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Introduction
The area under study comprises Kullu Municipal Council (M.Cl.) and Manali
Naggar Panchayat (N.P.) in the Beas valley, and Manikaran in the Parbati
valley. Whenever reference in the text is made to Kullu valley both the
areas of, Beas valley as well as Parbati valley are included in it. The Kullu-
Manali tourist region comprises the Beas basin in Kullu valley of Himachal
Pradesh in the North Western Himalaya. The Beas valley begins from Larji
(957 m in lower Beas basin) and stretches up to Rohtang crest (4038 m
under upper Beas basin).
Kullu and Manali are the major tourist spots in this valley. Kullu town
(1219 m: sub-temperate climate), located between 31°38' N latitude and
77°60' E longitude has a geographical area of 7 km² and a population of
18,306 in 2001 (Census of India, 2001). Manali tourist resort (2050 m:
temperate climate), located between 32°24'30" N latitude and 77°10'6" E
longitude has a geographical area of about 3.5 km² and a population of
6,265 in 2001 (Census of India, 2001).
The Parbati valley is narrow and there are very few places with a width of
more than 1 km. The valley stretches from Hathithan village (1000 m),
near Bhuntar, in the south east direction to its highest point about 6260 m
high, beyond the Pin Parbati Pass. Manikaran (1737 m), situated in a very
narrow part of Parbati valley, is located between 3205' N latitude and 770
2' E longitude and is a small but significant religious place (Fig. 1). In 1991
a total of 3,483 persons lived in and around Manikaran revenue village
(Census of India, 1991).
The tourism resources that the tourists see and visit in Kullu valley are
mainly its unique, broad, beautiful landscape features, blooming orchards
and ancient temples. In addition they come to the area to see the beautiful
scenic valley and traditional townships. The important tourist resources for
Kullu, Manali and others are primarily a combination of both religious and
scenic. That's why this valley is known as `Valley of Gods'. There are many
temples and sites within 8 km of Kullu town. The Great Himalayan National
Park, Khokhan, Kais, Sainj and Tirthan are wildlife sanctuaries in the
region.
Manali has more strategic location among all the major tourist spots of the
Beas valley. Beautiful alpine pastures, snow capped mountain peaks,
orchards and coniferous Deodar trees attract many nature lovers. Other
tourist attractions include temples, hot water springs and baths and
beautiful picnic spots of snow capped peaks with glaciers and moraines,
broad valleys with blossoming orchards and meandering rivers.
Mountaineering, adventure sports and winter snow sports are also
undertaken in the area.
These tourist spots occupy strategic positions in the geologically fragile and
ecologically delicate region of the north western Himalaya where such
studies as the present one have yet not been taken up. These areas should
be the high priority areas from environmental conservation point of view of
the Himalaya and similar mountain tourist spots of the world where
tourism pressure exceeds the available infrastructure so as to establish a
harmonious relationship between people and nature.
Review of Literature
The arrival of tourists in the Kullu valley is directly related to the facility of
road transport. Pre-motor days were devoid of tourism in the valley. British
travellers and their clan were served by begar (bonded labourers). Begar
was supplied to the travellers at rates payable by the then written scale.
For example, the rates around 1870 from Sultanpur to Raison (14 km) was
four annas, and from Raison to Manali (26 km) it was six annas (Harcourt,
1871). The opening of the Mandi-Larji gorge in 1930 made the Kullu valley
accessible to the outside world and this laid the foundation of tourism
industry (Sharma, 1989). In 1964-65 the tourists coming into the valley
were around 10,000 this rose to nearly 70,000 in the 80s (Singh, 1989).
However, up to this period tourism was in juvenile stage of its growth and
no adverse impacts arising out of accommodating these numbers in Kullu-
Manali complex were noticeable. The interrelationships among host-tourist-
nature at that time could be said to be holistic and ecofriendly. However, in
the late 80s and 90s traffic of tourists rose exponentially. The tourists were
as high as ~11 lakh (1 lakh=100 thousand) in Manali and ~3 lakh in Kullu
(Anonymous, 1994a; Ram and Kuniyal, 1994). This rapid growth in the
number of tourists was a golden period for hoteliers and travel agents but
for environmentalists it was a nightmare. Construction of hotels was in full
swing and environmentalists began to perceive the danger signs not only
to environment but also to the tourist industry.
