Ocean & Coastal Management xxx (2015) 1e10

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Ocean & Coastal Management

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Overview of erosion and beach quality issues in three Southern

European countries: Portugal, Spain and Italy
Vera Semeoshenkova a, b, *, Alice Newton c, d
a
University of Bologna, Ravenna Campus, Via Sant Alberto, 163. Scienze Ambientali, 48123 Ravenna, Italy
b
University of Cadiz, Campus de Puerto-Real, Poligono San Pedro s/n, Aulario Norte, Puerto-Real 11519, Spain
c
CIMA- Gambelas Campus, University of Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
d
NILU e IMPEC, Box 100, 2027 Kjeller, Norway

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Climate change and intensive coastal development place beaches under significant pressures, both
Received 25 September 2014 natural and anthropogenic. Coastal erosion and deterioration of beach quality decrease the attractiveness
Received in revised form of coastal areas leading to economic impacts. The societal response to these issues has resulted in
18 February 2015
application of hard/soft engineering methods to mitigate erosion and provision of quality awards to
Accepted 19 August 2015
Available online xxx
support the recreational beach value. This paper reviews the approaches to erosion and beach quality
issues in three Southern European (Portugal, Spain and Italy) countries, discusses effectiveness of the
approaches, and analyses the impacts of applied approaches on environmental quality and human
Keywords:
Beach management
welfare. An analysis of used management approaches demonstrates the inefficiency of hard measures to
Coastal erosion stop erosion and their negative impact on environmental quality. Such management approaches have
Beach quality been used as an emergency response to problems, and were not supported by the adequate knowledge of
possible consequences. In contrast, successful experiences in application of soft methods allowed
preservation of the natural status of beaches and improvement of tourism quality. Beach quality awards
allowed to fulfil tourism requirements and promoted a good image of beaches. Examples of good and bad
practices contribute to proper onsite management, and thereby encourage sustainable development of
coastal areas.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Context and scope
The tourism industry is an important economic driver in coastal
regions, generating employment and contributing a high percent-
age of regional incomes. Annually coastal countries invest in the
provision of quality awards and systems in order to enhance the
recreational quality and improve the environmental status of bea-
ches. There is also a costly investment in the provision of different
hard and soft engineering works in order to protect beaches from
erosion and maintain good recreational conditions.
The geographical focus of the paper is on mainland coast of
three Southern European countries (Portugal, Spain and Italy).
These were chosen due to the popularity of countries as destina-
tions for seaside tourism and to give a range from the Atlantic to the
* Corresponding author. University of Bologna, Ravenna Campus, Via Sant
Alberto, 163. Scienze Ambientali, 48123 Ravenna, Italy.
E-mail address: vsemeoshenkova@gmail.com (V. Semeoshenkova).
Mediterranean. Greece was not included because of the large
number of islands. This paper reviews the approaches to erosion
and beach quality issues in three Southern European countries,
discusses the effectiveness of the approaches, and analyses the
impacts of applied approaches on environmental quality and hu-
man welfare.
2. Introduction
Beaches are valuable natural resources that provide key
ecosystem services, such as coastal buffering, nutrient cycling,
water purification, biodiversity, recreational and cultural value (Nel
et al., 2014). Human pressures on coastal resources compromise the
delivery of many ecosystem services crucial to the human well-
being and national economies (Dayton et al., 2005). The degrada-
tion of beaches due to growing popularity of tourism and rapid
coastal development may be intensified by the predicted increases
in storminess and sea-level rise (Brown and McLachlan, 2002;

