International Journal of Fieldwork Studies, 2003 1 (1)

Environmental Impacts of Tourism in Kullu-Manali The International

complex in North Western Himalaya, India. Part 1: The Journal of Fieldwork
Studies is part of the
Adverse Impacts Virtual Montana
Project funded by
Jagdish C. Kuniyal¹, Arun P. Jain² and Ardhendu S. the European
Shannigrahi² Commission: 70979-
¹1G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, CP-2-2000-1-UK-
Himachal Unit, Mohal- Kullu: 175 126 (HP), India MINERVA-ODL
²Jain and Shannigrahi were earlier associated with the Institute
Citation Details
Abstract
Abstract
The study aims to assess the environmental situation arising at two
Key Words
important locations in North Western Himalaya- Kullu and Manali due to
increasing pressure of tourism. It takes up the problems of over Introduction
construction of hotels, deforestation, air pollution, solid waste, water The Study Area,
pollution and also suggests some mitigating measures to lessen the load of Tourism Resources
different forms of pollutions. Hotel construction registered its highest and Tourists
growth in this region (about 38%) during 80s due to terrorism in Jammu
and Kashmir. One-quarter of the hoteliers and tourists consider Review of
deforestation as one of the topmost problems arising due to unregulated Literature
tourism. Air pollution studies over a four-year (1996-99) period shows that Research Methods
suspended particulate matter (SPM) has gone up to 112 mg/m³ at Manali
during summers. An in-depth study of the total waste generated shows Results and
that the proportion of decomposing waste (nearly 63% in Kullu and 72% in Discussion
Manali) is higher than that of non-biodegradables. Indiscriminate throwing Mitigating Measures
of municipal solid waste into rivers is common practice in these tourist
Conclusion
spots, as a result river water is continuously being polluted. To mitigate all
these problems, a complete ban on further construction of large hotels Acknowledgements
needs to be enforced along with regulation of tourists and strict References
enforcement of emission standards for vehicles. Segregation of wastes at
its source and production of biocompost from the biodegradable waste
could be an important way of dealing with the solid wastes.

Key Words

tourism, adverse impacts, over construction, deforestation, air pollution,

solid wastes, water pollution, Himalaya

Résumé

L'étude a pour but d'estimer l'état de l'environnement dans deux régions

du Nord Ouest de l'Inde: a Kulle et a Manali, résultant de la pression
croissante du tourisme. Elle considère les problèmes causés par la
construction trop intensive d'hôtels, la déforestation, la pollution
atmosphérique, les déchets solides, la pollution de l'eau, et elle suggère
également quelques mesures qui peuvent diminuer la quantité de
différentes formes de pollution. La construction d'hôtels à montré un
niveau de croissance maximal (environ 38%) dans les années 80, en
raison du terrorisme dans le Jammu et le Kashmir (Cachemire). Un quart
des hôteliers et des touristes considèrent que la déforestation est l'un der
problèmes les plus importants, due à un tourisme sans réglementation. Les
études de la pollution de l'air produit une période de 4 ans (1996-99)
montrent que la matière en particules suspendues (SPM) a atteint jusqu'à
112 mg/m3 à Manali Durant l'été. Une étude approfondie du total de
déchets en décomposition (près de 63% à Kullu et 72% à Manali) est plus
élevée que celles des déchets non-biodegradable. Le déversement in
discriminé des déchets solides municipaux dans les rivières est une
pratique courante dans les lieux touristiques, le résultat étant que l'eaux
des rivières est sans cesse pollué. Pour limiter tous ces problèmes, il faut
mettre en place un interdit total de construction de grands hôtels ainsi que
le contrôle des touristes et des règles strictes de limitation des gaz
d'échappement des véhicules. La ségrégation des déchets a leur origine et
la production de bio compost à partir des déchets biodégradables pourrait
être une façon importante de disposer des déchets solides.

Mots clefs

tourisme, effets néfastes, constructions excessive, déforestation, pollution

atmosphérique, déchets solides, pollution de l'eau, Himalaya

Rezumat

Acest studiu are ca obiectiv evaluarea situatiei ecologice aparute in doua

locuri importante din Nord Vestul Himalya - Kullu si Manali ca urmare a
presiunii crescande a turismului. Sunt prezentate problemele create odata
cu construirea intensiva de hoteluri, defrisarea, poluarea aerului,
reziduurile, poluarea apei si sunt sugerate cateva solutii in vederea
diminuarii diferitelor forme de poluare. Constructia de hoteluri a atins
apogeul din regiune (38%) in anii '80 ca urmare a terorismului din Jammu
si Kashmir. Un sfert din personalul hotelier si turisti considera defrisarea ca
fiind una dintre cele mai mari probleme aparute ca urmare a turismului
nesupravegheat. Poluarea atosferica este studiata pe o perioada de 4 ani
(1996 - 1999) si se arata ca particulele in suspensie creste la 112 mg/m3
la Manali in timpul verii. Un studiu amanuntit al reziduurilor solide arata ca
in general proportia de reziduuri biodegradabile (aproape 63% in Kullu si
72% in Manali) este mai mare decat cea a reziduurilor nebiodegradabile.
Descarcarea reziduurilor solide municipale fara exceptie sunt deversate in
rauri si constituie o practica obisnuita, avand ca rezultat poluarea continua
a apelor acestora. Pentru solutionarea tuturor acestor probleme este
necesara introducerea unei interdictii complete impotriva construirii mai
multor hoteluri, reglementarea numarului de turisti si a standardelor
autovehicolelor. Segregarea la sursa a reziduurilor si producerea de
biocompost din reziduuri biodegradabile ar putea fi un mod important de a
face fata problemei reziduurilor solide.

