + 2 |n2 + . . .)
(H
= (En(0) + En(1) + 2 En(2) + . . .)(|n0 + |n1 + 2 |n2 + . . .) (16.6)
n|n = 1
(0 n|n1 +1 n|n0 ) + 2 (1 n|n1 +2 n|n0 +0 n|n2 ) + . . . = 0 (16.7)
. (16.7) .
Re0 n|n1 = 0 (16.8)

Re0 n|n2 +1 n|n1 = 0. (16.9)
|n0 1 n|n0
. . (16.8)
0 n|n1 = 0. (16.10)

. (16.6). 0
. (16.3). 1
0 |n1 + V |n0 = En(0) |n1 + En(1) |n0 .
H (16.11)
. (16.11) 0 n|
En(1) = 0 n|V |n0 . (16.12)
. (16.11) 0 k| k = n,
Vkn
0 k|n1 = (0) (0)
, (16.13)
En Ek
(0) (0)
Vkn =0 k|V |n0 En = Ek .
. (16.13) . (16.10)

Vkn
|n1 = (0) (0)
|k0 . (16.14)
k=n En Ek
301
. ,
,
. DE N - E H 0 .
|n0 DE . (16.12), -
, E (1) .
. (16.14) |n |k V .
:
DE |n1 . , N |k0 -
DE . . (16.11) 0 k|,
Vkn = En(1) kn . (16.15)
|k0 N
N Vkn , V DE . Vkn
.

2 . (16.6)
V |n1 + H
0 |n2 = E (2) |n0 + E (1) |n1 + E (0) |n2 .
n n n (16.16)
0 n| . (16.10)

|Vkn |2
E (2) =0 n|V |n1 = (0) (0)
. (16.17)
k=n En Ek
-
.
. ,
. 5 wikipedia
[223].
16.2.2

H = p2 + 1 m 2 x2 + x4 . -
2m 2
, H =H 0 + V , H a a
0 = ( + 12 1)
V = 4m2 2 ( )4 .
a+a

En(1) = n|( )4 |n,
a+a (16.18)
4m2 2
|n .
302
16.
a . (16.18). -
a

En(1) = 2 2
a2 a
n| 2 + a 2 + a
2 a a a
a + a
a + a
2 a a2 a
+a
a a
a |n. (16.19)
4m
N = a a
.
+ 1, a 2 2 N
2 a2 2 + 1)(N
+ 2).
a
a =N a =N a = (N
+ 3|n = (6n2 + 7n + 3).

En(1) = 2 2
n|6N
2 + 7N (16.20)
4m 4m2 2
(0)
n, n2 En
n. -
.

(15.31) K = 1, N = 2.
.
, -
HA 2
H 1 H 1 .
2 2
H = H 0 + V . H
0 = h Z 1 + 1 h
Z , h
Z =
p2
2m
Ze2 r1
Z.
h Z |n, , m |ms n = Z 22 2 ,
2ma0 n
a0 = (m)1 .
r 1 r2 |1 ,
V = | (16.21)
r1,2 .
,

.
H 0 |1, 0, 0 |1, 0, 0

o ( s = 0).
,
, .
|1, 0, 0,
H 0.

r 1 r2 |1 (|1, 0, 0 |1, 0, 0)
(1)
E0 = (1, 0, 0| 1, 0, 0|) |

|rr 1 |1, 0, 0|2 |rr 2 |1, 0, 0|2
= d3 r1 d3 r2 . (16.22)
|rr 1 r 2 |
303
. ,
rr |1, 0, 0 = 1 (Z/a0 )3/2 eZr/a0 ,

(1) e2Zr1 /a0 2Zr2 /a0 2Z
E0 = 2 (Z/a0 )6 d3 r1 d3 r2 = K, (16.23)
|rr 1 r 2 | ma20
K

1 e1 2
K= 6 2 d3 1 d3 2 , (16.24)
2 |1 2 |
= 2Zrr /a0 .
5
K = 16
, -
He
Z2 5Z 1 5
E0 = 2 2
+ 2
= 2 (Z 2 Z). (16.25)
2ma0 8ma0 ma0 8
Z = 2 E0 = 74, 8eV E0 = 79eV .

5%. Z, Z
H 0 . Z = 6
(C ) . (16.25) E0 = 877eV
4+
882eV , 0, 5%.
16.1. K . (16.24)
. (16.24) (1 , 1 , 1 ) 1
(2 , 2 , 2 ) 2 . 2
1 2 , 1 , 1 , 2
. 1 2 | = 21 + 22 21 2 cos 2

1 2 1 2 d2 sin 2
K= (4)(2) 2
d1 1 d2 2 e
64 2 0 0 0 1 + 22 21 2 cos 2
2
1
1 d
= d1 21 d2 22 e1 2
2 + 2 2
,
8 0 0 1 1 2 1 2
= cos .
dx
ax
= 2 a x,
1
d 1 2
= (1 + 2 |1 2 |) = min{1 , 2 }.
1 21 + 22 21 2 1 2 1 2
K , 1 < 2
1 > 2 , 1 2 . ,
1
1 1 2 1
K= d1 1 e d2 2 e = d1 e1 1 (2 2e1 21 e1 21 e1 )
2 0 2 0
0
1 1 1 1 3 5
d1 (21 e1 21 e21 221 e21 231 e21 ) = (2 ) = .
2 0 2 2 2 8 16
304
16.
16.2.
, -
.
, |n, , m , ms n
En . En g(En ) = 2n2 .
-
. -
, .
En,j n -
j . g(En,j ) = 2 + 1,
. n j
m .
En,j . ,
.