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.08.013
0964-5691/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Semeoshenkova, V., Newton, A., Overview of erosion and beach quality issues in three Southern European
countries: Portugal, Spain and Italy, Ocean & Coastal Management (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.08.013
2 V. Semeoshenkova, A. Newton / Ocean & Coastal Management xxx (2015) 1e10
Schlacher et al., 2008; European Commission, 2013). The most
common problems of modern beaches include coastal erosion,
water and sand pollution, deterioration of coastal dunes and
harmful effects on biota (Brown and McLachlan, 2002; Calva ~ et al.,
2013).
The importance of beach management for the sustainable
development of coastal areas has been recognised by the munici-
palities and local governments (Phillips and Jones, 2006).
Improving beach quality is a shared goal for all stakeholders and an
essential aspect of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)
(Duvat, 2011). Beach management should be aimed to achieve the
optimal physical usage and development of beach resources that
respects the natural physical elements of a beach environment
while satisfying basic social needs within that environment
(Williams and Micallef, 2009). Therefore, the beach management
should include both aspects: i) protection of coastal environment
and ecosystem and ii) quality improvement (development) for
recreational uses.
Within this context, the paper aims to identify the nature of
beach uses and main issues in the 3 countries, (Portugal, Spain,
Italy), to review management approaches to coastal erosion and
recreational quality, to analyse the main shortcomings and ad-
vantages of used approaches and their effect on environmental
quality and human welfare. Finally, recommendations for future
beach management are suggested.
3. Beach uses and issues
3.1. Beach tourism and coastal development
Beaches are the main focus of global holiday tourism and a well-
managed beach is considered to be an icon of the attractive seaside
destination (Holden, 2000). The growing popularity of seaside
tourism influenced the development of coastal areas, including
large-scale infrastructure, transport, industry, energy production
(Suarez di Vivero and Rodriguez Mateos, 2005). Southern Europe
was accounted for the highest number of international tourist ar-
rivals within Europe (UNWTO, 2013). Portugal, Spain and Italy are
one of the most visited countries, where tourism is almost exclu-
sively concentrated around the “Sun, Sea and Sand” (3S) model
(Ariza et al., 2008a; Dodds and Kelman, 2008: Marrocu and Paci,
2013; Presenza et al., 2013; Vareiro and Ribeiro, 2007).
Portugal: The Portuguese coast is very diverse and it has all type
of beaches, ranging from urban developed and crowded beaches to
less developed, wild and deserted (e.g. the islands of the Ria Fro-
mosa). Approximately 85% of the GDP is generated within 60 km of
the coast, where tourism is the main activity (Andrade et al., 2004).
The total contribution of ‘Travel and Tourism’ to country's GDP was
15.6% in 2013 (WTTC, 2014a).
Spain: Spain is ranked 4th within Europe and also 4th of all 140
countries included to the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness In-
dex 2013. ‘Travel and Tourism’ activity in Spain represented 15.7%
of the country's GDP, mostly concentrated in coastal areas (WTTC,
2014b). As well as in Portugal, Spanish beaches are very diverse
and free for public use.
Italy: Italy has excellent tourism infrastructure (equal with
Austria for 1st place) (Blance and Chiesa, 2013). The total contri-
bution of ‘Travel and Tourism’ to country's GDP was 10.3% in 2013
(WTTC, 2014c). Coastal tourism is a leading segment for Italian
tourism (European Comission, 2014). Contrary to Portugal and
Spain, most of the Italian beaches are not free but bound by ‘con-
cessions’dtemporary properties occupied by beach establishment
and relative facilities, that can be used for a daily fee.
Please cite this article in press as: Semeoshenkova, V., Newton, A., Overview of erosion and beach quality issues in three Southern European
countries: Portugal, Spain and Italy, Ocean & Coastal Management (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.08.013
3.2. Vulnerability and coastal erosion
Vulnerability is defined as ‘the degree to which a system is
susceptible to or unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate
change’ (IPCC, 2001). Coastal vulnerability, especially of urban
coasts, is a growing global problem (Brown and McLachlan, 2002;
Newton et al., 2012; Sekovski et al., 2012; Newton and
Weichselgartner, 2014). Natural disasters intensified by anthropo-
genic pressures potentially increases vulnerability, risks and losses
(Munich Re, 2012). Most of European sandy shores are affected by
growing erosion, with retreat rates in some instances of up to a few
metres per year (European Commission, 2009a). Coastal erosion is a
natural process, which represents landform recession or lowering
brought by natural actions, often trigged or intensified by human