Cuvinte cheie

turism, impacte adverse, supraconstruire, defrisare, poluare atmosferica,

reziduuri solide, poluarea apei, Himalaya

Introduction

The environmental and geographic suitability of Himachal state for tourism

has undoubtedly provided endless opportunities to the development of this
sector in the region. But sustainable tourism primarily depends on a
balance between the number of tourists and the available infrastructures
otherwise negative impacts on our environment are bound to follow.
People are the ultimate loser or gainer of any activity performed in any
part of the earth. Therefore human beings must exercise some rationality
while exploiting the resources of the planet. There is a need to create
adequate infrastructure and awareness to overcome the different type of
pollution problems and long term impacts that have to be borne by human
beings both hosts and guests.

The advent of tourism activity and its unregulated growth particularly in

the present study area has resulted in a dramatic increase in the number
of hotels, and unmindful of the number of tourists. There was an increased
need for hotel accommodation during 1990s when the majority of the
tourists from Jammu and Kashmir state turned towards Kullu-Manali. This
inflow exerted such great pressure that over-construction of hotels took
place in a big way. The surrounding forests were also exploited largely for
timber but also for fuel. Along with continuing deforestation, air pollution
has been observed. The forest cover has decreased but the number of
tourist vehicles particularly during the peak summer season has increased.
This resulted in high emissions of pollutants in the ambient air causing
health risks to natives and tourists alike. Total SPM and other gases were
the major forms of pollutants. The aesthetic beauty of the tourist spot
diminished due to high solid waste generation compounded by inadequate
infrastructure facilities to tackle it. Indiscriminate throwing of solid waste
into river has caused water contamination. Continuous drying up of springs
in the hill spots has also posed a serious threat to water supply of the
region. As a result, tourists, hosts and many other living organisms in the
region have begun to feel the impact of water crisis. Rivers being the
major source of drinking water and the only option for future water this
cannot be allowed to surpass the level of pollutions.

Keeping in view these alarming problems, this study focuses on the

following objectives:

 to assess major adverse impacts due to tourism (such as, over

construction of hotels, deforestation, air pollution, solid waste,
water pollution) in Kullu-Manali complex (KMC), and
 to find some mitigating measures to lessen the load of different
forms of pollution.

The Study Area, Tourism Resources and Tourists

The area under study comprises Kullu Municipal Council (M.Cl.) and Manali
Naggar Panchayat (N.P.) in the Beas valley, and Manikaran in the Parbati
valley. Whenever reference in the text is made to Kullu valley both the
areas of, Beas valley as well as Parbati valley are included in it. The Kullu-
Manali tourist region comprises the Beas basin in Kullu valley of Himachal
Pradesh in the North Western Himalaya. The Beas valley begins from Larji
(957 m in lower Beas basin) and stretches up to Rohtang crest (4038 m
under upper Beas basin).

Kullu and Manali are the major tourist spots in this valley. Kullu town
(1219 m: sub-temperate climate), located between 31°38' N latitude and
77°60' E longitude has a geographical area of 7 km² and a population of
18,306 in 2001 (Census of India, 2001). Manali tourist resort (2050 m:
temperate climate), located between 32°24'30" N latitude and 77°10'6" E
longitude has a geographical area of about 3.5 km² and a population of
6,265 in 2001 (Census of India, 2001).

The Parbati valley is narrow and there are very few places with a width of
more than 1 km. The valley stretches from Hathithan village (1000 m),
near Bhuntar, in the south east direction to its highest point about 6260 m
high, beyond the Pin Parbati Pass. Manikaran (1737 m), situated in a very
narrow part of Parbati valley, is located between 3205' N latitude and 770
2' E longitude and is a small but significant religious place (Fig. 1). In 1991
a total of 3,483 persons lived in and around Manikaran revenue village
(Census of India, 1991).

Figure 1: Geographical location of study sites

The tourism resources that the tourists see and visit in Kullu valley are
mainly its unique, broad, beautiful landscape features, blooming orchards
and ancient temples. In addition they come to the area to see the beautiful
scenic valley and traditional townships. The important tourist resources for
Kullu, Manali and others are primarily a combination of both religious and
scenic. That's why this valley is known as `Valley of Gods'. There are many
temples and sites within 8 km of Kullu town. The Great Himalayan National
Park, Khokhan, Kais, Sainj and Tirthan are wildlife sanctuaries in the
region.

Manali has more strategic location among all the major tourist spots of the
Beas valley. Beautiful alpine pastures, snow capped mountain peaks,
orchards and coniferous Deodar trees attract many nature lovers. Other
tourist attractions include temples, hot water springs and baths and
beautiful picnic spots of snow capped peaks with glaciers and moraines,
broad valleys with blossoming orchards and meandering rivers.
Mountaineering, adventure sports and winter snow sports are also
undertaken in the area.

These tourist spots occupy strategic positions in the geologically fragile and
ecologically delicate region of the north western Himalaya where such
studies as the present one have yet not been taken up. These areas should
be the high priority areas from environmental conservation point of view of
the Himalaya and similar mountain tourist spots of the world where
tourism pressure exceeds the available infrastructure so as to establish a
harmonious relationship between people and nature.

Review of Literature

The arrival of tourists in the Kullu valley is directly related to the facility of
road transport. Pre-motor days were devoid of tourism in the valley. British
travellers and their clan were served by begar (bonded labourers). Begar
was supplied to the travellers at rates payable by the then written scale.
For example, the rates around 1870 from Sultanpur to Raison (14 km) was
four annas, and from Raison to Manali (26 km) it was six annas (Harcourt,
1871). The opening of the Mandi-Larji gorge in 1930 made the Kullu valley
accessible to the outside world and this laid the foundation of tourism
industry (Sharma, 1989). In 1964-65 the tourists coming into the valley
were around 10,000 this rose to nearly 70,000 in the 80s (Singh, 1989).
However, up to this period tourism was in juvenile stage of its growth and
no adverse impacts arising out of accommodating these numbers in Kullu-
Manali complex were noticeable. The interrelationships among host-tourist-
nature at that time could be said to be holistic and ecofriendly. However, in
the late 80s and 90s traffic of tourists rose exponentially. The tourists were
as high as ~11 lakh (1 lakh=100 thousand) in Manali and ~3 lakh in Kullu
(Anonymous, 1994a; Ram and Kuniyal, 1994). This rapid growth in the
number of tourists was a golden period for hoteliers and travel agents but
for environmentalists it was a nightmare. Construction of hotels was in full
swing and environmentalists began to perceive the danger signs not only
to environment but also to the tourist industry.