- .
(Sommerfeld)
[ ( )]
2 1 3
En,j = En 1 + 3 . (16.26)
n j+ 2
4n
n = 1, j = 12
, 104 .
.
16.2.3
N qi mi ,
0 En(0) |n.
i = 1, 2, . . . , N . , H
E .

=H
H 0 qiE ri , (16.27)
i
ri i . ,

En(1) = qiE n|rr i |n. (16.28)
i

E
E dd, dn
|n

dn = qi n|
r i |n. (16.29)
i
-
(n = 0).
. (16.28) -
(Stark). ,
H 0 , |n
. (16.28) Vkn .
.
305
. ,

-
. ,
, |n, , m . n = 1, . (16.28)
( )
(1)
E1 = eE E 1, 0, 0|
r |1, 0, 0 = eE
E d r|rr |1, 0, 0| r = 0,
3 2
(16.30)
|rr |1, 0, 0|2 , . (16.30) -

.
.
n = 2, ( )
|2, 0, 0, |2, 1, 1, |2, 1, 0, |2, 1, 1.
|2, 0, 0 |2, 1, 0.
, E = (0, 0, E),
n, , m | x3 , 3 ] = 0,
x3 |n, , m . [
n, , m |
x3 3 3 x3 |n, , m = (m m )n, , m |
x3 |n, , m = 0. (16.31)
m .
2, , m |
r |2, , m n =
1 .
|2, 0, 1 ,
( ) |2, 0, 0 |2, 1, 0
0 1
,
1 0
x3 |2, 1, 0.
= eE2, 0, 0| (16.32)
12 (|2, 0, 0 + |2, 1, 0) 12 (|2, 0, 0

|2, 1, 0) .
n = 2,
|2, 1, 1 |2, 1, 1,
(0)
E2 .
(0)
1 (|2, 0, 0
2
+ |2, 1, 0) E2 +
(0)
1 (|2, 0, 0
2
|2, 1, 0) E2
. 2, = 3eEa0 .
16.2.4
-
B , (14.8) i 2mqii c B
Li + giS i ) . B
(L
306
16.

.
qi
En(1) = B n|L
Li + giS i |n. (16.33)
i
2m i c
, B
B
,
n |n
qi
n = n|L
Li + giS i |n. (16.34)
i
2mi c
-
(n = 0).
, -
, . (16.33). B = (0, 0, B)
|n, , m , ms
(1) eB 3 + ge S3 |n, , m , ms = eB (m + ge ms ).
En,,m ,ms = n, , m , ms |L (16.35)
2me c 2me c
, -
, (Zeeman).
16.3
16.3.1
H H
E0 |0.
, | H
|H|
E0 . (16.36)
( ) H
|(b), b S. -
E(b) = (b)|H|(b).
bmin b E(b),
b
E(bmin ) = 0. |bmin = |(bmin ) Emin = E(bmin ). , . (16.36)

Emin E0 , (16.37)
|H|
|,
|(b), Emin E0 . ,

. , |bmin = |0 + |, |,
<< 1. , bmin |bmin = 0|0 = 1
|0 + 0| + 2 | = 0 (16.38)
307
. ,
Emin = bmin |H|b

min = 0|H|0

+ |H|0
+ 0|H| + 2 |H|

= E0 (1 + |0 + 0|) + 2 |H|.
(16.39)
. (16.38), |Emin E0 | = 2 ||H|

E0 ||.
|bmin ,
.
|(b),

S,
. . |(b) -
, , -
.

. |0 ,
H E0 |00| H.

|0 |bmin E0 Emin ,

H
H Emin |bmin bmin |. (16.40)
,
H ,
H. -
. H ,
.
. ,
.
16.3.2 He
He . -
,
, .
|b |b ,
1
rr |b = (b/a0 )3/2 ebr/a0 (16.41)

-
Z = p 2 Z
, b. h r1 ,
2m
|b .
2
b |b = b |b .
h (16.42)
2ma20
308
16.
Z h
h b = (Z b)r1 , b |h 2ma0
r1 |b .
Z |b = b2 2 (Z b)b |

1
b |
r |b = (b/a0 ) 4
3
drre2br/a0 = b/a0 , (16.43)
0
Z |b = b2 2
b |h (Zb)b
.
2ma 0 ma20
He H =h Z 1 + 1 h
Z + V , V
. (16.21). . (16.23) b , b |V |b , b = 8ma2
5b
0
b , b = 1 (b2 + 2Zb 5b ).
E(b) := b , b |H| (16.44)
ma20 8
E(b) bmin = Z 5
16

1 5
E(bmin ) = 2
(Z )2 . (16.45)
ma0 16
Z = 2 He
6
283ma2 , 77, 4eV 2%
0
79eV . ,
b.
16.3.3 -
|(b) -
|n, n = 1, 2, . . . , N . ,

N
|(b) = bn |n (16.46)
n=1
N bn ,

N
|bn |2 = 1. (16.47)
n=1
|(b) P =
N
n=1 |nn| -
.

