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. Rates of change of
particle densities are also in a different ratio. Not everything scales properly, but in most cases similitude
is a very good approximation. This shows, incidentally, that tests at reduced voltage cannot be made on
models, since the discharges will not be comparable if the voltages are different.
Most of the voltage between anode and cathode is represented by the cathode fall V
c
near the cathode.
Aston found experimentally that the electric field is greatest at the cathode, and falls linearly to zero at
the end of the cathode fall in the negative glow. This linear decrease means that the potential rises
parabolically: V(x) = (2V
c
/d
2
)x(x - 2d). This means that there is a constant positive space charge in the
region of amount V
c
/2d
2
, and the field at the cathode is E
o
= 2V
c
/d. If K is the mobility of the positive
ions, then the positive ion current can be found. The electron current is times this, so the total current
density at the cathode is j
o
= V
c
2
K(1 + )/d
3
.
The electrons are accelerated by the strong field near the cathode to a rather high energy. They are then
moving much faster than their mobility in the electric field, but are not slowed down much by elastic
collisions with neutral atoms, and continue to ionize with increasing efficiency as they slow, doing the
most work in the negative glow. The appearance of the spectrum of ionized atoms as well as neutral
shows that the electrons still have high speeds in this area, though they are moving in random directions.
The width of the negative glow is approximately equal to the "range" of the electrons at the prevailing
pressure. This range is not exactly the same as the concept of the same name in the stopping of
radioactive beta rays.
It may be naively believed that the electrons are accelerated in the cathode drop as if in a vacuum, and
then start ionizing when they reach sufficient energy, but this is not a valid picture, and leads to
confusion when trying to understand the discharge. The mean free path is still short even at 1 mmHg, and
neutral molecules far outnumber electrons and ions. While the neutral density is about 4 x 10
15
cm
-3
at 1
mmHg, the electron and ion densities do not exceed 10
10
, and are usually no greater than 10
8
. Only one in
ten million molecules is ionized, and the motion of electrons and ions is governed by mobility rather than
by free acceleration. The electron mean free path in neon at 1 mmHg is about 0.5 mm, which does give
the electrons considerable freedom to roam. It is no wonder that the cathode phenomena hug the cathode
tightly at higher pressures, and expand as the electron range increases. A very high electric field at the
surface of the cathode is a feature of all discharges, and here is where the electrons get their initial
energy.
Only a few of the necessary positive ions are created in the cathode dark space, where most of the
potential rise takes place. Most appear in the negative glow where ionization is most effective, then drift
towards the cathode. The range of a fast charged particle is familiar from radioactivity. It is the projected
distance in the general direction of motion, not the actual path length, especially for electrons, and is the
distance to the point where the particles have insufficient energy for further ionization. The range of
electrons of U eV energy in a gas of molecular weight M is about R = 1.4 x 10
-7
(TU
2
/pM) cm, where p
is in mmHg, and T is in K. The negative glow grades into the Faraday dark space as the electrons
become relatively slow and unable to ionize. Now they simply have to make their way to the anode
somehow without using up much voltage.
The distribution of light intensity in the cathode dark space and the negative glow is a good subject for
contemplation. The light does not come from the positive ions (unless they have been further excited,
which does happen), but from ions that have recombined. The entire region between the cathode and the
Faraday dark space is full of positive ions, but recombination is more likely where the electrons are
moving slowly, and this means electrons that have already ionized and are now drifting about, and
slower ions that have not yet been accelerated by the field. Electrons in the dark space are still moving
too rapidly for this, so there is little light there.
Analysis shows that the cathode fall where the current density required is not too high is V = (3B/A)ln(1
+ 1/), the current density is j = 5.92 x 10
-8
(AB
2
)(Kp)(1 + )p
2
/ln(1 + 1/), in A/cm
2
and where the
various constants have their usual units, and the width of the cathode dark space is d = 3.76 ln(1 +
1/&gamma:)/Ap cm. These equations can be used to find empirical values for the constants A and B. For
neon, K = 7.52 x 10
3
cm/s/V/cm at 1 mmHg, and = 0.022 on an iron cathode. Experiment gives d =
0.72 cm at 1 mmHg, j = 6 A/cm
2
, and V = 150V. From these data, A = 20 and B = 261, which is not
unreasonable. Note that V is independent of the pressure, d varies inversely with the pressure, and j is
proportional to the square of the pressure. This applies, of course, in the range of pressures where the
approximate analysis is valid.
The current through a glow discharge is controlled by the external circuit. If a current i is demanded, then
a cathode area A = i/j is necessary under the conditions of our analysis. If this cathode area is not
available, then the cathode fall must increase to provide a greater current density. This region is called
the abnormal glow. The increased cathode fall generates faster electrons and faster ions, so the negative
glow expands and brightens, and the fast ions bombard the cathode. In a glow lamp, it is easy to see the
negative glow spread as the current through the lamp is increased.