actions (Pranzini and Williams, 2013). Modern coastlines suffer
from erosion, due to a sediment deficit as fluxes are disrupted by
human actions, through damming, quarrying, sediment retention
in reservoirs, agricultural practices, land reclamation, urbanization
and coastal engineering (Crossland et al., 2005; Defeo et al., 2009;
Nordstrom, 2000; Renaud et al., 2013; Sherman et al., 2002;
Syvitski et al., 2005). It was estimated by the Eurosion project
(2004) that about 20,000 km of the European coast (which is over
20% of the total coastline) suffers from serious coastal erosion.
Coastal erosion may induce a wide variety of negative ecological
and socio-economical impacts such as increased loss of property
and potential loss of life, damage to infrastructure, loss of tourism
and recreation, contamination or disappearance of water storage
wells, loss of costal and benthic flora and fauna.
Tourism and coastal erosion issues in the three countries are
summarised in Table 1.
Portugal: Positioned in the southwest of Europe, mainland
Portugal is exposed only to the Atlantic Ocean. The archipelagos of
Azores and Madeira, which are also popular tourist destinations,
are autonomous regions of Portugal and also Atlantic. The Portu-
guese coastline is about 1187 km, from which approximately 44%
are beaches. The coast is diverse in its geomorphologic features
including sandy beaches and dunes, high cliffs and low-lying rocky
shores, coastal lagoons and barrier islands. High energy waves and
the intense long-shore sediment drift make the continental Atlantic
coast naturally vulnerably to erosion and flooding, with Lisbon and
Algarve being the most exposed regions (Martins et al., 2013). It
was estimated that 349 km of Portuguese coastline was impacted
by erosion (Eurosion, 2004). Most of sandy beaches experience
shoreline retreat of more than one meter per year (Ferreira et al.,
2008).
Spain: Spain is located in south-western Europe on the Iberian
peninsulas with borders to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic
Ocean. The Spanish territory includes the Balearic (Mediterranean)
and Canary (Atlantic) Islands. Of the 6584 km of coastline, about
50% consists of hard and soft cliffs (particularly in Atlantic), around
28% of sandy beaches and 17% of low-lying areas such as deltas and
lagoons (Gracia et al., 2013). The Spanish coastline is highly
vulnerable to flooding and erosion. It was estimated that 824 km of
Spanish coastline was impacted by erosion (Eurosion, 2004). The
most effected and vulnerable regions are Andalucía with erosion
along 41% of its coastline, Catalonia with 33% and Valencia with 26%
(European Commission, 2009c). Spain is among the top five coun-
tries in terms of coastal protection and climate adaptation expen-
diture for the period 1998e2015 along the Atlantic Ocean (31%) and
Mediterranean Sea (35%) (European Commission, 2009a).
Italy: Italy is a peninsular country with two large islands in the
Mediterranean, Sicily and Sardinia. The Italian coastline borders the
Adriatic, Ionian and Tyrrhenian seas (subdivisions of the Mediter-
ranean) and includes both rocky coasts and low-lying sandy bea-
ches (European Commission, 2009d). The Italian coastline is about
 V. Semeoshenkova, A. Newton / Ocean & Coastal Management xxx (2015) 1e10
Table 1
Summary of coastal erosion and tourism in Portugal, Spain and Italy.
Parameter
Total length of the coastline (km) (1)
Beaches (% of total coastline) (1)
Total coastline impacted by erosion in 2001 (km) (1)
Artificially protected coastline in 2001 (km) (1)
Annual normal expenditure on coastal protection (1998e2015 V million) (2)
Rank in the Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index 2013 (Regional/World) (3)
Total contribution of ‘Travel and Tourism’ to national GDP (4a,b,c)
International tourist arrivals (million) in 2012 (4a,b,c)
1) Eurosion (2004). 2) European Commission (2009a,b,c). 3) Blance and Chiesa (2013). 4) WTTC (2014a,b,c).
7468 km, of which circa 50 per cent are beaches (Eurosion, 2004).
The Italian coast suffers from severe erosion: it was estimated that
about 2349 km of total coastline and 42% of beaches were eroding
(Eurosion, 2004; GNRAC, 2006). The most vulnerable regions are
Toscana, Lazio, Salerno, Campania and Sicily. The Northern Adriatic
basin, including Emilia Romagna and Veneto is particularly at risk,
which explains by the subsidence of various coastal zones below
the sea level (Simeoni and Corbau, 2009; Armroli et al., 2009). Italy
accounts for the majority of expenditure in terms of coastal pro-
tection and climate adaptation (from which 90% is a protection
budget for Venice) (European Commission, 2009a).
4. Management approaches to beach quality and coastal
erosion
4.1. Beach quality awards as an economic instrument for beach
management
All award concepts and rating systems are forms of eco-labels,
which are usually perceived by authorities as a reward to achieve
in order to demonstrate the advantages of chosen area to potential
beach users (Cagilaba and Rennie, 2005). Provision of beach quality