N
N
E(b) = (b)|H|(b)
= bm bn Hmn , (16.48)
n=1 m=1
Hmn = m|H|n.
E(b) . (16.47). -

N
N
N
E(b) ( |bn | 1) =
2
bm bn (Hmn mn ) + , (16.49)
n=1 n=1 m=1
309
. ,
bn bn . ( bn ,
.) .
bm

N
Hmn bn = bm , (16.50)
n=1
bn N N Hmn .

, H| = E| N -
|n. H
P H
P .
E(b)
N N Hmn . -
, -
Hmn ,
.
- (Rayleigh-Ritz).
16.4

.
-
. , ,
N
.

,
.
,
.
.
-
( ) .
,
. -,
.
16.4.1
Z. ,
. , -
2
= p + V (
h r), (16.51)
2m
310
16.
V (r)
Z 1 . V (r) ,
.
. (16.51) ,
.
.

.
r, r , ,
(Z 1) +e. -
r,
V (r) = Z r
.
V (r) = r (r), (r) (0) = Z () = 1. -
V (r) ,
- ( 11.1.2) -
.
, Z
,
,
. 12.2. |a (16.51) a -
, a
(n, , m , ms ) ..
Z - ,
Z
|a1 , |a2 , , . . . |aZ . -
|a1 , a2 , . . . aZ A , . (15.11). -
, -

a1 (rr 1 ) a1 (rr 2 ) . . . a1 (rr N )

1 a2 (rr 1 ) a2 (rr 2 ) . . . a2 (rr N )
a1 ,a2 ,...,aZ (rr 1 , r 2 , . . . , r Z ) = (16.52)
N ... ... ... ...
a (rr 1 ) a (rr 2 ) . . . a (rr N )
N N N
V (r) n, -
n , 2(2 + 1). (
2 .) , -
(16.51) .
, 2(2 + 1) ,
.
: -

, Z .
.
n, ,
. . 13.3.2
n, . ,
n,+1 n+1, .
311
. ,
16.1: .
-
. , ,
.
s p d f g h
0 1 2 3 4 5
2(2 + 1) 2 6 10 14 18 22
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, (4s, 3d), 4p, (5s, 4d), 5p, (6s, 4f, 5d), 6p, (7s, 5f, 6d), . . . (16.53)
,
.
-
n. n
s p -
, n+1. s p ,
2 + 6 = 8 .

.
(16.53)
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, . . . (16.54)
,
. 16.1.
(Au au principle), (
20% ) .
, -
Z
. , Ag (Z = 47) , 1s 2, 2s 2,
2p 6, 3s 2, 3p 6, 4s 2, 3d 10, 4p 6, 5s .
38, 9 4d. Ag
1s2 2s2 2p6 , 2s2 , 3p6 , 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d9 ,
.
Ag ,
.
. . . 5s1 4d10 . . . 5s2 4d9 . 16.1.
312
16.
Z
24 Cr . . . 4s2 3d4 . . . 4s1 3d5
29 Cu . . . 4s2 3d9 . . . 4s1 3d10
41 Nb . . . 5s2 4d3 . . . 5s1 4d4
42 Mo . . . 5s2 4d4 . . . 5s1 4d5
44 Ru . . . 5s2 4d6 . . . 5s1 4d7
45 Rh . . . 5s2 4d7 . . . 5s1 4d8
46 Pd . . . 5s2 4d8 . . . 5s1 4d9
47 Ag . . . 5s2 4d9 . . . 5s1 4d10
57 La . . . 6s2 4f 1 . . . 6s2 5d1
58 Ce . . . 6s2 4f 2 . . . 6s2 4f 1 55d1
64 Gd . . . 6s2 4f 8 . . . 6s2 4f 7 5d1
78 Pt . . . 6s2 4f 14 5d8 . . . 6s1 4f 14 5d9
79 Au . . . 6s2 4f 14 5d9 . . . 6s1 4f 14 5d10
89 Ac . . . 7s2 5f 1 . . . 7s2 6d1
90 Th . . . 7s2 5f 2 . . . 7s2 6d2
91 Pa . . . 7s2 5f 3 . . . 7s2 5f 2 6d1
92 U . . . 7s2 5f 4 . . . 7s2 5f 3 6d1
93 Np . . . 7s2 5f 5 . . . 7s2 5f 4 6d1
96 Cm . . . 7s2 5f 8 . . . 7s2 5f 7 6d1
103 Lr . . . 7s2 5f 14 6d1 . . . 7s2 5f 14 7p1
16.1: .
-
, ,
.

, 19 .

1. ,
2. , 2 + 1.
3. 2(2 + 1).
.
, , V .