Fast ion bombardment causes sputtering of the cathode material. The rate of sputtering is proportional to
(V
c
- V), where V is the normal cathode fall, and V
c
the established cathode fall. 850V would not be an
unusual figure, where V = 200V, say. The exact mechanism of sputtering is in doubt, but it seems that
cathode material is ejected to the cathode surface, and then evaporated by the local heating. The rate of
deposition obeys the inverse-square law. The films produced are quite coherent and uniform. Silver
sputters relatively easily, aluminum with difficulty. Where cathode surfaces are specially prepared,
perhaps with low-work function substances as in thermionic cathodes, sputtering can destroy them
quickly, even at relatively low overvoltages. There seems to be little sputtering at the normal cathode
fall. The electrodes of glow lamps are treated with low-work-function materials, so they are injured by
overcurrent, and their striking voltages may rise.
In the Faraday dark space, the electric field is again controlled by space charge and the mean free path,
this time of the electrons, which carry nearly all of the current. The kinetic energy gained in a mean free
path L is mv
2
/2 = EeL, so we can find the velocity and hence the current density, j = ne(2EeL/m)
1/2
. Then
Poisson's equation is dE/dx = 4ne = 4j(2EeL/m)
-1/2
. Integrating this equation, we find that E =
(6j)
3/2
(2eL/m)
-1/3
x
2/3
. Hence, the electric field rises as we move through the Faraday dark space. When it
reaches a value sufficient to give the electron a kinetic energy equal to the resonance energy V
r
, then the
electrons can excite the neutral molecules and light emission begins. This happens in a distance x at
which EL = V
r
, which is proportional to 1/Lj, or inversely proportional to p. If the pressure is sufficiently
low, then the electrons move almost as in a vacuum, and the normal Childs 3/2-power law applies. Then
the distance x is proportional to 1/j, again inversely proportional to pressure. Like the cathode fall and
the negative glow, the Faraday dark space also expands inversely as the pressure. Therefore, the whole
cathode region expands or contracts without any change in relative dimensions as the pressure changes.
When the average electron has sufficient energy to excite a neutral molecule to its resonance level, the
occasional overzealous electron can ionize a molecule to create a positive ion to replace one that is lost
by diffusion to the wall, where it recombines. This is a delicate balance that keeps electron and ion
densities equal in the positive column or plasma. The smaller the diameter of the tube, the greater is the
diffusion, and the greater the longitudinal potential gradient required to keep the electrons up to working
speed. The random current density is the current crossing unit area in one direction in the plasma, j =
nec/4, where c is the average thermal velocity of the charge carrier, (8kT/M). This presumes a
Maxwellian distribution, which is not a bad assumption. However, the electron temperature may be
10,000K or more while the neutral and ion temperatures are not much above 300K. This difference is due
to the extreme difficulty of transferring kinetic energy between the light electrons and the heavy
molecules, especially when the electrons are being driven by a longitudinal field. This means that the
random electron current to the wall is much greater than the random ion current. So that the net current to
the nonconducting wall is zero, the wall must collect electrons to form a repelling field. This layer of
excess charge is called a plasma sheath, and is a common phenomenon, well seen in glow discharges.
For a neon glow discharge carrying 25 mA, the voltage gradient in the positive column for a tube radius
R = 2 cm is 1.45 V/cm. For R = 1 cm, it is 3.0 V/cm, and for R = 0.75 cm it is 4.3 V/cm. For helium, the
drop in a tube of 1.5 cm radius is 5.0 V/cm. A neon display lamp uses the positive column for its light.
The tube diameter may be 0.6" diameter and its length 60 ft. The total drop in the positive column is 130
V/ft x 60 ft = 7.8kV, and the electrode drops amount to 230-300V. The illumination is about 36 lumen/ft,
and the efficiency 24 lm/W. On open circuit, the transformer supplies 15kV. However, it is made with
large leakage reactance that lowers the voltage depending on the current drawn to stabilize the discharge
at something less than 10kV across the tube. The pressure in the tube is larger than the value giving
minimum voltage to suppress sputtering of the cathode, which darkens the walls of the tubes and limits
the life of the tube. Neon gives red-orange, helium yellow, nitrogen pink. Mercury can be added for
further colors, and colored glass can be used, to make blue and green displays. These glow discharges are
still a frequent sight.
Corona is the name given to glow discharges at high pressure near points of high fields, usually caused
by a small radius of curvature. Points are an obvious place for corona, and this is their intention in
lightning rods. High tension conductors are another good place, but here it is very undesirable. It is
commonly stated that the breakdown field for air is 30kV/cm, but the phenomenon is far too complex for
such a simple criterion. Nevertheless, this value is of use for engineering estimates. A negative wire
becomes a cathode, and the glows contract to regular regions along the wire, like beads, each surrounded
by a brush. A positive wire becomes an anode, with a uniform anode glow spread along it. Corona loss
may exceed resistive loss in the conductors. It is less if the conductors are smooth and of large diameter.