awards attempts to achieve an optimal balance between recreation,
tourism and conservation (Williams and Morgan, 1995). This cor-
responds to the aim of beach managers to provide a beach with
recreational services without damaging a natural state of beaches
(Williams and Micallef, 2009). One of the important aspects of an
effective use of beach quality awards is a differentiation of beach
types. All beaches cannot be managed in the same way, and quality
criteria must correspond with natural characteristics of a particular
area and level of development (Botero and Hurtado, 2009; Williams
and Micallef, 2009). Otherwise, an attempt to standardize all bea-
ches with respect to the level of services and facilities will lead to
the higher development of rural areas and the degradation of
natural and pristine sites (Turner et al., 1998).
4.2. Physical management against coastal erosion: hard vs. soft
methods
Traditionally, there are two options for dealing with erosion
problems: (i) to maintain the coastline at a fixed position by using
hard structures and/or by soft methods; or, (ii) to accept retreat in
areas of wide and high beaches without essential values being
threatened (Turner et al., 2007; Van Rijn, 2011). The most common
hard measures for dealing with coastal erosion include groynes,
seawalls, offshore breakwaters and artificial headlands. Provision of
hard structures usually requires continuous costs of maintenance
works and may possess negative effects on environmental quality
and natural shoreline processes (Van Rijn, 2011).
In recent years, it has become more common to use soft
methods such as beach nourishment, dune stabilisation,
Please cite this article in press as: Semeoshenkova, V., Newton, A., Overview of erosion and beach quality issues in three Southern European
countries: Portugal, Spain and Italy, Ocean & Coastal Management (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.08.013
3
Portugal Spain Italy
1187 6584 7468
(44%) (28%) (50%)
349 824 2349
72 214 1083
7.29 51.99 25.64
13/20 4/4 18/26
15.6% 15.7% 10.3%
7.696 57.7 (4th) 46.4 (5th)
bioengineering and other non-structural management options to
protect beaches from erosion (Kamphuis, 2002). The soft engi-
neering solutions are preferable for conservation and economic
reasons, and are considered as safer approaches with comparison
to hard engineering methods (Finkl and Walker, 2004).
Currently, mitigation of coastal erosion and preservation of
coastal areas represent essential aspects of Protocol on Integrated
Coastal Zone Management in the Mediterranean and is included in
to the objectives of countries' national regulations and policies in
Europe.
5. Beach management strategies used in three countries
To mitigate coastal erosion, improve recreational beach quality
and enhance the natural status of beaches, coastal countries invest
in (i) hard and soft coastal protection works, and (ii) the provision
of quality awards and systems. Existing national quality awards and
systems in Portugal, Spain and Italy are addressed in Table 2. Ex-
amples of protection measures, applied in six case studies (Fig. 1),
located in the most vulnerable regions of countries under this
research (two in each country) and their effect on environmental
quality and human welfare were reviewed and presented in Table 3.
5.1. Improvement of quality for recreational usage
There are different environmental management systems and
beach quality awards in the three countries of this study. Among
the well known European directives and standards supporting
environmental management and quality assessment of beaches are
the Bathing Water Quality directive 2006/7/EC, ISO 14001 and ISO
9001, and EMAS (European eco-Management and Audits Scheme).
Additionally, there are different eco e labels (award schemes, rating
systems, beach quality indices) that have been employed in order to
address various aspects associated with beach quality (Table 2),
among which a ‘Blue Flag’ is the most largely used and interna-
tionally recognized. The ‘Blue flag’ is awarded for the beaches,
which comply with 33 criteria covering environmental education
and information, water quality, environmental management, safety
and services (Blue Flag, 2015).
The aspects of beach quality, which are included in to the beach
awards and indices, are partially considered by the existing beach
management policies in the analysed countries. For instance, the
Shores Act 22/1988 is the main administrative framework for reg-
ulations in the Spanish coastal zone, including beaches. Together
with other regional laws it regulates such aspects of beach man-
agement as beach use plans, safety issues, recreational activities
and services, which constitute the core of existing regulatory
legislation on beach systems (Ariza et al., 2008a). Another example
is the Coastal Zone Management Plans (POOC), which is the main
administrative framework for coastal and beach management in
Portugal. The main objectives of the POOC are protection from
4 V. Semeoshenkova, A. Newton / Ocean & Coastal Management xxx (2015) 1e10