Z .
, -
(16.52) ,
.
, ,
. -
-
.
313
. ,
16.2: .
16.4.2
V (r)
. (16.51). ,
V ,
.
| Z . -
|rr 1 , m1 ; r 2 , m2 ; . . . ; r Z , mZ r i
mi . n(rr )

n(rr ) = d3 r2 . . . d3 rZ rr , m1 ; r 2 , m2 ; . . . ; r Z , mZ ||rr , m1 ; r 2 , m2 ; . . . ; r Z , mZ(16.55)
.
m1 ,m2 ,...,mZ

| d3 rn = 1, Z 1
(Z 1)en(rr ). Ze(rr ))
, -
(rr )
2 = Ze(rr )) + (Z 1)en(rr ).
, V = e, V (16.51)

2 V = Ze2 3 (rr ) (Z 1)e2 n(rr ). (16.56)

V (rr ).
314
16.
16.3: .
1. n(rr ) .
2. (16.56) V (rr ).
3. r = rn n, n V (rr )

2 n . , V (r) =
n).
d n V (rn
p2
4. Z |a 2m + V (
r )
a , Z |a1 , a2 , . . . aZ A .
5. n(rr ) | = |a1 , a2 , . . . aZ A .
(16.55).
6. N , -
a=1 a ( -
) .
7. V
, |a1 , a2 , . . . aZ A .
, -
(Hartee)- (Fock) .
16.5 -
- () [224]
,
. -
n(rr ) . (16.55).

.
,
.
315
. ,
. (15.27) N
( s = 21 ),
1 ( 2 )2/3 2/3
F = 3 n , (16.57)
2m
n . . (15.29)
,
V (r)
. ,
1 ( 2 )2/3 2/3
F = 3 n + V (r). (16.58)
2m
-
F 0.
, F = 0. . (16.58)
V n
1
n= 2
(2mV )3/2 . (16.59)
3
n V
2 V = Ze2 3 (rr ) e2 n(r). (16.60)
. (16.56) 3
, d xn = Z.
, 2 r1 =
4 3 (rr ). . (16.59), .(16.60)
Ze2 e2
2 (V + ) = 2 (2mV )3/2 . (16.61)
4r 3
2
V (r) = Ze
4r
(r) -
d2
x 2 = 3/2 , (16.62)
dx
x = br/a0
b = 2Z 1/3 (4/3)2/3 . (16.63)
. (16.62) (0) = 1 () = 0.
,
. 0 . (16.62)
, -. 0
. 0 .
16.4.
.
316
16.
16.4: .
1. x , 0
4 2c
0 (x) = 1 + cx + x3/2 + x5/2 + . . . , (16.64)
3 5
c 1, 588 .
2. s (x) = 144/x3 . (16.62),

0 . x, 0
s ,
144
(x) . (16.65)
x3
3. 0 .
x 0 0,1 0,5 1 2 3 5 10
0 (x) 1 0,882 0,607 0,424 0,242 0,157 0,079 0,024

( )3/2
1 2Z
n(r) = 2 0 (br/a0 )3/2 (16.66)
3 a0 r
. Z 1 n(r) -
. w
R

4 R
w= drr2 n(r). (16.67)
Z 0
. (16.66) x = br/a0

1 bR/a0 1 bR/a0
w= 3 dx x0 (x)3/2 = 3 dxx0 (16.68)
4 0 4 0
y
0 dxx0 =
y
(x0 )|y0 0 0 = (x0 0 )|y0 . R
317
. ,
16.5: pm,
, .
y
(16.65) 0 , 0
dxx0 = 1 576/y 3 , .
(16.68)
R = Cw a0 Z 1/3 , (16.69)
1/3
Cw = 45/33(1w)1/3 . w = 0, 99, 99%
R, Cw 0, 25. -
( )
.
, -
.
.
, -
.
, . . 16.5.
, -
n . -
,
. , -
, .
. (15.30) -
. Ek

3 2 6 3
Ek = (3/)2/3 3
d xn 5/3
= (3/)2/3 drr2 n5/3 . (16.70)
10m 5m 0
. (16.66) n
1
Ek = Z 7/3 , (16.71)
2ma20
318
16.

= 516
(3/4)1/3 0 dxx 0 (x)5/2 1, 537. Ep -

n(r) 53 d3 xn(r)V (r). . (16.59) -
Ep = 2Ek .
1
E = Ek = Z 7/3 , (16.72)
2ma20
Z 7/3 .
54% (Z = 1), -
Z 15% .

[225].
( ) -
.

, Z. -
,
. Z [226].
,
.
1. Pb (Z = 82) Sg (Z = 106).
3
2. s = 2 ;
3. ;
4. ,
. 16.5.
.
5. ;
6. : (i)
, (ii) , (iii)
, (iv) .
1. -
V = x21 x
22 .

.
2. .
3. . (16.32) 3eEa0 .
x3 .
4. g
.
319
. ,
r
5. m V (r) = g e r , g,
. gm/ >>
1. (: b (r) = Cebr .)
6. -
= 1 p2 +
H x4 . (:
2m
.)
7. m V (x) = x2 (x2 2a2 ), a .
x = a
()
= 8/ma.
() r1 0 (xa)+r2 0 (x+a), r1 , r2 -
( )1 m x2
0 (x) = m 4e 2
m .