The glow discharge is often used for gas laser pumping, as in the familiar He-Ne laser. The object is to
create a population inversion between the upper and lower levels of a radiative transition. The upper
level for the 633 nm laser transition is the Ne2p
5
5s'[1/2]
0
at 166658.484 cm
-1
above the Ne ground state,
which is nearly resonant with the He2
1
S
0
metastable excited state of helium, and the lower state is the
Ne2p
5
3p'[3/2]
2
state at 150860.468 cm
-1
, which can decay rapidly to the Ne2p53s[3/2]
2
metastable state
of neon via 594.5 nm radiation, keeping the lower state empty. This is a very fortunate and ideal scheme
for laser pumping. There are also infrared transitions in the same region that can be used, at 1152 nm and
3391 nm. The upper level of the first is resonant with the metastable He2
3
S
1
state, which also facilitates
pumping.
The discharge tube is typically filled with 0.8 mmHg helium and 0.1 mmHg neon, excited by a dc
discharge, an ac discharge, or radio-frequency discharge. The population inversion is in the pink positive
column. The laser frequency is picked out by an optical resonance between external mirrors, and energy
is pumped into it by the population inversion. The cathode and anode are usually in side tubes so the
optical path is not obstructed.
A radio-frequency field from an external coil around the discharge tube can be used to create a plasma. It
is necessary for the rf electric field to be strong enough to give the excitation or ionization energy to an
electron in a mean free path. This is not strictly a discharge, since there is no net current flow, but it
produces a weakly-ionized plasma like that in the positive column of a glow discharge.
As the gas pressure is reduced, it becomes more and more difficult to produce a sufficient number of
positive ions to maintain the discharge. The anode-to-cathode voltage must be continually increased, and
the electrons become more and more energetic. The electron mean free path becomes comparable to the
size of the discharge, and practically the whole space represents the Faraday dark space. This is the
region of cathode rays, as the linear electron trajectories were called before electrons were recognized,
that can cast shadows, deflect in transverse electric and magnetic fields, cause the glass to fluoresce, and
produce X-rays when they are stopped suddenly by the anode or the glass. Finally, the tube becomes
nonconducting.
The Arc Discharge
The arc discharge is a high-current, low-voltage discharge, in contrast with the low-current, high-voltage
glow discharge. It is characterized by a negative-resistance V-I characteristic, and high temperatures.
Electrons for the discharge are supplied by a cathode spot that is a much more efficient electron emitter
than the glow discharge cathode phenomena. The current density in the cathode spot is high and
constant, so it adjusts its size to suit the discharge current. The electrons are liberated either by
thermionic emission, or by high-field emission. The relative importance of these mechanisms has long
been in dispute, but it is convenient to assume that the fixed cathode spot of refractory electrodes (such
as carbon or tungsten) is thermionic, while the wandering cathode spot of low-melting-point cathodes
(such as mercury) is high-field. A typical current density for a thermionic cathode spot is 470 A/cm
2
, and
of a high-field spot, 4000 A/cm
2
.
High-field emission is essentially quantum-mechanical tunneling through the potential barrier at the
surface of the cathode. The current density is given by the Fowler-Nordheim equation J = CE
2
exp(-D/E),
where C = [6.2 x 10
-6
/( + E
F
)](E
F
/)
1/2
A/V
2
, and D = 6.8 x 10
9
3/2
V/m. E
F
is the Fermi energy and is
the work function, both in volts. E is the field in V/m. For tungsten, = 4.52V and E
F
= 8.95V. The
fields required are very high. A field of 2 x 10
7
V/cm produces emission of only 1.7 A/cm
2
in tungsten.
However, the current increases quite rapidly with electric field. With a field of 3 x 10
7
V/cm, the current
is already 0.2 A/cm
2
. At atmospheric pressure, the mean free path is about 10
-5
cm in air, and if the
cathode drop is 10V, the resulting electric field if the cathode drop occurs over one mean free path is 10
6
V/cm. This is about a factor of 20 less than is required, so some investigators have questioned the
importance of high-field emission in arcs. However, it is at least close to the required value, and some
local strengthening of the field by the arrangment of adsorbed positive ions may make up the difference.
The Richardson-Dushman equation for thermionic emission, J = AT
2
exp(-b/T) is very similar in form to
the Fowler-Nordheim equation, with the absolute temperature T replacing the field strength E. A = 60.2
A/cm
2
, and b = 11600. At the boiling point of tungsten, 5993K, J = 3.45 x 10
5
A/cm
2
, a quite ample
result. Even at the melting point, the current density is 541 A/cm
2
. Mercury has about the same work
function as tungsten, 4.5V, but the thermionic emission at its boiling point, 630K, is only about 10
-29
A/cm
2
, which is wholly inadequate. Therefore, high-field emission seems to be the only alternative.