Table 2
Existing national quality awards and systems in Portugal, Spain and Italy.

Quality Award/Environmental Covered aspects Reference

system

Portugal Qualidade de Ouro Water Quality CMVC (2014)

Praia Acessival Comfort, safety, access to the beach CMVC (2014)
Praia Saudavel Security and safety CMVC (2014)
Spain LA21 Sustainable development and environmental Williams and Micallef (2009)
management
Q de Calidad Turística Housing and apartment quality Ariza et al. (2008a), Yepes (2005)
AENOR Sustainable development and environmental Williams and Micallef (2009)
management
CEDEX Index Water quality, sand quality, access, activities, Ariza et al. (2008b)
comfort, services, geomorphologic quality
ACA Index Comfort, water quality, maintains and cleaning Ariza et al. (2008b)
CANTABRIA Index Water quality, Natural system quality, aesthetic Ariza et al. (2008b)
quality, services, access
BQI Crowding, environmental quality, services and Ariza et al. (2010)
facilities, activities, access, comfort, safety, scenery,
natural conditions and physical quality
Italy Guida Blu Water quality, services and facilities, preserved historic Legambiente (2014)
sites, hospitality

coastal erosion and flooding, classification of beaches and the
regulation of their use, promotion and improvement of the quality
and value of beaches with particular environmental or tourism
importance (Carneiro, 2007; European Commission, 2009). Nowa-
days the Ministry of Environment, Land and Sea and the Institute
for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA) are the main
institutions involved in to the coastal and beach management in
Italy, aimed to promote sustainable development of coastal areas,
preservation of natural beach quality, protection from coastal
erosion and provision of tourism facilities (European Commission,
2009d). Moreover, the regional plans for coastal management,
which are based on the European programme for Integrated Coastal
Zone Management, include environmental management of bea-
ches, protection from coastal erosion and preservation of natural
value of beaches (Ambiente, 2015).
Portugal: In total, 298 beaches in Portugal were awarded a Blue
Flag in 2014, making Portugal one of the countries with the highest
percentage of Blue Flag beaches (Blue Flag, 2015). Besides, there
were 355 beaches awarded “Qualidade de Ouro” in 2014 for their
excellent water quality (Expresso Journal, 2014). Moreover, 92% of
bathing waters, reported by the European Environmental Agency
and assessed in accordance with Bathing Water Directive 2006/7/

Fig. 1. Location of case studies in Portugal, Spain and Italy (Copyright ©worldatlasbook.com).

Please cite this article in press as: Semeoshenkova, V., Newton, A., Overview of erosion and beach quality issues in three Southern European
countries: Portugal, Spain and Italy, Ocean & Coastal Management (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.08.013
 V. Semeoshenkova, A. Newton / Ocean & Coastal Management xxx (2015) 1e10 5

Table 3
Summary table of protection measures applied in study areas and their effect on environmental quality and human welfare.

EC, shared ‘good’ or ‘excellent’ water quality (EEA, 2014). The pre-
vious studies of beach users' perceptions and expectations showed
that the overall level of satisfaction with beach quality was very
high (Semeoshenkova and Williams, 2011; Zacarias et al., 2011).
However, the evolution (erosion) and instability of the cliffs is a
danger for the beach users of rocky shores. According to Portuguese
Environment Agency, about 75 beaches in the Algarve are at risk of
rock-falls (Ambiente Portugal, 2014).
Spain: In total, 561 beaches in Spain gained a Blue Flag in 2014,
which made it the leading country worldwide in the number of Blue
Flag beaches (Blue Flag, 2015). Additionally, there were 184 beaches
in Spain that were awarded a national ‘Q’ for Tourism Quality Flag
(Calidad Turistica, 2014) in 2013. Provision and monitoring of
bathing waters' quality in accordance with the Bathing Water
Directive 2006/7/EC was carried out on 2161 sites in 2013, from
which 92% had a ‘good’ or ‘excellent’ quality (EEA, 2014). The study
of beach users' expectations in Costa Brava showed that the general
opinion regarding the beach quality was very positive (Roca and
Villares, 2008; Roca et al., 2009; Lozoya et al., 2014).
Italy: In total, 269 beaches in Italy were awarded a Blue Flag in
2014. Sardinia was the top destination, acknowledged by the na-
tional Guida Blu in 2013, with 18 four and five ‘sails’ awarded in
2013. Regarding the results of bathing waters' quality in accordance
with the Bathing Water Directive 2006/7/EC, there were 5511
bathing waters reported by the European Environment Agency,
from which 93% shared ‘good’ or ‘excellent’ water quality in 2013
(EEA, 2014). Beach users' perceptions analysis in the Liguria region
proved that most of the interviewed people considered the overall
beach quality to be good (Marin et al., 2009).
5.2. Management of coastal erosion
5.2.1. Portugal
The Costa da Caparica (S. of Lisbon) is the main recreational area
near Lisbon and is used by millions of people during the summer.
The area is located in the south of the Tagus River mouth, the main
sediment exporter. The boom of tourism and urban development in
Caparica coast, especially accelerated after 60th, generated