3 e2 2ma
3
H = a4 + 2/ma + , (16.73)
32ma2 1 + e2 2ma3

= r2r2 +r
1 r2
2 = 3a 4 + 3a
2

2m .
1 2
() H

.
8. () (0) = 1 x = 0
(x) = 1 + cx + 43 x3/2 + . . . c.
() s (x) = 144
x3
.
() -

144 c
(x) = + + ...,
x3 x

c = 12 (1 + 73) 4, 8.
9. Z
.
Z,
1
E0 = (12)1/3 2 Z 7/3 .
2ma0
, . -
Levine [227]. -, . March
[228] Lieb [229]
320
17
17.1
17.1.1
A A B1 + B2 + . . . Bn ,
Bi .
, -

1. -
.
2. , .
3. ,
.
4. ,
, .

, . A -
t = 0. H
[t, t + t], t > 0, p(t)t, p(t)

p(t) = et . (17.1)
.
() -
()
. . -
, (17.1) ,
, ,
.
,
, .
321
. ,
|. H .
| , ,
.
| H.

A (t) = |eiHt |.

A (t)
|A (t)|2 = T r(
t P ), (17.2)
t = eiHt ||eiHt t P = ||.

|A (t)|2
| t , -
.

d
p(t) = |A (t)|2 . (17.3)
dt
(17.3) ,
.
,

.
, -
.
t 2 H
t = 0, A = 1 itH 2 , t2 ,
2
|A |2 = 1 (H)2 t2 + . . . . (17.4)
.(17.3),
p(t) = (H)2 t, (17.5)
p(0) = 0, p(0) = 1 .

[230].
17.1.2
| -
H.
H
H,
=H
H 0 + V , (17.6)
V H 0 H
0 .
.
|a H 0 |a = Ea |a.
0, H
Aa (t) = a|eiHt |a, | = |a.

322
17.
a|V |a = 0. (17.7)
. (17.7) ,

H = H0 + a|V |a|aa| V = V a|V |a|aa|, (17.8)
0
a a
a|V |a.
|a H 0
Aa (t)
1 :=
(z H) 1
eiHt t > 0

zH

iHt
1 dEeiEt
e = lim , (17.9)
0 2i E + i H

> 0.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + V + V V + ... (17.10)
zH
zH
0 zH
0 zH
0 zH
0 zH
0 zH
0

1 1
= |aa|. (17.11)
zH
0
a
z Ea
1 |a
- a|(E H)
(17.10).
1
1. : zEa
.
2. : 1
(zEa )2
a|V |a = 0, . (17.7).
1
3. : (z),
(zEa )2 a

|Vab |2
a (z) = , (17.12)
b
z E b
Vab = a|V |b, |a.

4. :
1 Vab Vbc Vca
.
bc
(z Ea ) (z Eb )(z Ec )
2
5. :
1 Vab Vbc Vcd Vda
.
bcd
(z Ea ) (z Eb )(z Ec )(z Ed )
2
6.
323
. ,
17.1.3
-
H 0 . E > , 0, H 0
.
,
1
c Vac Vcb (z Ec ) a = b,
c , -
, . , a = b
, .

| c Vac Vcb /(z Ec )| << c |Vac |2 /(z Ec ),
|Ea Eb | > , << |Ea | . ,
Vac Vcb
ab a (z). (17.13)
c
z Ec
(17.13)
a|(z H)|a
, ( 2n) a (z)n /(z
n+1
Ea ) .
1 a (z)n

1 |a = 1 1 1
a|(z H) = = . (17.14)
z Ea n=0 (z Ea )n z Ea 1 a
(z) z Ea a (z)
zEa
17.1.4 -
. (17.14) (17.9)

1 dEeiEt
Aa (t) = lim . (17.15)
2i 0 E + i Ea a (E + i)
a (E) , -
izt
zEea a (z)
.
. 17.1. ,
,
. (17.15) .
, .
(17.12). z = E E > , . (17.12) -
, Eb = E. . (17.12)
z = E > .
a (z) . a
z = E >
a (E ) = lim a (E i), (17.16)

0
> 0.
|Vab |2 (E Eb )
Rea (E i) = . (17.17)
b
(E E 2
b) +
2
324
17.
17.1: C (17.15),
a (E) . , -
.
(z) z =
E > .
Fa (E) = Rea (E ) (17.18)

|Vab |2 |Vab |2
Ima (E i) = Im = . (17.19)
b
E Eb + i b
(E Eb )2 + 2
Ima (E + ) 0, Im(E ) = Im(E + ) 0,

(z) z = E > .
a (E) = 2Im(E ), (17.20)
i
a (E ) = Fa (E) a (E). (17.21)
2
z = E >
a (E) := a (E + ) a (E ) = ia (E). (17.22)
a (E) = 0 E < ,
a (E) .
(17.15) a (E + )
. |a (Ea+ )| << Ea ,
- (), a (E) -
. (17.15) a (Ea+ ). Ea := Fa (Ea ) a := a (Ea ) 0,
(17.15)
I
1 dzeizt
Aa (t) = (17.23)
2i C z (Ea + Ea ) + i 2a
325
. ,
C . 17.1. (17.23)
z = (Ea + Ea ) i 2a ,
a
Aa (t) = ei(Ea +Ea )t 2
t
, (17.24)
a (Ea ) Ea
Ea . (Lamb shi ). . (17.24) . (17.3)
p(t) = a ea t , (17.25)
a
.
. (17.19)
2|Vab |2
a = lim . (17.26)
0
b
(Ea Eb )2 + 2

lim0 x2 + 2
= (x),

a = 2 |Vab |2 , (17.27)
b,Eb =Ea
.
(
) .
,
. 17.1
,
.
17.1.
(17.15) , -
C ,
z = E > . C . 17.2.
C , 0 R ,
( )
.
I
1 eizt
dz = Aa (t) Ia (t), (17.28)
2i C z Ea a (z)