Besides enhancing the scenic beauty, forests have a vital role in regulating
temperature and rainfall, and minimising adverse impacts arising due to
over interference on the part of human beings. Forests also determine
economic activities, development and livelihood of the people. They control
the climate and regulate the hydrological cycle, protect soil erosion and
stabilise carbon, nitrogen and oxygen contents in the atmosphere. Initially,
the valley was rich in forest cover, fauna and water resources (Singh,
1989). Forests were full of Deodar (Cedrus deodara), Tosh (Pinus
webbiana), Rae (Abies smithiana), and Kail (Pinus wallichiana). These
species were covering the high altitude areas of Rohtang Pass with dense
coverage (Harcourt, 1871). Nowadays, this tree line is receding and exists
only between Marhi-Kothi and Manali. Even in Marhi-Kothi, there were
dense deodar trees during recent decades but now nothing remains except
for a few dead tree stumps as these trees were cut indiscriminately for
timber. Many efforts by the local forest department to revive these species
in the region have so far failed. Similarly, in the Solang valley, the winter
sports site, the villages were known for deodar trees, one was said to have
the largest in India (Harcourt, 1871). The situation today is very different.
The trees here are sparse due to high biotic pressures.
Air pollution has also started to exceed permissible levels in many parts of
globe particularly when tourist inflow is very high and other human
activities increase. Air pollution in developed countries such as USA shows
high pollution levels in some of its cities. Smog and ozone showed levels
above a Federal threshold of 120 parts per billion (ppb) for an hour in New
York for 14 days and Washington DC for 7 days in summer (Down to Earth
or DTE, 1999a, p. 16). Malaysia, among the developing countries, kept its
air quality level as an official secret due to the fear of losing tourists as the
tourist numbers there had dropped in 1997 following the occurrence of
smog that covered most of the country (DTE, 1999b, p. 18). According to
the Nepal Environmental and Scientific Services, air pollution exceeded
four times the acceptable standard (i.e., 170 mg/m3) in Nepal at
Kathmandu where it was 1,000-5,000 mg/m3 in 24 hourly sampling in
1999 (DTE, 1999c, p. 16). Kathmandu's air quality is comparable to Mexico
City, which has been recognised as the worst in the world (DTE, 1999d, p.
19).
As far as air quality in Indian cities is concerned, it has never been as bad
as it is at the present. More and more people are dying due to the
increasing pollutants in the air. It is estimated that nearly 52,000 people in
36 Indian cities died due to high levels of SPM in 1995, a rise of 28% from
the earlier figure of 40,000 in 1991-92 (DTE, 1997, p. 30). The permissible
levels of air quality are necessary with an adequate margin of safety, to
protect the public health, vegetation and property. Based on National
Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) set by Central Pollution and Control
Board, New Delhi, the permissible limit to SPM on national level is 100
mg/m³ for 24 hourly/8 hourly monitoring for sensitive areas like Kullu and
Manali, 200 mg/m³ for residential, rural and other areas and 500 mg/m³
for industrial areas which should meet 98% of the time in a year (Central
Pollution Control Board or CPCB, 1994). However, 2% of the time, it may
exceed but not on two consecutive days. For gaseous pollutants- sulphur
dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NO2) permissible limit stands 30
mg/m³ to each gas for sensitive areas, 80 mg/m³ for residential, rural and
other areas and 120 mg/m³ for industrial areas in a year (CPCB, 1994).
Per capita per day waste generation at global level shows wide variation
from country to country. For Canada it was 2.7 kg, for Switzerland it is 2.6
kg, for USA 1.96, France 0.9-2.5 kg and in U.K. 0.9 kg (Ravindra and
Tripathi, 1997; US Environmental Protection Agency or USEPA, 1998).
Waste generation generally is proportional to the country's living as well as
economic standards. Nevertheless, role of tourists in generation of waste in
tourist areas, particularly in developing countries, is quite high although
similar studies are until today meagre. For instance, in 1990 visitors
generated 29,000 tonnes of solid waste in Pattaya (Thailand) within a short
season. The scenic Anhui Province of Mount Huangshan in China, a location
that is visited by more than 10 000 visitors a day during peak periods,
accumulates more than 10 000 tonnes of refuse and 3 000 tonnes of
excrement; all of which is difficult to dispose in a short time (Genot, 1997).
Water is life. But it is ironical that about 1.2 billion people in the world lack
access to clean drinking water, 2.2 billion lack adequate sanitation and 4
billion do not have sewerage service (Abu-Zeid, 1998, p. 11). Without a
supply of good quality water, tourists cannot fully enjoy the places that are
scenically beautiful and attractive. Shiaris (1985) commented that no part
of the globe is free from pollution. Nitrogen-polluted surface and
groundwater have affected the north west, south and central parts of
Europe. Around 60% of European countries are overexploiting
groundwater. In USA, water extraction is expected to increase by 15% per
annum (DTE, 2000b, p.23). We are able to use less than 0.08% of the
total water volume on the planet (Serageldin, 1998, p.123), so it is
precious indeed. Some 4-10 million deaths annually are attributed to water
borne diseases (Abu-Zeid, 1998, p. 11; Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 1998, p.