Besides enhancing the scenic beauty, forests have a vital role in regulating
temperature and rainfall, and minimising adverse impacts arising due to
over interference on the part of human beings. Forests also determine
economic activities, development and livelihood of the people. They control
the climate and regulate the hydrological cycle, protect soil erosion and
stabilise carbon, nitrogen and oxygen contents in the atmosphere. Initially,
the valley was rich in forest cover, fauna and water resources (Singh,
1989). Forests were full of Deodar (Cedrus deodara), Tosh (Pinus
webbiana), Rae (Abies smithiana), and Kail (Pinus wallichiana). These
species were covering the high altitude areas of Rohtang Pass with dense
coverage (Harcourt, 1871). Nowadays, this tree line is receding and exists
only between Marhi-Kothi and Manali. Even in Marhi-Kothi, there were
dense deodar trees during recent decades but now nothing remains except
for a few dead tree stumps as these trees were cut indiscriminately for
timber. Many efforts by the local forest department to revive these species
in the region have so far failed. Similarly, in the Solang valley, the winter
sports site, the villages were known for deodar trees, one was said to have
the largest in India (Harcourt, 1871). The situation today is very different.
The trees here are sparse due to high biotic pressures.

Air pollution has also started to exceed permissible levels in many parts of
globe particularly when tourist inflow is very high and other human
activities increase. Air pollution in developed countries such as USA shows
high pollution levels in some of its cities. Smog and ozone showed levels
above a Federal threshold of 120 parts per billion (ppb) for an hour in New
York for 14 days and Washington DC for 7 days in summer (Down to Earth
or DTE, 1999a, p. 16). Malaysia, among the developing countries, kept its
air quality level as an official secret due to the fear of losing tourists as the
tourist numbers there had dropped in 1997 following the occurrence of
smog that covered most of the country (DTE, 1999b, p. 18). According to
the Nepal Environmental and Scientific Services, air pollution exceeded
four times the acceptable standard (i.e., 170 mg/m3) in Nepal at
Kathmandu where it was 1,000-5,000 mg/m3 in 24 hourly sampling in
1999 (DTE, 1999c, p. 16). Kathmandu's air quality is comparable to Mexico
City, which has been recognised as the worst in the world (DTE, 1999d, p.
19).

As far as air quality in Indian cities is concerned, it has never been as bad
as it is at the present. More and more people are dying due to the
increasing pollutants in the air. It is estimated that nearly 52,000 people in
36 Indian cities died due to high levels of SPM in 1995, a rise of 28% from
the earlier figure of 40,000 in 1991-92 (DTE, 1997, p. 30). The permissible
levels of air quality are necessary with an adequate margin of safety, to
protect the public health, vegetation and property. Based on National
Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) set by Central Pollution and Control
Board, New Delhi, the permissible limit to SPM on national level is 100
mg/m³ for 24 hourly/8 hourly monitoring for sensitive areas like Kullu and
Manali, 200 mg/m³ for residential, rural and other areas and 500 mg/m³
for industrial areas which should meet 98% of the time in a year (Central
Pollution Control Board or CPCB, 1994). However, 2% of the time, it may
exceed but not on two consecutive days. For gaseous pollutants- sulphur
dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NO2) permissible limit stands 30
mg/m³ to each gas for sensitive areas, 80 mg/m³ for residential, rural and
other areas and 120 mg/m³ for industrial areas in a year (CPCB, 1994).

In 1997, Lucknow -the capital of Uttar Pradesh- recorded the maximum

level of SPM at 2,339 mg/m³ which was as high as 2,340 mg/m³ recorded
in Delhi in 1992. In Kanpur, SPM level on an average was 400 mg/m³ with
a maximum of 1,000 mg/m³. In the southern parts of the country such as
Pondicherry, SPM and SO2 were about three times the permissible limits,
while oxides of nitrogen were more than two times the permissible level
(DTE, 1999e, p. 34-37).

Air pollution has also started to exceed permissible levels particularly in

summers when tourist inflow is very high. Some of the Himalayan towns,
with high pressure of tourist activities, are not lagging behind the country's
metropolitan cities in terms of air pollution. They have either reached the
threshold limits or have begun to cross it in towns such as Dehradun
(323.0 mg/m³), Shimla (142.4), Guwahati (93.3) and Shillong (42.2)
(DTE, 1997, p. 30). Recently in 1997, Dehradun showed annual average
SPM level to be more than twice the permissible level (DTE, 1999e, p. 34-
37). The ban on stone crushers by Jammu and Kashmir government have
ultimately shut down SPM producing stone-crushing units and saved the
life of 3,000 residents. A study conducted by Jammu and Kashmir State
Pollution Control Board in Athawajan area showed SPM to be 1,000 mg/m³
as against 600 mg/m³ set by the state regulatory bodies as the permissible
level. In the adjacent residential area, the SPM is above 400 mg/m³ twice
the permissible level of the 200 mg/m³ (DTE, 2000a, p. 14). Shimla- the
queen of the hills- in Himachal Pradesh recorded the maximum SPM level
of 952 mg/m³ in 1992; this dropped to 217 mg/m³ in 1997 by the strict
enforcement of preventive measures and it is marginally higher than the
safe limit of 200 mg/m³ (DTE, 1999e, p. 41). So the hard fact is to that air
pollution is disturbingly high even in certain parts of the Himalaya.
Mountainous tourist spots with their snow-capped peaks appear very
beautiful and grand from a distance. But when they are observed at close
quarters, in the absence of inefficient mechanisms of collection,
transportation and disposal of wastes, they have become the dumping
grounds of garbage. For the simple reason that the waste generation is
higher than the infrastructure available, with the managing authorities, to
handle it.