[ ]
1 1 1
Ia (t) = dEeiEt
2i E Ea a (E + ) E Ea a (E )

1 a (E)
= dxeiEt . (17.29)
2 0 [x Ea Fa (E)]2 + 14 [a (E)]2
C, a -
, .

z Ea a (z) = 0. , .
|a (Ea+ )|/Ea = << 1. (
326
17.
Ima (E + ) 0) z = Ea .
z = Ea + a (Ea+ ) + O( 2 ). (17.30)
, -
. z = i z Ea a (z) = 0,
i . , .
(17.28)
a
Aa (t) = ei(Ea +Ea )t 2 t
+ Ia (t) + Ka (t), (17.31)

Ka (t) = Ri eii t (17.32)
i
z Ea a (z) = 0. Ri
z = i .
( )
Ia (t)
C a (z)
. a (z) Ea ,
z = i , |i | >> Ea . Ka (t)
t, ,
. ,
Ka (t) Ia (t).
. (17.29), x = E , fa (x) :=
Fa ( + x) Fa (), a (x) := ( + x), a := Ea + Fa (). ,

1 it a (x)
Ia (t) = e dxeixt , (17.33)
2 0 [x a fa (x)]2 + 14 [a (x)]2
fa a x 0.
t = i , > 0. y = x ,

1 dyey a (y/t)
Ia (i ) = e . (17.34)
2 0 [y/ a fa (y/ )]2 + 41 a (y/ )2
, 2a .

1
Ia (i ) = e dyey a (y/t). (17.35)
22a 0
a x = 0, a (x) = xn ,
> 0 n. ,

n!
Ia (i ) = e dyey y n = 2 1+n e . (17.36)
22a 1+n 0 a
t,
(i)n+1 n!eit 1
Ia (t) = (17.37)
22a tn+1
Ia t.
. (17.31) , Ia (t)
t .
.
327
. ,
17.2: C (17.15),
z > a .
, 0 R .
17.2
17.2.1

(T. D. Lee) [231].
A A + B, B A A. -

A ,
B .
A
.
A A B .
,
.
, |0 A |1
A . B
FB , a a . (
a a
B.)
C 2 FB .
H L ,
L = H
H A + H
B + V , (17.38)
A = 1 0 (1 +
H 3 ) 1, (17.39)
2
B = 1
H a a
a a a , (17.40)
a
( )
V = ga
+ a a ,
a
a + ga (17.41)
a
328
17.
A , 0 , -
H
|0 . H B
. V -
B,
. ga
.
| = |1 |0B , |0B
FB . ,
B . -
A(t) = |eiHL t | (17.10) H
0 = H A + H B.

V | = |0 ga |a, (17.42)
a
a |0B . |V |
|a = a
| |0 |a. |V | = 0.

(z H 0 )1 V | = (z) |,
0 )1 V (z H (17.43)
z 0
|ga |2
(z) = , (17.44)
a
z a
.
. (17.43) [(z H 0 )1 V (z H
0 )1 V ]n | = [(z)/(z 0 )]n |,
0 )1 V ]2n+1 | = 0.
|[V (z H
1 (z)n

L )1 | = 1
|(z H = ., (17.45)
z 0 n=0 (z 0 )n z 0 (z)
. (17.14) !

, |.
17.2.2 -

- H SB . , ( )
. -
H SB = H B + V , o
A + H
( )
V =
1 ga a a ,
a + ga a (17.46)
a

+ a a
, V . (17.41).
329
. ,
SB -
H
,

V | = |0 ga |a, (17.47)
a
. (17.12)
(17.44) H L .
,
SB )1 | = |(z H
L )1 | = 1
|(z H , (17.48)
z 0 (z)
- -
. -
, .
17.2.3
B m .

k
d3 k
k = k 2 + m2 . a (2)
( ) 3
eikk xx ,
k eikk xx + a
3

(x) = d
3
k
a (2) 2k k
[ k ]
ak , a 3
= (kk k ).
x = 0,

( )
d3 k

V =
1 (0) = 1 a
k + ak , (17.49)
(2)3 2k

. . (17.49) (17.46) gk = gk = / 2k .
.(17.44),

2 d3 k 1 2 k 2 dk
(z) = = , (17.50)
(2)3 2k (z k ) 4 2 0 k (z k )
(k, , ) k -
, .
. (17.50) . .
(17.49) A .
A r0 , B -
= r01 .
B 0 ,
. (17.50) 0 << .
. (17.50),

2 k 2 dk
(z) = 2 . (17.51)
4 0 k (z k )
330
17.
m = 0, B
, .
.