A typical low-intensity carbon arc for lighting operates at atmospheric pressure between two cylindrical
carbon electrodes separated by a few millimeters, at a voltage of 55V and a current of 30A. The cathode
spot is at a temperature of about 3500K, while the crater eroded in the anode carbon is around 4200K,
with a brilliance of 170 cp/mm
2
. Between them is a bright violet glow, and a yellow tail flame, projected
towards the anode. Material is blown out by the cathode, and may deposit on the tip of the anode. The
light is characteristic of a 3810K black-body, with strong radiation in the near UV at 380-390 nm, the
cyanogen peaks due to that compound of carbon and nitrogen. There is also a peak near 250 nm. These
ultraviolet emissions make protective glasses necessary when observing an arc directly. The radiation is
also rich in infrared, because of all the heat in the vicinity.
The carbons are continually consumed in the arc. They may be of hard carbon for durability outside, with
a core of soft carbon for conductivity inside, that stabilizes the arc. Special core materials may give
colored arcs by coloring the tail flame. They cannot be focused accurately as the postive crater can. A
core of cerium oxide and cerium fluoride forms cerium carbide in the crater, giving up to 500 cp/mm
2
in
what is called a high-intensity arc light. The tail flame is white from the incandescent cerium particles. A
typical positive carbon is 16 mm in diameter, with an 8 mm core, while the negative carbon is 11 mm in
diameter, with a 3 mm soft carbon core.
The arc can operate either in the ambient gas, or in the vapor emitted by the cathode and anode as they
are vaporized. The electrodes operate at their boiling points, which determines the maximum
temperatures available. For example, a copper arc is typically green, with emission from the copper
vapor in the arc. The arc consists of the cathode drop, the positive column, and the anode drop. No
interesting detailed structure is seen, as in the glow discharge. The cathode drop is a little less than the
ionizing potential of the gas or vapor. For carbon, the ionization potential is 15.8V, but the cathode drop
is 9-11V. The width of the cathode drop region is little longer than a mean free path of an electron, so the
cathode region is very thin. The anode drop occurs in a wider region, and resembles a probe sheath, as in
a glow discharge. The anode drop in the carbon arc is about 20V. Between the narrow cathode and anode
regions is the positive column with a linear voltage gradient. The voltage of a carbon arc in air is given
approximately by V = 38.9 + 2.0x + (16.6 + 10.5x)/I, where V is in volts, I in amperes, and x is the arc
length in millimeters. This applies in the silent region where the characteristic is hyperbolic. At higher
currents, the arc becomes a hissing arc, and the voltage is roughly constant.
Thermal effects play an important role in arcs. The cathode is heated by positive ion bombardment,
where the effect of the ions is purely thermal and any positive-ion induced electron emission is
unimportant. There must always be sufficient ions to keep the cathode hot. Often the cathode is
externally heated, at least until the arc is established, to help starting. This is seen, for example, in
fluorescent tubes. In some cases, as in rectifier gas diodes, the cathode is continuously heated. These
cathodes are oxide-coated to stimulate copious electron emission. External heating of the cathode does
not affect the nature of the discharge significantly. By considering the positive-ion space charge, the field
at the surface of the cathode can be estimated as E = 4V/3d, where V is the cathode drop and d is the
width of the cathode fall region. If V is about 10V and d is about a mean free path, then E is 10
5
to 10
6
V/cm. Such a high field is great encouragement for electrons to join the discharge. Also, a superheated
area may form at the surface of the cathode from adsorbed atoms.
The positive column differs significantly between arcs operated at low pressures (say, below 10 cmHg
pressure) and arcs at higher pressures, such as atmospheric. At low pressures, it is like the positive
column of a glow discharge, with a very high electron temperature (40,000K is not unusual) and a low
ion and gas temperature (say, 300K). Ionization in this plasma is by electron impact, and the plasma
dissipates if the walls are not present. At high pressures, electron, ion and gas temperatures are equal and
high (perhaps 6000K), and ionization is principally thermal. This is the kind of hot plasma studied in
plasma physics. The longitudinal voltage gradient depends on current as E = BI
-n
and on pressure as E =
Cp
m
, where m and n are empirical exponents. For a carbon arc in air, n = 1 and m = 0.3, approximately.
At 1 atm, the current density in a positive column in nitrogen is about 6 A/cm
2
. The reason for the
decrease in voltage with an increase in current is that the current increase causes a decrease in the
resistance of the column by making more of everything available.
The degree of ionization x in a hot plasma can be estimated by the Saha equation, [x
2
/(1 - x
2
)]p = 3.16 x
10
-7
T
5/4
exp(-eV
i
/kT), where p is in atmospheres, T is in K, and V
i
is in volts. If we take an ionization
potential of 10V (about that of mercury), then at 10,000K and 1 mmHg the Saha equation gives x = .033,
or the plasma is about 3% ionized. At 100,000K, the degree of ionization is x = 0.997, so the plasma is
almost completely ionized. Even at 1 atm, the degree of ionization is still about 41% at 10
5
K and 0.1% at
10
4
K. A fairly small degree of ionization suffices to maintain the conductivity of a high-pressure arc
plasma.