Per capita per day waste generation at global level shows wide variation
from country to country. For Canada it was 2.7 kg, for Switzerland it is 2.6
kg, for USA 1.96, France 0.9-2.5 kg and in U.K. 0.9 kg (Ravindra and
Tripathi, 1997; US Environmental Protection Agency or USEPA, 1998).
Waste generation generally is proportional to the country's living as well as
economic standards. Nevertheless, role of tourists in generation of waste in
tourist areas, particularly in developing countries, is quite high although
similar studies are until today meagre. For instance, in 1990 visitors
generated 29,000 tonnes of solid waste in Pattaya (Thailand) within a short
season. The scenic Anhui Province of Mount Huangshan in China, a location
that is visited by more than 10 000 visitors a day during peak periods,
accumulates more than 10 000 tonnes of refuse and 3 000 tonnes of
excrement; all of which is difficult to dispose in a short time (Genot, 1997).

On average, per capita waste generation in India is 0.5 kg a day. Chennai,

one of the metropolitan cities of India, with 0.675 kg of waste generated
per capita per day was the highest for any city in India. Chennai is followed
by Kanpur (0.640), Lucknow (0.623) and Surat (0.600; Anonymous,
1997a). Nagpur- also a metro- showed a generation of 0.273
kg/capita/day (Anonymous, 1997a). The waste generation in and around
the Valley of Flowers, in Uttaranchal hill state was noted to be 0.253
kg/capita/day (Kuniyal et al., 1997; Kuniyal et al., 1998; Kuniyal and Jain,
1999; Kuniyal et al., 1999). In the Himalayan valleys the wastes are
mostly dumped into the rivers for convenience. This pollutes drinking water
and affects the health of hosts as well as guests.

Water is life. But it is ironical that about 1.2 billion people in the world lack
access to clean drinking water, 2.2 billion lack adequate sanitation and 4
billion do not have sewerage service (Abu-Zeid, 1998, p. 11). Without a
supply of good quality water, tourists cannot fully enjoy the places that are
scenically beautiful and attractive. Shiaris (1985) commented that no part
of the globe is free from pollution. Nitrogen-polluted surface and
groundwater have affected the north west, south and central parts of
Europe. Around 60% of European countries are overexploiting
groundwater. In USA, water extraction is expected to increase by 15% per
annum (DTE, 2000b, p.23). We are able to use less than 0.08% of the
total water volume on the planet (Serageldin, 1998, p.123), so it is
precious indeed. Some 4-10 million deaths annually are attributed to water
borne diseases (Abu-Zeid, 1998, p. 11; Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 1998, p.
116).

In tourist areas, neither tourists nor hosts can be happy and healthy unless
clean and adequate and uncontaminated water is made available to them.
Therefore, water quality may have the same value in attracting tourists as
the scenic forests, good hotels, quality air and general cleanliness of the
tourist spots. Eighty per cent of the country's drinking water needs is met
from ground water. In 1994, the CPCB, Delhi identified 22 places in 16
states of India as critical sites of ground water pollution (DTE, 1999f, p.
31). Studies in the states of Haryana, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh showed
the presence of traces of heavy metals like iron and zinc in all the samples,
cadmium in five samples and lead in three samples. But all the samples
had one striking similarity: the level of mercury was dangerously high
(DTE, 1999f, p. 31). Depleting ground water sources have compelled the
farmers, in 24 villages in the Vadodara and Bharuch districts of Gujarat, to
use industrial effluents, that have heavy doses of- not nutrients but heavy
metals, for irrigation. It was estimated that not a single drop of the
industrial effluent reached the Gulf of Cambay because it had been used by
farmers to irrigate their land (DTE, 1999g, p. 14). About 12 villages around
the Unnao district of Uttar Pradesh have been seriously affected by fluoride
contamination in the water giving rise to bone deformities among villagers
(DTE, 1999h, p. 19). The cases of fluorosis among the residents of Delhi
are also increasing (DTE, 2000c, p. 12).

In the Himalaya the main sources of drinking water are streams, springs
and rivers. In the valleys, some areas also have hand pumps for drinking
water. Amongst these sources, rivers and streams seem to be most
affected by human interferences. As the springs are drying up, the
pressure is high on the rivers that are difficult to harness due to its high
economic costs and pollution.

Research Methods

Over construction

In order to determine the rate of hotel construction in the valley a random

sample of the hotels at Kullu and Manali in 1993-94 and in 2000-01 were
surveyed. In Kullu-Manali town where the growth has been most dramatic,
the survey was repeated in June-July 2000 to derive recent changes over
the last decade. The information was obtained directly from hotel
owners/contractors through interviews and questionnaires regarding
expansion or new constructions of hotels. Primary information was
tabulated on the basis of the year of construction and the acquired figures
were arranged in such a way as to know a decennial change in hotel
construction over the decades (before 1980, 1980-90 and above 1990 and
onwards).

Deforestation

The direct impact of hotel construction on the surrounding forests for

timber and fuel wood is high. Deforestation, due to tourism-related
construction is a serious issue in the Himalaya. Interviews of 63 hoteliers
and 163 tourists in Kullu and Manali were undertaken through
questionnaires. These were conducted to assess their responses to the
extent of forest degradation in the area; all emphasised the urgent need of
afforestation. Primary data collection to assess the quantity of woods being
used in the hotel industry from surrounding forest trees was conducted
from 40 hotels at Kullu from 11th November to 11th December 2000, and
from 84 hotels at Manali from 6th January 2000 to 15th July 2000 to
assess loss of forest along with growth of tourism in the valley.