Please cite this article in press as: Semeoshenkova, V., Newton, A., Overview of erosion and beach quality issues in three Southern European
countries: Portugal, Spain and Italy, Ocean & Coastal Management (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.08.013
6 V. Semeoshenkova, A. Newton / Ocean & Coastal Management xxx (2015) 1e10
significant pressures on coastal environment and induced coastal
erosion (Veloso-Gomes et al., 2006). Severe erosion started in 1930s
as a cause of sediment dredging and associated activities at the
Tagus river basin (Veloso-Gomes et al., 2006). The high vulnera-
bility of the area required an application of hard protection
methods against the coast line retreat, overwashes, flooding and
infrastructures destruction. Over the period from 1959 to 1970s
there were built seven groynes and a seawall of 2.5 km long. The
dunes were mostly destroyed and the shorefront became totally
artificial. Although, coastal constructions allowed keeping the
Caparica coast relatively stable during the periods of 1972e2000,
they did not provide sufficient beach for recreation. Moreover,
there was a hazard of erosion downdrift.
The initial construction of hard structures was not supported by
the adequate knowledge of the zone dynamics. With time, the
groyne fields degraded and were not able anymore to keep the
shoreline stable. The length of the groyne appeared to be too short
to retain the sand (Gomes and Pinto, 2004). After the persistent
winters in 2000e2001 it became clear that the area was still very
instable and vulnerable, as severe storms effected the shoreline
retreat, caused loss of the sediment from the beach, damaged
coastal protection structures and exposed some beach leisure fa-
cilities (Raposeiro et al., 2013; Ferreira and Matias, 2013). Coastal
defences were significantly damaged and maintains works were
needed for safety reasons (Veloso-Gomes et al., 2009).
Since 2003, the management strategies were switched on
reshaping of the existing groynes and seawalls and intensive beach/
dune nourishment. The area was included to the urban requalifi-
cation program Polis, that determined the shoreline management
plans (POOC Sintra-Sado). The plan included dune reconstruction
and reorganization of the territory and relocation of infrastructure
further away from the beach (Gomes and Pinto, 2004).
The Ria Formosa coastal lagoon is located in a Natural Park in the
south coast of the Algarve, Portugal. It is formed by two peninsulas
(Anc~ ao and Cacela) and five barrier islands (Barreta, Culatra,
Armona, Tavira and Cabanas). This area represents a very important
and biologically rich reserve with a highly diversified fauna, and a
popular tourist destination because of its extensive sandy beaches.
Additionally, it is one of the most valuable and important wetland
area worldwide, which is protected by the Ramsar and Bern con-
ventions (Ceia et al., 2010).
The Ria Formosa barrier island system is highly vulnerable to
erosion and storm exposure, especially its fragile dune fields and
beaches with a narrow barrier and gentle slope (Ceia et al., 2010).
The main reasons for progressing erosion were the construction of
marine jetties in 1950s, seawalls and groynes in early 1980s to
protect settlements and infrastructure, and illegal buildings on the
dunes (Ferreira and Matias, 2013; Ramos and Dias, 2000), exacer-
bated by massive tourism development (Ceia et al., 2010). Thus, the
coastal protection structures interrupted the longshore drift and
cause sediment starvation, and buildings destructed the dune
system.
Since 1996, the management solutions were switched to the soft
protection techniques in order to improve the functioning of the
system and reduce vulnerability to overwash (Dias et al., 2004). The
soft stabilisation techniques included dune and beach nourish-
ment, placement of fences, construction of footbridges and reveg-
etation of dunes. According to Ferreira and Matias (2013), beach
nourishment of more than 13 km of beaches and dunes along the
Ria Formosa barrier islands was the biggest soft protection inter-
vention in Portugal. About 2,650,000 m3 of sediments from the
lagoon and its channels were deposited between 1999 and 2000
(Ramos and Dias, 2000) and around 13 km of fences were fixed to
enhance dune recovery (Ferreira and Matias, 2013). According to
Dias et al. (2003), soft alternatives provided a good level of shore
Please cite this article in press as: Semeoshenkova, V., Newton, A., Overview of erosion and beach quality issues in three Southern European
countries: Portugal, Spain and Italy, Ocean & Coastal Management (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.08.013