2 kdk 2
(z) = 2 = 2 [ + z(log( z) log(z))] . (17.52)
4 0 kz 4
(z) |z| << , log( z) log . (E )

lim0 log((E i)) = log E + lim0 log((1 i/E)) = log E +
lim0 log(ei(/E) ) = log E +i,
( /E) (, ].
,
2
(E ) = [ + E log(/E) iE)] . (17.53)
4 2
. (17.18) (17.20)
2
F (E) = 2 [ + E log(/E)] (17.54)
4
2
(E) = E. (17.55)
2

2
= (0 ) = 0 . (17.56)
2
1.

= 1 (1 +
H 3 ) + a a
a a a + ga (
aa a
+ + a ), (17.57)
2 a a
1
a ga = a 2 .

L Dirichlet .
n = n0 n = 1, 2, . . . ( a n),
0 = /L . /0 << 1.
() (z),
2
(z) = [ + 0 (1 z/0 )] , (17.58)
0 z
d
Euler-Maccheronni 0 (x) = dx log (x) .
. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digamma_function
331
. ,
() >> 0 , |z/0 | >>

1.
1
0 (x) = log x + ..., (17.59)
2x

.
() n0 , . -
0 0, 1, 2, . . ..
z = n0 +x,
|x| << 0 n = 1, 2, . . . -

n+1
0 (n + ) = + O(). (17.60)

,
2 2
x = n0 + . (17.61)
x n0
, |
n0 | << 0 ,
. ,
( ). -
.
2. -
,
.
. -
H 0 = 1 p2 (x)
2m
V = qE x .
() H 0 0 (x) E0 < 0
fE+ (x) fE (x) = fE+ (x) -
.
.
() 0 |0 fE |E, , 0|
x|0 = 0
83 k 2
|0|
x|E, |2 = , (17.62)
(2 + k 2 )2

= m k = 2mE.
() |0
E 2
0 (z) = , (17.63)
( z + |E0 |)2
. 0 (E)
.
() , |0 (z)| << |E0 |.

. E. E,
|z| >> |E0 |.
( .).
332

.1
(Hermite) Hn (x) n
dn x2 /2
n x2
Hn (x) = (1) e e , (.1)
dxn
n = 0, 1, 2, . . .. Hermite
y 2xy + 2ay = 0. (.2)

. (.2) y = k=0 ak k
2(k a)
ak+2 = , (.3)
(k + 2)(k + 1)
a = n n =
0, 1, 2, . . .. .

H0 (x) = 1 (.4)
H1 (x) = 2x (.5)
H2 (x) = 4x2 2 (.6)
H3 (x) = 8x3 12x (.7)
H4 (x) = 16x4 48x2 + 12 (.8)
H5 (x) = 32x5 160x3 + 120x (.9)
1. : Hn (x) = (1)n Hn (x).

2. : Hn+1 = 2xHn 2nHn1 .
3. : Hn = Hn+1 2xHn

4. : dxex Hn (x)Hm (x) = 2n n! nm
2
333
. ,
.2
.2.1 H
(x1 , x2 , x3 )
3
2
2 = 2
. (.10)
i=1
x i
ya (x), a = 1, 2, 3.
ya
3
= (.11)
xi a=1
xi ya
(.10)
3 3 ( )
ya yb f
f=
2
. (.12)
i=1 a,b=1
x i ya x i ba
y = (r, , ),
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = r(sin cos , sin sin , cos ). (.13)
Jai = xi /ya
x1 x1 x1
r sin cos r cos cos r sin sin
J = x
r
2 x2

x2

= sin sin r cos sin r sin cos (.14)
x3
r
x3

x3
r
cos r sin 0
. (.12) y a
xi
,

sin cos 1r cos cos r sin
1

sin
J 1 = sin sin 1r cos sin r sin
1

cos (.15)
cos r sin
1
0
. (.12)
( ) ( )
1 2 f 1 f 1 2f
f= 2
2
r + 2 sin + 2 2 , (.16)
r r r r sin r sin 2
.2.2

( ( ) )
1 2 f
= 2
2
r + S 2 , (.17)
r r r

( )
1 1 2f
S 2 = sin + 2 (.18)
sin sin 2
334
.
S 2 .
Y (, ) S 2 ,
S 2 Y (, ) = aY (, ). (.19)
Y (, ) = g()h()
( )
1 2h sin g
2
= sin a sin2 . (.20)
h g
. (.20) ,
, b.
h ,
d2 h
b = 0. (.21)
d2

. (.21) h() = e b ,
h() = h( + 2), b = m2 , m = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
. (.21) hm () = eim .
. (.20) g()
( )
g
sin sin + a sin2 g = m2 g. (.22)

= cos (Legendre)
( )
2 m2
(1 )g 2g + a g = 0. (.23)
1 2
= 1,
a = ( + 1), = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . |m| .
Legendre Plm ()
(1)m 2 m d+m 2
Pm () := (1 ) 2 ( 1) , (.24)
2 ! d +m
m 0, m
( m)! m
Pm () = (1)m P (). (.25)
( + m)!