In hot plasmas, oxygen and nitrogen are generally dissociated: O
2
2O (5.09 V) and N
2
2N (7.9 V),
and the reaction N
2
+ O
2
2NO. NO has the rather low ionization potential of 9.5V. The ionization
potential of O
2
= 12.2V, O = 13.614V, N = 14.54V, N
2
= 15.377V. Even when the electron and ion
number densities and temperatures are roughly equal, electrons still carry the preponderance of the
current because of their higher mobility.
The high-pressure positive column adjusts to a finite diameter D depending on the discharge current. It
will not expand indefinitely if unconfined. This is a result of a delicate balance between heat loss and
heat generation in the conducting region, and not anything similar to a "pinch" effect. If the column
expands, heat loss increases and ionization decreases. The current, therefore, tends to shift to the more
conductive center, and raises the temperature there. This feedback keeps the column at a constant
diameter. The positive column is a cylindrical region in the ambient gas, and can move about freely, so
long as it does not become too long and require more voltage than is available. It is accompanied by
active convection that carries off its heat. The positive column can be blown about by air currents, and
moved by magnetic forces. Its low density causes it to rise when surrounded by cooler air, which, as we
have mentioned, gave the name "arc" to the phenomenon. Curiously, if the acceleration of gravity is zero
(as in a space station, for example) the longitudinal voltage gradient becomes zero! The reason is that
gravity drives convection, and in the absence of convection the column does not cool, and so does not
need any power, at least to a good approximation. Note that this means that the whole arc, including the
gas, is under zero gravity. If we just let the electrodes fall, it is
only like applying a blast of air.
The potential distribution in an arc is shown at left. The
widths of the cathode and anode drops are exaggerated for
clarity. In a short arc, the potential is almost just the sum of
the cathode and anode drops. Because of the large current, an
arc has a small longitudinal voltage gradient E
L
in the positive
column, especially in a high-pressure arc. The gradient
depends on the efficiency of cooling of the positive column by
the ambient atmosphere, and becomes small if cooling is slow.
The current flowing through the cathode and anode drops generate large quantities of heat very close to
the electrodes, which is one of the characteristics of the arc.
An arc can be started either by a transition from a glow discharge, or by separating contacts already
carrying current. If we increase the current in a glow discharge, we enter a region in which the width of
the cathode fall decreases (the "abnormal glow"). This causes the ion energy to increase, and the cathode
becomes heated. In arcs with thermionic cathodes, the transition is gradual as the thermionic emission
increases with temperature and the discharge voltage decreases. With field-emission cathodes, such as
with mercury, the transition may be sudden, as a cathode spot is created at some favorable spot. The
mercury is initially in liquid form, either
as a pool or as a drop, and must be raised
to a temperature where the mercury vapor
pressure will support the discharge.
Starting a mercury arc always requires
some special action, either a separately
heated cathode or an ignition electrode.
The pressure can also be increased to start
an arc if a glow discharge already exists.
The current rises as the square of the
pressure, so a critical value is soon
reached.
The distinction between stable and
unstable V-I characteristics is shown in the diagram at the right. On the left we have the usual case where
the current increases monotonically with the voltage, so that the slope 1/R = dI/dV is positive. Suppose
we are operating at point A with a certain applied voltage, and there is a sudden increase in the current I
(caused, say, by a spark). Now the voltage required by the device is greater, so we have a voltage deficit
in the circuit that will cause the current to decrease. If the current were suddenly less, then we would
have a voltage surplus, and the current would be driven to increase. In either case, we return to the status
quo and the circuit is stable.
On the right, we have a characteristic like than of an arc, where the current decreases monotonically with
the voltage. The slope 1/R = dI/dV is now negative. The device is said to exhibit negative resistance R. If
we have a sudden current increase I from point B, then we have more voltage available to increase the
current still more, a voltage surplus. The more the current increases, the more it is driven to increase. The
circuit is unstable, and some external means is necessary to limit the current. Any device with a negative
resistance can be used as an oscillator, and an arc is no
exception.
A negative-resistance oscillator using an arc is shown at the left.
It should not be confused with the spark-gap oscillating circuits
used in early radio, which were something completely different.
L and C make a tuned circuit in series with the arc, and R is the
resistance of L. The arc is supplied from source E through a
large inductance L
b
that blocks the oscillating current and keeps the arc voltage constant. The arc current
is regulated by resistance R
b
. Kirchhoff's voltage law around the loop including the arc, L, C and R gives
Li" + (R + de/di)i' + i/C = 0. If the arc current is adjusted so that de/di = -R, then we have Li" + i/C = 0,
so that the solution for i is a harmonic function of frequency f = 1/2&piLC. Since de/di is a function of
the current, large current excursions will be damped out and the amplitude of the oscillation will
stabilize. The maximum voltage across the capacitor will be I(L/C), where I is the arc current. I do not
know of any practical use of this oscillator, but the oscillations may occur unexpectedly in some cases.