protection and fulfilled the expected management objectives,
allowing protecting natural characteristics of beaches and keeping
its recreational value.
5.2.2. Spain
Sitges is located at the Mediterranean coast in Catalonia, 40 km
south of Barcelona and it is one of the biggest tourist resorts of
Spain (Campillo-Besses et al., 2004). Sitges has a coastal stretch of
approximately 19 km, which is made up of rocky coast and sandy
beaches, most of which are located in front of the urban areas. The
rapid urbanisation of the seafront without proper planning, lack of
sediment input from the rivers due to damming, quarrying and
marine construction, severe easterly storms were the main causes
of erosion. Disappearance of beaches and loss of the coastal infra-
structure were the main issues for all stakeholders (Raventos,
2004).
The protection measures performed until 1988 were mainly
concentrated on hard engineering solutions: groynes, detached
breakwaters, T-shaped breakwaters, artificial islands and seawalls
(Raventos, 2004). The hard defences were very expensive, visual
unattractive and inefficient in mitigating coastal erosion. The
structures disrupted longshore drift and worsened erosion down-
drift. The structures failed to protect the waterfront promenade, it
was destroyed and had to be repaired several times after storm
events. Moreover, the hard structures retained litter in the corners
of the groynes and breakwaters (Raventos, 2004) and negatively
affected the presence and health of submarine ecosystems
(Palomino de Dios et al., 2012). The bathing water quality remained
reasonably high (Campillo-Besses et al., 2004).
Since 1984, the management strategy in accordance to Shores
Act was based on the soft protection techniques, mainly beach
nourishment. However, it was only a temporal solution, as a set of
storms swept away a huge part of the freshly nourished sediments
(Raventos, 2004).
In 2000, the “Sitges Towards Sustainability” project was
launched within the EMAS and LA21 schemes aimed to design and
develop environmental management plan for sustainable devel-
opment of Sitges and promote improvement of environmental
performance of economic activities (Campillo-Besses et al., 2004).
The coast near Huelva is to the west of the Gulf of Cadiz in south-
western Spain (Andalucia), on the Atlantic Ocean. It is an important
touristic area with golf infrastructures and beach resorts. The area is
mainly characterised by low-lying areas including linear sandy
beaches, low sandy cliffs and well-developed sandpits (Del Rio
et al., 2012). Intensive dam construction in the last decades
greatly decreased the sediment supply to the coast from the
Guadiana and Guadalquivir rivers (Rodríguez-Ramírez et al., 2003).
Additionally, frequent interventions, such as the construction of
jetties, groynes, and harbours significantly altered the coastal dy-
namics and induced erosion (Rodriguez-Ramirez et al., 2008). For
instance, the biggest negative effect was caused by the 10 km long
groyne made in 1981 in Huelva town, which completely blocked
littoral currents and caused erosion along more than 25 km
downdrift (Rodriguez-Ramirez et al., 1999). Lately, the same groyne
caused coastal retreat episodes, such as 10e20 m in 2000e2001
(Del Rio et al., 2002). The use of hard structures for coastal stabi-
lisation was inefficient and precluded in general, due to the high
longitudinal littoral drift rates.
An intensive development of tourism facilities in the 1970s
placed escalating pressures on the beach environment. The un-
controlled access to the beach, overcrowding, and building of
infrastructure close to the beach led to beach erosion, weakling and
disappearance of dunes (Go  mez-Pina et al., 2002; Zújar et al.,
2002). Loss of sediment and dunes from particularly significant
touristic areas required new approaches for coastal stabilisation
 V. Semeoshenkova, A. Newton / Ocean & Coastal Management xxx (2015) 1e10
and increasing of beach surface. Since the Shores Act came in 1988,
the management decisions were aimed on “soft” coastal protection,
which included beach nourishment, revegetation, dune fencing,
dune walkovers and environmental dune information (Go mez-Pina
et al., 2002; Munoz-Perez et al., 2001). Applied soft measures were
assessed by Go mez-Pina et al. (2002) as very efficient approaches
against beach and dune degradation.
5.2.3. Italy
Marina di Massa is located in the northern Toscany, facing the
Tyrrhenean Sea in the central Italy. It is a highly populated area and
the most important touristic destination in the Province of Massa
Carrara. Occupation of the coast has significantly increased in