Air Quality Monitoring Analysis

Air pollution is another negative impact of tourism activities. The rise in the
number of vehicles, mismanaged traffic and deforestation has all
contributed to the poor air quality in sensitive tourist areas such as Kullu-
Manali. The ambient air quality of the region was monitored for four years
(1996 to 1999). The spots chosen were all at a distance of between 5 and
10 km from the centres of the town. The prime pollutants, viz., SPM, SO2
and NO2 were monitored on fortnightly and/or monthly basis using
Envirotech High Volume Sampler (model APM-415). For monitoring SPM
the duration was 8 hours, and for SO2 and NO2 it was 4 hours. On the
occasion of Dussehra festival, SPM was monitored for four days
continuously from 23 to 26 October, 1999. This festival is celebrated every
year in Kullu, and is the most important cultural event for the host
communities from the point of view of tourism and commerce.

Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW) Characterisation

Solid waste management is another major problem in hill resorts. MSW

here is a mixed waste coming from various sources, such as, hotels,
business establishments, homes, offices and other institutional
establishments. To know the extent of MSW problem, particularly due to
tourism activities, the waste from point (collection points) and non-point
(disposal sites) sources was segregated to determine its physical
compositions and chemical properties. Collection points are the different
designated places for the dustbins or the open dumping of waste within the
19 wards (12 in Kullu and 7 in Manali) of the Municipal Council or Naggar
Panchayat. The disposal sites are the places where the local bodies
(municipality and/or Naggar Panchayat) dump the total collected wastes
gathered from different collection points in the towns. At present, these
sites are Pirdi at Kullu and Rangari in Manali. Both the dumping sites,
however, are located outside the limits of municipal towns.

During 1996-1997, sixty-two samples of waste from Kullu and 115 from
Manali were segregated manually to obtain its composition and the
seasonal pattern of its generation (Table 1). 1 foot3 (1 foot³ =0.028 m³ or
1 m³=35.315 foot³) tin and/or wooden box was used to obtain each
sample. The total waste collected for both of the locations-Kullu and Manali
were about 380 kg and 1,050 kg respectively (Table 2). Keeping the
seasonal traffic of the tourists and corresponding enhancement or
reduction in solid waste generation in view, the survey was conducted
during the 3 main seasons. For Manali in 1996 the periods chosen were: 8-
12 and 22-24 June to represent summer; 1-4 September for monsoon;
and 9-11 and 19-20 December for winter. Similarly, the sampling dates for
waste segregation at Kullu in 1997 were: 18-21 June, 17-19 September
and 20-23 December. A secondary level sample with 200 to 300 gm of the
segregated wastes was taken up to analyse the moisture content and
chemical properties so as to study the possibilities of energy generation
from wastes. Moisture content was obtained after drying the secondary
samples continuously for 24 to 72 hours in an oven at 40° C till the weight
becomes constant. The difference between initial fresh weight and final
dried weight thus represented the moisture percentage. Moreover, the
dried wastes were ground to particle size to dissolve it in solvents for
testing chemical properties, mainly heat producing capacity (HPC), pH,
NPK, carbon/nitrogen ratio, etc.

Sources of Kullu Manali

MSW
samples
Number of waste samples
Summer Monsoon Winter Total Summer Monsoon Winter Total
a b c d e f
Collection 18 19 15 52 19 25 20 64
points
Disposal 2 4 4 10 35 6 10 51
sites
 Total 20 23 19 62 54 31 30 115
samples
analysed g
a 18-21 June 1997 e 1-4 September 1996
b 17-19 September 1997 f 9-11 December and 19-20
c 20-23 December 1997 December 1996
d 8-12 June and 22-24 June 1996 g One sample represents 1 foot³
wastes

Table 1: Solid waste characterisation sampling details

Wastes Kullu (1997) Manali (1996)

Summer Monsoon Winter Ave- Summer Monsoon Winter Ave-rage
rage
Sampled 124.6 155.3 100.5 380.4a 556.7 266.3 227.4 1050.4a
Wastes
(kg)
Bulk 6.2 6.8 5.3 6.1 10.3 8.6 7.6 9.1
density /
foot³
a Data showing total sampled and segregated wastes rather than average

Table 2: Bulk density measurement of solid wastes in Kullu-Manali complex

Water Quality Analysis

Some of the important water quality parameters, at primary level, were

jointly determined with Toshniwal Process Instruments Private Limited
(TPIPL)-Ajmer (Rajasthan state). Parameters such as dissolved oxygen
(DO), and pH at existing water temperature for river Beas were measured
at two sites in Bhuntar; one at the point where river Beas joins Parbati,
second at a point where an effluent coming from mid-part of Bhuntar town
mixes with river Beas. The equipments for measuring these parameters
were OX1-191 and pH-323 respectively. After analysing these limited
samples, data from similar studies by Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishvavidyalaya, Regional Research Station, Bajaura-Kullu were taken into
consideration.

Results and Discussion

The current form of tourism in the valley has overwhelming negative

impacts when compared to positive ones (Table 3). The most visible forms
of degradation due to tourism currently are: over constructions of hotels,
which in combination with other interrelated impacts cause land
degradation, deforestation, air pollution, solid waste problem and water
pollution.