Applications of Arcs
Welding is an important application for arcs. Although oxyacetylene flames are hot enough to make
fusion welds and are very useful, arc welding is relied upon for heavy-duty welding. In carbon-arc
welding, the arc is struck between a carbon rod and the work, and a filler rod is used if extra material is
needed. Inert-gas welding uses a tungsten electrode bathed in an inert gas such as helium to avoid
oxidizing the work, and a filler rod. Argon is also used, though one source says it is not suitable. Since
helium, and even argon, are quite expensive, welding with CO
2
has also been tried with success. Atomic-
hydrogen welding uses a pair of tungsten electrodes between which the arc is struck. Hydrogen is blown
onto the arc, where it dissociates. The atomic hydrogen then recombines on the surface of the work,
creating the necessary high temperature. These methods are useful in special cases, but the most general
type of arc welding is the metallic arc. The arc is struck between a welding rod and the work, with the
welding rod providing the filler metal.
It is necessary to exclude the oxidizing atmosphere from the molten metal in any welding, and this is
done by the gases created from the coating of the welding rod. This coating also provides material that
makes a slag that carries away impurities and is brushed off the surface when it is cool. Special alloys in
the welding rods provide additions necessary for the quality of the weld material. The selection of the
proper welding rod is an important requirement for successful welding. The blast from the cathode when
the welding rod is made negative and DC is used allows overhead welding, a great advantage of metallic
arc welding, though it is not used except when absolutely necessary. The arc length is short, 4 mm or
less, the coating generally touching the work as the weld is made. A voltage of 21V and currents of 40 to
240A are typical. A generator for DC welding supplies 40-60V on open circuit, but is strongly negative
compounded to limit the current to the desired level. A transformer with large leakage flux is used for
AC welding, for the same reason. When DC is used, the work is generally positive because of the higher
temperature at the anode, but it depends on the welding rod used. Proper welds are strong and reliable,
and the ease and economy of making them has led to their general use instead of riveted joints.
The Cooper-Hewitt low-pressure mercury arc lamp is shown at the right. It produced 16 lm/W of the line
spectrum of mercury, including the
UVA resonance line at 257.3 nm. It
was used, among other things, for
exposing blueprints and blueline
prints (as was the carbon arc). It is
interesting for using two anodes for
operation on AC, a mercury-pool
cathode, and a capacitance igniter.
The pressure of mercury in operation
was a few mmHg, controlled by the
bulb temperature. The discharge
current was limited by the ballast L,
and the anode currents equalized by the resistances R. The AC supply was arranged as an
autotransformer. The capacitance igniter consisted of a ring around the bulb at the level of the mercury
surface. When the switch was closed (this switch was a mercury tilt switch) DC passed through L, so that
opening the switch produced a large inductive kick that was applied to the ring through the capacitance
C. This apparently created high-field emission at the mercury meniscus inside the bulb, which started the
discharge. Residual ionization was enough to restart the discharge on each voltage cycle.
Starting a discharge with a mercury-pool cathode means establishing a cathode spot on the surface of the
mercury. This could be done with a small auxiliary pool that was connected to anode potential and then
tilted to separate the mercury from the main cathode, after which the discharge would transfer easily to
the main anode. Another method used a resistive rod that was not wet by mercury dipping into the pool,
called a resistive igniter. A small auxilary anode, called an arc-holding anode, was sometimes provided
to keep the discharge going when the main anode current was cut off, perhaps by some current control
action. The capacitance igniter eliminated the inconvenience of a conductive connection to the discharge,
simplifying control.
The cathode spot makes a small depression in the surface that moves about rapidly, with agitation and
splashing of the mercury. Mercury is vaporized at the cathode spot, and condenses on the cooler parts of
the envelope, from where it drains back into the pool. This self-renewing property of the mercury pool
cathode is a great advantage. However, the mercury must not splash on an anode, where it offers the
hazard of creating a secondary cathode that may conduct on reverse voltage, causing a backfire.
Large mercury-pool rectifiers were once used to produce large DC currents. The ignitron even allowed
phase control. These rectifiers have now been superseded by silicon rectifiers, which are much cheaper
and more convenient to use, but much less dramatic.