116).
In tourist areas, neither tourists nor hosts can be happy and healthy unless
clean and adequate and uncontaminated water is made available to them.
Therefore, water quality may have the same value in attracting tourists as
the scenic forests, good hotels, quality air and general cleanliness of the
tourist spots. Eighty per cent of the country's drinking water needs is met
from ground water. In 1994, the CPCB, Delhi identified 22 places in 16
states of India as critical sites of ground water pollution (DTE, 1999f, p.
31). Studies in the states of Haryana, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh showed
the presence of traces of heavy metals like iron and zinc in all the samples,
cadmium in five samples and lead in three samples. But all the samples
had one striking similarity: the level of mercury was dangerously high
(DTE, 1999f, p. 31). Depleting ground water sources have compelled the
farmers, in 24 villages in the Vadodara and Bharuch districts of Gujarat, to
use industrial effluents, that have heavy doses of- not nutrients but heavy
metals, for irrigation. It was estimated that not a single drop of the
industrial effluent reached the Gulf of Cambay because it had been used by
farmers to irrigate their land (DTE, 1999g, p. 14). About 12 villages around
the Unnao district of Uttar Pradesh have been seriously affected by fluoride
contamination in the water giving rise to bone deformities among villagers
(DTE, 1999h, p. 19). The cases of fluorosis among the residents of Delhi
are also increasing (DTE, 2000c, p. 12).
In the Himalaya the main sources of drinking water are streams, springs
and rivers. In the valleys, some areas also have hand pumps for drinking
water. Amongst these sources, rivers and streams seem to be most
affected by human interferences. As the springs are drying up, the
pressure is high on the rivers that are difficult to harness due to its high
economic costs and pollution.
Research Methods
Over construction
Deforestation
Air pollution is another negative impact of tourism activities. The rise in the
number of vehicles, mismanaged traffic and deforestation has all
contributed to the poor air quality in sensitive tourist areas such as Kullu-
Manali. The ambient air quality of the region was monitored for four years
(1996 to 1999). The spots chosen were all at a distance of between 5 and
10 km from the centres of the town. The prime pollutants, viz., SPM, SO2
and NO2 were monitored on fortnightly and/or monthly basis using
Envirotech High Volume Sampler (model APM-415). For monitoring SPM
the duration was 8 hours, and for SO2 and NO2 it was 4 hours. On the
occasion of Dussehra festival, SPM was monitored for four days
continuously from 23 to 26 October, 1999. This festival is celebrated every
year in Kullu, and is the most important cultural event for the host
communities from the point of view of tourism and commerce.
During 1996-1997, sixty-two samples of waste from Kullu and 115 from
Manali were segregated manually to obtain its composition and the
seasonal pattern of its generation (Table 1). 1 foot3 (1 foot³ =0.028 m³ or
1 m³=35.315 foot³) tin and/or wooden box was used to obtain each
sample. The total waste collected for both of the locations-Kullu and Manali
were about 380 kg and 1,050 kg respectively (Table 2). Keeping the
seasonal traffic of the tourists and corresponding enhancement or
reduction in solid waste generation in view, the survey was conducted
during the 3 main seasons. For Manali in 1996 the periods chosen were: 8-
12 and 22-24 June to represent summer; 1-4 September for monsoon;
and 9-11 and 19-20 December for winter. Similarly, the sampling dates for
waste segregation at Kullu in 1997 were: 18-21 June, 17-19 September
and 20-23 December. A secondary level sample with 200 to 300 gm of the
segregated wastes was taken up to analyse the moisture content and
chemical properties so as to study the possibilities of energy generation
from wastes. Moisture content was obtained after drying the secondary
samples continuously for 24 to 72 hours in an oven at 40° C till the weight
becomes constant. The difference between initial fresh weight and final
dried weight thus represented the moisture percentage. Moreover, the
dried wastes were ground to particle size to dissolve it in solvents for
testing chemical properties, mainly heat producing capacity (HPC), pH,
NPK, carbon/nitrogen ratio, etc.