Forms of Activity Pressures Adverse impacts

on
Over construction Land Increase in disasters (deforestation,
floods, cloud bursts and landslides,
etc.)
Increase in roads Forests Soil erosion, landslides, floods
Fuelwood Air pollution and shrinkage in forests
Timber extraction Air pollution and loss of forests cover
Forest fires Drying up of springs
Trekking, Fauna Disturb wildlife habitat
Hunting & poaching Reduction in wildlife
Increase in road Air Increase in air and/or noise pollution
traffic and respiratory problems begin
Waste dumping Water Water borne disease/ contamination of
Sewage disposal water sources, fading scenic beauty

Table 3: Adverse impacts on natural environment due to unplanned

tourism in the Himalaya (after Kuniyal et al., 1999)

Over construction of Hotels and Land degradation

Taking pre-1980 as a base year, hotel constructions in Kullu and Manali

within a decade increased by 171.4% during 1990 at the rate of 17.1% per
annum (Table 4). After 1990, the increase in construction slowed down to
38.1% in 1993-94 and 63.9% in 2000-2001. On average, it is now clear
that the 1990s have experienced speedy and increased hotel construction
in Kullu-Manali. One of the main reasons for this upshot in construction is
thought to be the rise of militancy and insurgency in the neighbouring
state of Jammu and Kashmir. Tourist activities started to dwindle there
while in Kullu-Manali there was an increase because of diversion of
domestic as well as foreign tourists from the disturbed state. This period of
tourist growth proved economically beneficial but environmentally it has
been disastrous for Kullu-Manali.

Year of Kullu Manali Kullu- % Kullu Manali Kullu- %

construction Nb =33 n=38 Manali change n=40 n=84 Manali change
n=71 n=124
Number of establishments: Number of establishments:
1993-94 2000-01
Pre 1980 6 2 8 - 4 9 13 -
1980-85 3 10 13 +62.5 3 13 16 +23.1
1985-90 6 15 21 +61.5 6 30 36 +125.0
1990 + 18 11 29 +38.1 27 32 59 +63.9
a Based on hoteliers' interview regarding year of construction of their
hotels.
b Number of establishments.

Table 4: Changes in construction level a (% of the total number

of hotels constructed in a period of time), 1993-94 and 2000-01
(after Kuniyal et al., 1999)

Tourism growth has provided different types of job such as hotel

employees, travel agents, tourist guides, transport operators and as
mediators between guests and hosts in giving an idea of availability and
suitability for accommodation and transport in a tourist spot where
normally the tourists remain strangers. A tourist spot develops through the
creation of infrastructure such as accommodation and roads. Local
products become available due to the entrepreneurial activities of local
people. These related activities provide a boost to the income of local
communities and encourage further developments.

Tourist growth continues in an unregulated and uncontrolled form.

Developments and activities are continuously needed to meet the demands
of the increasing number of tourists. Key sites such as the Rohtang Pass
attract large number of visitors with respect to the recreational resource
capacity and available road facilities there. The high seasonal inflow in
surrounding picnic spots of the major tourist towns like Manali ultimately
gives impetus to more hotel construction leading to adverse over-
construction, deforestation for hotel timbers, furniture, fuel and other uses.
The unregulated inflow of tourists brings a higher number of vehicles, it
creates traffic congestion that causes ambient air pollution by way of high
vehicular emissions up to the sub-alpine or alpine picnic tops. The study
showed that of 750 vehicles per day on Rohtang top ply in summer, over
87% belonged to tourists. Thus, as a combined effect of biomass burning
in winter in the hotels as well as villages and the high number of plying
vehicles in summer, ambient air pollution in the form of SPM increases
sometimes more than its permissible level for these sensitive areas.

Another environmental issue that arises is the management of solid waste.

For example, the daily visitors at Rohtang Pass generate 1,335 kg per day
solid waste. This results in an accumulation of 122 tonnes in the three
months from April to June. The waste disposal problem is greatest in the
outskirts of major tourist spots, where there are no formal disposal
schemes or financial support to manage the waste.

Deforestation

Of the total land cover in Himachal state, 59% of the area is devoted to
forest. 10% of this has a crown density >40% and 3% has crown density
<40%. The remaining 46% comprises high and medium alpine pastures,
grazing lands and blank surfaces (Anonymous, 1993). Kullu district,
covered in the present study has only 16.5% forest area of Himachal
(Anonymous, 1994b). The major species of trees that have been exploited
indiscriminately for timber in building of houses and hotels over the years
are Deodar and Kail.

To gauge the existing status of forests in the eyes of the public, a

perception study among hoteliers and tourists was done. 30.2% hoteliers
and 22.7% tourists strongly felt that the forests had degraded. Most of the
respondents ranked deforestation as the most significant environmental
component adversely affected by tourism (Table 5). So deforestation is
thought to be a matter of deep concern in the ecologically sensitive areas
of Kullu and Manali, this aspect requires immediate attention.

Forms of Kullu Manali Mean values

degradation (a) (b) (a & b)
Hoteliers Tourists Hoteliers Tourists Hoteliers Tourists
n=29 n=55 n=128 n=108 n=157 n=163
Deforestation 30.8 25.5 30.0 21.3 30.4 23.4
Flood/landslide 33.3 32.7 19.2 32.4 26.3 32.6
Garbage 42.9 18.2 22.4 24.1 32.7 21.2
Water pollution 30.0 10.9 11.3 3.7 20.7 7.3
Over- 28.6 7.3 52.3 11.1 40.5 9.2
construction
Sewerage 18.2 1.8 30.4 14.8 24.3 8.3
problem
a Results are on first ranking basis

Table 5: Environmental degradations due to tourism (% of the total

interviewees) as perceived by the hoteliers and tourists in 1997-98
 in Kullu-Manali complex a

According to existing laws in Himachal, every household is entitled to

standing trees for the purpose of timber at nominal rates under timber
distribution (TD) rights. TD holders have to pay less than the market rate
of the same wood. Under these TD rights, as they are called, right holders
get a deodar tree for rupees (Rs) 1 to 7 only (currently about Rs 48=1
$US), the market rate of which today is somewhere between Rs 60,000 to
Rs 195,000 (or $US 1,250 to 4,063 at current price). The massive
difference in the price of timber is largely responsible for its diversion for
the purpose of hotel construction and resulting deforestation.