The sodium-vapor lamp is another interesting device. It was necessary to find a glass that would not be
attacked by hot sodium vapor before any such lamp was possible. The lamp uses a separately-heated
oxide-coated cathode and a molybdenum anode in about 2 mmHg of neon. The discharge is first started
in the neon, and the lamp allowed to warm up until the sodium metal vaporizes. This requires up to 10
minutes. Sodium melts at about 93C, and at the working temperature of 220C has a vapor pressure of
about 0.3 mHg. A Dewar enclosure around the envelope keeps the heat in. This is a small pressure, but
the efficiency of radiation of the sodium resonance lines is so great that most of the light comes from the
sodium. A short lamp, 8 cm, relies on cathode phenomena and has no positive column. Its voltage drop is
about 17V, and it produces 4000 lm, for an efficiency of about 22 lm/W. A longer 16 cm lamp will get
its light from the positive column, and the voltage drop will be about 25V. This lamp will produce 7000
lm, with an arc efficiency of 72 lm/W, and an overall efficiency of 52 lm/W, the highest known. The
light, however, is monochromatic, in the range 560-610 nm, formed by the broadened sodium D lines.
This orange-yellow light was once very familiar as highway illumination.
The neon in the lamp, though it does not contribute to the light, has the important function of decreasing
the electron mean free path so that the electrons spend a lot of time in the discharge, and have a high
probability of exciting sodium atoms. The cathode fall of the lamp is about 15V, low enough that ion
bombardment of the cathode is not damaging (this happens at 25V and above). The cathode fall is set by
the neon, but the resonance energy of the sodium is only 2.5V, allowing nearly all the sodium to be
excited. The electron temperature in the positive column is about 40,000K. The voltage gradient is small
because the neon can be cumulatively ionized, since it has metastable levels and can save excitation
energy between successive collisions with electrons. The number density of sodium in cm
-3
, is given in
terms of the temperature T in K by log n = -5573.3/T - 1.6794 log T + 28.7134. When the walls are at
390K, this gives 5 x 10
10
cm
3
. At these temperatures, the resonance radiation has an absorption coefficient
of 143 cm
-1
, so it does not get far before it is absorbed and then re-radiated. Only a thin outer skin of the
positive column emits the light that is seen.
High-pressure sodium lamps have now been developed, in which the high pressure produces a very hot
plasma that radiates throughout the visble, making a golden light that is more acceptable than the pure
yellow of the low-pressure lamp. They are widely used as streetlights, giving an annoyingly bright glare.
It is interesting to watch these lamps light with a spectroscope. When they first are connected, they show
argon or neon lines, then the blue of a mercury discharge and its typical yellow, green and red lines. The
sodium D lines soon appear, and they increase in brightness, and then in width. Finally, when the lamp is
at operating temperature, there are two black lines against the continuous background, as the sodium
vapor absorbs these frequencies, that by contrast look dark. This is similar to the production of the
Fraunhofer dark lines in the solar spectrum by line absorption of the photospheric continuum in the
chromosphere.
The high-pressure mercury arc lamp was developed earlier than the
high-pressure sodium lamp, since the problems with its construction
were not as challenging. It is filled with argon to a few mmHg, and
contains a small mercury drop, perhaps 200 mg in weight, that will
supply the operating pressure in a tube 15 cm long and 3 cm in
diameter. The operating wall temperature is about 350C. A glow
discharge at the starting electrode close to one main electrode
provides sufficient ionization for a glow discharge to begin between
the main electrodes, which raises the wall temperature. When the
mercury is vaporized, the arc strikes, and the oxide-coated cathodes
are heated by ion bombardment. The lamp is supplied through a
transformer with leakage flux, so that it behaves as a ballast as well. The inductive current is balanced by
a capacitive current to correct the power factor, if this is a problem. These lamps produce a whitish-blue
light from the broadened spectral lines of mercury, which at the highest pressures becomes practically a
continuum.
The fluorescent lamp is a very familiar device, that provides us with examples of a low-pressure mercury
arc, and an argon glow discharge as well. The tube, which is from 5/8" to 1.5" in diameter, and 9" to 48"
long, has an oxide-coated cathode with heater at each end. The 253.7 nm mercury resonance line is ideal
for exciting phosphors such as manganese-activated zinc silicate. This phosphor has an excitation peak at
253 nm, and re-emits the radiation in the region 460-600 nm in the middle of the visible spectrum. There
are many phosphors to choose from, and combinations of them are used to secure desirable spectral
characteristics. They operate at rather low currents, 0.15 to 0.42 A, and at voltages from 45V for a 9"
tube to 108V for a 48" tube. A ballast inductor is used to limit the current. A resistor would work as well
to limit the current, but the inductor dissipates less heat, though at the expense of a poor power factor.
The inductor, however, plays an important role in starting the discharge.
Since the tube contains a drop of mercury that must be vaporized before the dicharge can start, the
cathode heaters are connected in series across the line to warm up the mercury and provide some
ionization. When the starting switch is opened, the inductor gives a high-voltage kick that initiates the
arc, though it may be a while before the tube comes up to operating temperature. Fluorescent lamps are
very efficient, a green phosphor giving as much as 70 lm/W, though normal lamps are less efficient.