P00 () = 1 (.26)
P10 () = P11 () = (1 2 )1/2 (.27)
1 2
P20 () = (3 1) P21 () = 3(1 2 )1/2 P22 () = 3(1 2 ) (.28)
2
1 3
P30 () = (5 2 3) P31 () = (1 5 2 )(1 2 )1/2 (.29)
2 2
P3 () = 15(1 ) P3 () = 15(1 2 )3/2 .
2 2 3
(.30)
335
. ,

1
2( + m)!
dPm ()Pm () = . (.31)
1 (2 + 1)( m)!
S 2 ( + 1) -
Ym (, ) = C,m Pm (cos )eim , (.32)

m = l, l + 1, . . . , 1, 0, 1, . . . , l 1, l. l
(2l + 1) Ylm (, ).
Ym (, ) S 2 . C,m
. (.32)
2
sin d dYm (, )Y m (, ) = mm (.33)
0 0

(2 + 1 ( m)!
C,m = (.34)
4 ( + m)!
(.17)
( )
1 Ym (, ) 1 2 Ym (, )
r Ym (, ) =
2 2
sin + 2
sin sin 2
= ( + 1)Ym (, ), (.35)
. 2
.3
Ln (x)
xy + ( + 1 x)y + ny = 0, (.36)
n . .

( )
k n + xk
Ln (x) = (1) , (.37)
nk k!
k=0

(n + + 1)
dxex Ln (x)Lm (x) = . (.38)
0 n!

L0 (x) = 1
L1 (x) = x + + 1
x2 ( + 2)( + 1)
L2 (x) = ( + 2)x +
2 2
3 2
x ( + 3)x ( + 2)( + 3)x ( + 3)( + 2)( + 1)
L3 (x) = + + .
6 2 2 6
336

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,

= (q1 , p1 , q2 , p2 , . . . , q3N , p3N ).

{qa , qb } = 0, {pa , pb } = 0, {qa , pb } = ab , (1.9)

1. : {G, F } = {F, G}.

2. (Leibnitz): {F, GH} = {F, G}H + {F, H}G.

3. (Jacobi): {{F, G}, H} + {{H, F }, G} + {{G, H}, F } = 0.

2. B = = {(1, 2), (2, 1)} (2 )

Prob(A B) = Prob(A) + Prob(B).

Prob(A B) = Prob(A) Prob(B) (1.24)

3. Prob(A B) = Prob(A) + Prob(B) Prob(A B), A, B .

D E = {(3, 4), (4, 3)},

Prob(D E) = 2/36 = 1/18. Prob(E) = 16/36 = 4/9. Prob(D

(q1 , p1 , q2 , p2 . . . , q3N , p3N )d3N qd3N p (1.42)

() 95% X 300 400 GeV .

() = g(V, )E. (2.2)

(Rntgen) , 1896 T. (J. J. Thompson) -

E1 = e4 me /(32 2 ~2 ) 13, 6eV (2.16)

0 = (k0 ) vg = (/k)k=k0 . (2.24)

|A(x, t)| = |A(x vg t, 0)|.

(rr , t) = E (rr )eiEt/~ (3.10)

, (x, t) = E (x)eiEt/~ . (3.8), -

E . (3.16) () = e /2 uE (). . (3.16)

uE 2uE + (2 1)uE = 0. (3.19)

. (3.19) (Hermite). 3.1, -

u(0) = 0 lim u(r) = 0 (3.34)

3.2: Rn, (r) (3.41) -

(3.10), n (x, t) = n (x)eiEn t/~ . Xmn Pmn

x(x) = x(x) (5.4)

(0), (a), . (5.9) (0) =

(a) = ei (0). (5.10)

. (5.9), (a)ei = (0), (a) = ei (0), Dp = Dp

BCH (Tro er) [80].

V (a1 , b1 )V (a2 , b2 ) = V (a1 + a2 , b1 + b2 )e 2 (a2 b1 a1 b2 ) .

max min |C|

(i) (x) = (x).

1. PU1 PU2 = PU1 U2 .

x1 , x2 , x3 |x1 , x2 , x3 = (x1 x1 )(x2 x2 )(x3 x3 ).

(k) = k| (k) = k|. . (5.50) -

)|2 T r(A A)T

Aa |n = a,n |n. (5.57)

(1,n , 2,n , . . . , N,n ).

1. L2 (R , (ii) p, (iii) eipa , (iv) x

+ 2m[E V (x)] = 0. (6.37)

1 = 2m[E1 V (x)]1 2 = 2m[E2 V (x)]2 .

6.6. lim|x| V (x) = ,

6.7. V (x) , E [0, )

6.1: [a, b].

|Tk |2 + |Rk |2 = 1, |Tk |2 + |R

k, +|k, = w(k)(k k ), (6.50)

. (6.54) x = |E|/V0 [0, 1]

6.3: . (6.55) (6.56). ,

lim [ (x0 + ) (x0 )] = 2m(x0 ), (6.65)

. V (x) = [(x a2 ) + (x a2 )], -

b > 1 b < 1 (. . 6.5.b).

6.5: (a) . (6.72) b. (b) . (6.73)

pb2 |k = k 2 |k. (6.77)

c() = cos () s() = sin (), (6.85)

Ta n (x) = Cn (a)n (x), (6.87)

|Cn (a)| = 1, Ta . Tam = Tma

n (x + a) = eika n (x). (6.88)

n (x) = eikx un (x), (6.89)

. (6.88) un (x + a) = un (x). . (6.88)

2 )1927 , (ii) (1 2 3 )2004 , (iii)

() T0 = |T0 |ei R0 = i|R0 |ei , k