According to the data collected, 543 m³ of wood was used during

construction of 40 hotels at Kullu and 3,855 m³ woods in 84 hotels at
Manali, an average of 13.6 m³ hotel-1 at Kullu and 45.9 m³ hotel-1 at
Manali. Of the total wood used by volume in hotel industry, the larger and
higher categories of hotels use more wood and cause relatively higher
pressure on the available forest resources.

The perception study of contractors or hotel builders showed that Deodar

trees are the most commonly used timber (64.3% and 87.6% at Kullu and
Manali respectively). Therefore, it can be concluded that Deodar is a highly
threatened species. Such practices indicate an alarming signal to conserve
these highly important tree species aesthetically helpful in attracting
tourists and ecologically conserving surrounding environment.

Air Pollution

Air pollution in both of the tourist spots seems to be increasing. SPM in the
peak summer season was beyond permissible level (100 µg/m³) in Kullu-
Manali. SPM data for four years ranged from 101.9 µg/m³ in 1997 to 118.8
µg/m³ in 1999 at Mohal and from 101.3 µg/m³ in 1996 to 142.6 µg/m³ in
1998 at Manali. SPM values for summer season between 1996 to 1999
have shown increase at both of the monitoring stations with the year 1999
at Manali being an exception when this value was measured at 89.6
µg/m³. The highest ever values for this period was measured at Mohal in
May 1998 when it was 171.8 µg/m³. The values at Manali were as low as
114.4 µg/m³ in June 1997 and as high as 150.1 µg/m³ in May 1998
(Anonymous, 1996; Anonymous, 1997b; Table 6).

Seasons Mohal (Kullu) Manali

1996 1997 1998 1999 Mean 1996 1997 1998 1999 Mean
Summer a 73.8 101.9 108.7 118.8 100.8 101.3 114.4 142.6 89.6 112.0
Monsoon b 48.5 79.3 66.1 104.5 74.6 52.5 67.4 91.1 57.7 67.2
Winter c 79.8 65.6 105.6 103.9 88.7 75.0 104.7 124.6 50.4 88.7
a March to June
b July to October
c November to February

Table 6: SPM (µg/m³) in ambient air in Kullu and Manali spots

(Anonymous,
1996; Anonymous, 1998; Kuniyal et al., 1999; Momin et al., 2000)

The most striking values of SPM were derived during the Dussehra festival
that is celebrated every year in Dhalpur ground, Kullu. The average SPM
figure for four days was found to be 358.6 µg/m³ and ranged from 262.8
µg/m³ (23 October 1999) to 411.2 µg/m³ (26 October 1999) during four
sampling days. In this festival that continues for seven days, around
200,000 pilgrims, villagers and tourists participate. The dust is the major
source of SPM during this festival as the festival ground is almost bare. It
is quite clear that SPM mean values cross the permissible level at both the
spots; as the number of tourists increase, the SPM values also increase
proportionally. The level of air pollution in the winter season is also quite
high. This is mainly due to burning of fossil fuel, in large quantities, by
native inhabitants and sometimes by hoteliers during electricity failure in
winter. Monsoon season has the lowest SPM values due to washout effects
of rains and very few numbers of tourists during this period.

Trace gas concentrations, such as SO2 and NO2 during 1996-97 were
between 12-29 µg/m³ and 16-28 µg/m³ at Mohal (Kullu), and 12-40
µg/m³ and 12-34 µg/m³ at Manali respectively. SO2 and NO2
concentrations were in excess under specified 24-hour standard duration
for sensitive areas (15-30 µg/m³) during summer season in Manali. As far
as ammonia (NH3) concentration is concerned, it was between 7-10 µg/m³
at Mohal and 24 µg/m³ at Manali. During 1997-98, trace gas
concentrations of SO2 and NO2 was within detection limits. SO2 was 6 to 9
µg/m³ at Mohal and 6 to 7 µg/m³ at Manali. NO2 was measured between 3
to 15 µg/m³ at Mohal and 4 to 14 µg/m³ at Manali. June and October were
the important months when tourists and Dussehra enthusiasts visited
Kullu-Manali complex in large numbers causing atmospheric pollution from
their vehicles.

Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW)

The main sources of solid waste are hotels, residential colonies, hospitals
and other business and office establishments. The total waste generated
from all these sources during the peak tourist season was estimated
around 56 tonnes and 30 tonnes/day at Kullu and Manali respectively. Of
the total waste generation, hotels were responsible for 12 tonnes and ~20
tonnes of waste at Kullu and Manali respectively. Residential colonies
contribute ~44 tonnes at Kullu and 8 tonnes at Manali. Hospital waste is
below 0.11 tonnes for both the locations, it is unfortunately also treated as
a MSW and dumped at the bank of river Beas mixed with other MSW. At
Kullu, more solid waste is generated throughout the year as the local
population is much higher than that of Manali.

The authorities managing solid wastes (Municipality and Naggar

Panchayat) are capable of lifting about 20% of the wastes at Kullu and
27% at Manali, mainly from those collection points that have good link
roads. Waste collection points in areas devoid of any access to trucks and
tractors remain uncleared. Municipal authorities sometimes dispose of
collected wastes by land filling after digging large pits. But these practices
are not sustainable because there is scarcity of suitable land spaces in such
hilly terrain. Therefore, dumping of wastes in the rivers is the most
common way of disposing MSW.

The main constituent of solid wastes is the readily biodegradable waste

(RBW) that comprises mainly rotten vegetables, fruits, waste foods, leaves
and organic matters. Seasonal segregation from point sources (municipal
collection points) on average depicted RBW to be ~44% for Kullu and
~59% for Manali towns (Table 7). On the other hand, the share of RBW
from non-point sources (disposal sites) was about 48% at Kullu and 51%
at Manali.
The next category of waste was biodegradable waste (BW), this consisted
mainly of paper, rag/cloth, wood, hay and straw and coconut peels. The
average value of BW for three seasons was 18.5%. However, these values
remained 16.0% for Manali. For non-point sources BW at Kullu was 16.3%
and at Manali it was 18.5%.