There is little infrared in the radiation produced. The visible mercury lines shine through the phosphors,
and can be seen in a spectroscope. The light is not very pleasant, but gives good illumination of large
areas.
The "glow switch," an automatic starter, was invented by R. F. Hays in 1940. It has a U-shaped
bimetallic strip that closes the circuit through the lamp heaters when it is hot, but the contacts are
normally open. There is another electrode in the envelope so that a glow discharge can occur when
voltage is applied. The normal supply voltage is enough to start the discharge, which is in the abnormal
glow region to supply a good amount of heat to one end of the bimetallic strip. The strip closes the
contacts and shorts out the glow discharge, and the tube heaters are energized. It is arranged that the
bimetallic strip continues to heat a short time after the discharge ceases, so the circuit does not reopen
immediately. When the bimetallic strip cools the contacts open, causing the inductive kick that starts the
main discharge, as well as the glow discharge in the starter. However, the voltage across the main
discharge is insufficient to maintain the glow discharge, so the glow discharge goes out before it can heat
the bimetallic strip again. If the main lamp does not light, the cycle repeats until it does. These starters
are practically universally used, and may be included as part of the lamp.
Arcs are also involved in power switching. The ordinary AC houshold supply is one of the easiest
circuits to switch. A DC supply, even of the same voltage, is much more difficult to interrupt. A switch
that can handle 10A AC will do well to handle 1A DC at the same voltage. High-voltage transmission
circuits are very difficult to switch, even with AC, and a large amount of technology has been developed
to meet the problems. When a circuit carrying current is interrupted, an arc always forms at the switch
contacts, and the arc must be lengthened until the voltage will not support it. Inductance in the circuit
always makes switching more difficult. Care must be taken not to end the current abruptly and cause an
excessive inductive kick, while the inductance extends the persistence of current flow. Alternating
current has the great advantage that the current is zero twice in every cycle, and advantage can be taken
of this to break the circuit. DC of several thousand volts is very difficult to interrupt, since the voltage
can support a long arc that must be extinguished in creative ways. Opening a simple knife switch would
only result in a continuous arc in this case.
The arc can extend itself by climbing arc horns driven by its buoyancy and convection of the air around
it, or the current can be used to create a magnetic field with the same effect, called a magnetic blowout.
The arc can be driven into an arc chute that lengthens its path, by a blast of air. In the most difficult
cases, the contacts open in an oil bath. This creates a cloud of vapor under high pressure that may be
used to blow out the arc, and occasionally a nasty explosion. A great deal of ingenuity has gone into
high-voltage switchgear to make economical high transmission voltages practical. However, one
supposes a high-voltage DC transmission line cannot be switched at all, and its supply must be removed
instead, or it simply must be shorted.
Lightning offers further problems. Here, the voltages can rise to several million volts in a few
microseconds, with currents of thousands of amperes. Lightning protection must allow a discharge that
bypasses equipment that would be damaged by the stroke. Here we are talking about actual lightning
strikes, not just disturbances due to nearby lightning that affect telephone wires and such. The protection
that routes a stroke around an insulator may leave ionization that facilitates an arc over the insulator from
the normal line voltage, damaging the insulator, so protection equipment must work quickly to de-
energize the line when a lightning stroke is detected. When your lights flicker briefly, the usual reason is
that a lightning strike has caused the protective circuits to disconnect and reconnect the line
automatically. This is just a sample of the many problems that occur in this field.
Even voltages as low as 1.5V can cause a "spark" when contacts open. This is not a true spark, but the
effect of high temperatures produced at the last point on the contacts to open, when the current is
confined to a small area. This is not a switching hazard, but does degrade the contacts. A capacitor can
be used to keep the voltage across opening contacts small, but a resistor is necessary in series with it.
Otherwise, when the circuit is closed, the voltage across the charged capacitor would be discharged
through the low resistance of the contacts, which could weld them together. This combination is called a
snubber, and it makes low-voltage DC switching a little better.
Fuses are an excellent overcurrent protection. They consist of a wire or equivalent that melts at a current
that is greater than the working current by some small factor, say 1.5. When the wire melts, an arc is
formed that then must be extinguished, often by being enclosed in some material that vaporizes and
blows out the arc, or absorbs the energy of the arc. The current that melts a wire can be estimated by
Preece's formula, I = Ad
3/2
, where I is in ampere and d is in inches. For copper, A = 10,224, for
aluminum, A = 7585, for lead A = 1379, and for German Silver, A = 5230. A #30 copper wire fuses at a
current of about 10A.
References
More complete bibilographies will be found in the references.
J. D. Cobine, Gaseous Conductors (New York: Dover, 1958).
J. Millman and S. Seely, Electronics (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1951). Chapters 9, 10 and 11.
G. Herzberg, Atomic Spectra and Atomic Structure (New York: Dover, 1944).
Return to Physics Index
Composed by J. B. Calvert
Created 3 November 2002
Last revised 29 July 2009