Deforestation
Of the total land cover in Himachal state, 59% of the area is devoted to
forest. 10% of this has a crown density >40% and 3% has crown density
<40%. The remaining 46% comprises high and medium alpine pastures,
grazing lands and blank surfaces (Anonymous, 1993). Kullu district,
covered in the present study has only 16.5% forest area of Himachal
(Anonymous, 1994b). The major species of trees that have been exploited
indiscriminately for timber in building of houses and hotels over the years
are Deodar and Kail.
Air Pollution
Air pollution in both of the tourist spots seems to be increasing. SPM in the
peak summer season was beyond permissible level (100 µg/m³) in Kullu-
Manali. SPM data for four years ranged from 101.9 µg/m³ in 1997 to 118.8
µg/m³ in 1999 at Mohal and from 101.3 µg/m³ in 1996 to 142.6 µg/m³ in
1998 at Manali. SPM values for summer season between 1996 to 1999
have shown increase at both of the monitoring stations with the year 1999
at Manali being an exception when this value was measured at 89.6
µg/m³. The highest ever values for this period was measured at Mohal in
May 1998 when it was 171.8 µg/m³. The values at Manali were as low as
114.4 µg/m³ in June 1997 and as high as 150.1 µg/m³ in May 1998
(Anonymous, 1996; Anonymous, 1997b; Table 6).
The most striking values of SPM were derived during the Dussehra festival
that is celebrated every year in Dhalpur ground, Kullu. The average SPM
figure for four days was found to be 358.6 µg/m³ and ranged from 262.8
µg/m³ (23 October 1999) to 411.2 µg/m³ (26 October 1999) during four
sampling days. In this festival that continues for seven days, around
200,000 pilgrims, villagers and tourists participate. The dust is the major
source of SPM during this festival as the festival ground is almost bare. It
is quite clear that SPM mean values cross the permissible level at both the
spots; as the number of tourists increase, the SPM values also increase
proportionally. The level of air pollution in the winter season is also quite
high. This is mainly due to burning of fossil fuel, in large quantities, by
native inhabitants and sometimes by hoteliers during electricity failure in
winter. Monsoon season has the lowest SPM values due to washout effects
of rains and very few numbers of tourists during this period.
Trace gas concentrations, such as SO2 and NO2 during 1996-97 were
between 12-29 µg/m³ and 16-28 µg/m³ at Mohal (Kullu), and 12-40
µg/m³ and 12-34 µg/m³ at Manali respectively. SO2 and NO2
concentrations were in excess under specified 24-hour standard duration
for sensitive areas (15-30 µg/m³) during summer season in Manali. As far
as ammonia (NH3) concentration is concerned, it was between 7-10 µg/m³
at Mohal and 24 µg/m³ at Manali. During 1997-98, trace gas
concentrations of SO2 and NO2 was within detection limits. SO2 was 6 to 9
µg/m³ at Mohal and 6 to 7 µg/m³ at Manali. NO2 was measured between 3
to 15 µg/m³ at Mohal and 4 to 14 µg/m³ at Manali. June and October were
the important months when tourists and Dussehra enthusiasts visited
Kullu-Manali complex in large numbers causing atmospheric pollution from
their vehicles.
The main sources of solid waste are hotels, residential colonies, hospitals
and other business and office establishments. The total waste generated
from all these sources during the peak tourist season was estimated
around 56 tonnes and 30 tonnes/day at Kullu and Manali respectively. Of
the total waste generation, hotels were responsible for 12 tonnes and ~20
tonnes of waste at Kullu and Manali respectively. Residential colonies
contribute ~44 tonnes at Kullu and 8 tonnes at Manali. Hospital waste is
below 0.11 tonnes for both the locations, it is unfortunately also treated as
a MSW and dumped at the bank of river Beas mixed with other MSW. At
Kullu, more solid waste is generated throughout the year as the local
population is much higher than that of Manali.
Waste
Kullu(1997) Manali(1996)
categories
Ave- Ave-
Summer Monsoon Winter Summer Monsoon Winter
rage rage
RBW 44.7 47.0 42.1 45.0 54.5 59.9 48.8 54.6
BW 19.4 15.5 18.8 17.7 16.3 19.5 16.9 17.3
NBW 35.9 37.5 39.1 37.4 29.1 20.7 34.3 28.1
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Water Pollution
Therefore the two most important concerns in the Himalaya that require
immediate attention are:
· drinkable water is found in limited quantities from the prevalent sources
such as springs, lakes, hand pumps, streams or rivers is becoming scarce
as the traditional sources of water are drying up continuously.
· whatever water is available is polluted by the prevalent practices of
garbage dumping and direct effluents discharge into rivers.
Mitigating Measures