Waste
Kullu(1997) Manali(1996)
categories
Ave- Ave-
Summer Monsoon Winter Summer Monsoon Winter
rage rage
RBW 44.7 47.0 42.1 45.0 54.5 59.9 48.8 54.6
BW 19.4 15.5 18.8 17.7 16.3 19.5 16.9 17.3
NBW 35.9 37.5 39.1 37.4 29.1 20.7 34.3 28.1
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Table 7: Average MSW characterisation results

(%) from point and non-point sources

The recyclable but non-decomposing waste category is classified as non-

biodegradable waste (NBW). The NBW group consisted primarily of plastic,
glasses and metal. NBW from point sources in all three seasons at Kullu
and Manali was around 37% and 26% respectively. Similarly from non-
point sources, NBW at Kullu was found to be the lowest, 23% during
summer and the highest 44% in winter. Reasonably similar pattern was
also observed at Manali showing the low share during summer and
monsoon (30% and 24% respectively) and high share (~36%) during
winter. The share remained low in summer because some Rag pickers and
Kabariwalas (or recycling party) lifted the discarded recyclable waste from
NBW. Climate being very cold during winters most of the Rag pickers
migrate to the plains. Therefore, the NBW such as plastic, glass, metal,
rubber/leather were high during winters.

Water Pollution

A survey of water in 1994 at the selected site of river Beas showed

dissolved oxygen (DO) as 12.0 milligram per litre (mgl-1) and pH-8.3 at
11.4°C temperature. Another study in 1999 showed DO varying from 7.2
to 9.5 mgl-1 whereas it was reported to be 12.8 mgl-1 in 1984 (Sehgal,
1984; Chauhan, 2000; Table 8). At another site, near where a sewage
effluent outlet from Bhuntar (8 km from Kullu) enters the river, DO was
only 3.5 mgl-1 and pH 6.6 with water temperature at 18°C. This
considerable decrease in DO signals the deteriorating water conditions in
river Beas. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) also has higher values (2.2 to
18.0 mgl-1) it further indicates that river water is getting more and more
polluted.

Other physiochemical parameters of the river Beas were surveyed from

Manali to Aut, representing the whole of Kullu valley. The water
temperature ranged from 3.5 to 18.5° C compared to an air temperature
of 4 to 26° C. The pH was high in winters compared to rainy seasons.
Conductivity showed an increase from Manali (2050 m) downstream to Aut
(910 m). Large waste inflows into this river from low-lying parts of the
town from the waste dumping could be attributed to more conductivity
during September. A chloride content of between 18 mgl-1 to 28 mgl-1 is
considered to be an integral part of eutrophication (Rao, 1971; Zafar,
1966). Between 1966 to 1999 the chloride concentrations in the river
water has increased alarmingly from 4.0-7.1 mgl-1 (Sehgal, 1984) to 15-
32.2 mgl-1 (Chauhan, 2000). This increase in chloride concentrations in
river water is a serious threat to fish culture in the Kullu valley. Sulphate
was noted between 3.0 to 60.0 mgl-1. Nitrite and nitrate were earlier
reported only in traces but recent study showed concentrations from 0.001
to 0.32 mgl-1; this can be ascribed to excessive use of chemical
fertilisers by orchardists and farmers.

Parameters Winter a Summer b Monsoon c

n=5 n=5 n=5
Physical parameters
Air temperature 4.0-14.0 12.0-26.0 14.0-25.0
(° C)
Water temperature 3.5-13.0 6.5-17.8 7.0-18.0
(° C)
pH 7.5-8.6 7.4-8.2 7.3-8.0
Chemical Parameters
Conductivity (mohms) 22.0-190.0 23.0-200.0 25.0-215.0
Chloride (mg l-1) 19.2-32.2 18.4-32.6 15.0-29.0
Dissolved oxygen (mg l-1) 7.6-9.5 7.2-9.0 7.0-8.4
Chemical oxygen (mg l-1) 2.2-9.4 5.0-18.0 4.0-17.3
Sulphate (mg l-1) 3.0-40.5 5.0-48.3 6.0-60.5
Nitrite cum Nitrates (mg l-1) 0.001-0.24 0.001-0.29 0.001-0.32
Total dissolved solids (mg l-1) 20.0-140.0 25.0-150.0 45.0-250.0
Total suspended solids (mg l-1) 17.0-70.0 20.0-80.0 35.0-135.0
a January 1999
b February 1999
c March 1999

Table 8. Water quality status in River Beas from Manali to

Aut in Kullu valley (after Chauhan, 2000)

As water is a primary need of humankind, a serious decline in water quality

and quantity as demonstrated by the results of these surveys indicate that
a critical environmental health risk has begun to emerge in these mountain
regions. In the absence of any treatment system, sewerage discharge from
these and other similar areas ultimately flows to heavily populated areas.
Untreated raw sewage, and septic tanks, wherever they exist,
contaminates river water. Current conditions have mounted the incidence
of water borne diseases including cholera, dysentery, hepatitis, etc.

Therefore the two most important concerns in the Himalaya that require
immediate attention are:
· drinkable water is found in limited quantities from the prevalent sources
such as springs, lakes, hand pumps, streams or rivers is becoming scarce
as the traditional sources of water are drying up continuously.
· whatever water is available is polluted by the prevalent practices of
garbage dumping and direct effluents discharge into rivers.

Mitigating Measures

The relationship between the inflow of tourists and hotel construction

during five years (1993-94 to 1997-98) is quite paradoxical. For all types
of accommodation there has been about a 13% decline in average
occupancy, but the construction of hotels has more than doubled (~28%).
Only regulated tourism and a complete ban on multi-storied hotel