recent decades, mainly due to a greater demand for recreation and
tourism. The coast is mostly composed of dissipative sandy beaches
(Anfuso et al., 2011). The Marina di Massa beach has experienced
severe erosion since the early 1930s. The erosion process was a
consequence of interruption of longshore littoral drift, caused by
construction of industrial harbour at Marina di Carrrara in 1920s
(Cipriani, 2004).
Many of hard structures, such as seawalls, groynes, emerged and
submerged breakwaters, were built during 1930e1980 in order to
protect the coast from erosion. Lately, many of old detached
breakwaters were transformed to submerged. Such modifications
did not increase erosion and improved scenery, safety and water
circulation. Today, each kilometre of the coast is defended by 1.8 km
of breakwaters (Pranzini, 2013). Hard structures were useful to
protect the stretch of coast immediately in front of them, but
caused an interruption of sediment transport along the coast,
inducing erosion downdrift and accretion updrift (Anfuso et al.,
2011; Cipriani, 2004). Moreover, they caused a strong negative ef-
fect on sea water quality, reduction of available beach surface,
destruction of dunes and vegetation. Reduction of beach resulted in
decrease of sport activities and available deckchairs/sunshades, loss
of parking areas associated with moving of bathing establishment
inland, reduction of sidewalk and increase of sound and smell of
engine (Cipriani, 2004).
Supplementary to the provision of hard structures, occasional
beach nourishment was annually implemented before the summer
season in order to stabilise a shore and provide a space for recre-
ation (Cipriani, 2004). However, the first attempts of nourishment
did not resolve the erosion problem because the grain size of the
used sand was too fine to be stable on the beach (Iannotta, 1997).
Marina di Ravenna-Lido Adriano is on the Adriatic coast in
Emilia-Romagna region, northern Italy. The coast is characterised
by low-lying sandy beaches with few areas of preserved dunes and
pinewood. The main uses of the coast are tourism and recreation. In
the last decades, the coastline experienced very severe erosion due
to the combined effects of subsidence and sediment starvation,
caused by jetty construction, urbanisation and tourism develop-
ment (Gabbianelli, 2004; Teatini et al., 2005). Approximately 45 cm
of land subsidence, recorded in the period 1957e1977 caused a
regression of the shoreline of about 126 m at Lido Adriano
(Carbognin et al., 1984). The highest level of coastline retreat took
place in the end of 1970s, when the anthropic activities on the
shoreline had reached the maximum uncontrolled expansion. This
period is also associated with building and progressive extending of
Ravenna port in the northern part of Marina di Ravenna (Sytnik and
Stecchi, 2014).
Another contributor to the deterioration of the beach is the
provision of more than 100 bathhouses along the 10 km of beaches.
Such beach establishments, called “bagnos” provide a wide range of
recreational facilities for beach users including sun loungers and
umbrellas, sports, restaurants and bars, children playgrounds,
showers, toilets etc. These structures damaged and destroyed dune
Please cite this article in press as: Semeoshenkova, V., Newton, A., Overview of erosion and beach quality issues in three Southern European
countries: Portugal, Spain and Italy, Ocean & Coastal Management (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.08.013
7
bars and had a negative impact on the existing pine woods
(Gabbianelli, 2004). Moreover, dune degradation was intensified by
the construction of small, privately-owned wooden establishments
on the top of the frontal dunes. According to the results of Sytnik
and Stecchi (2014), the total loss of coastal dunes in Marina di
Ravenna was estimated to be about 18 ha over almost 60 years, an
equivalent to 28 football pitches.
The former protection works against erosion started in 1970s
and included a submerged breakwater and groynes made of sand
bags, however they did not provide efficient results and just
enhanced erosion. The modern management strategy included a
combination of soft and hard methods to protect the urban area
and maintain an adequate beach width for the recreation and
tourism development. Coastal protection works began in 1999 and
included construction of rocky submerged breakwaters, partly
submerged and submerged groynes, periodic beach nourishments
and dune fencing (Gabbianelli, 2004). Although, there was an
evident of negative effect on water quality, which led to several
closures of the beach, beach nourishment and composite inter-
vention were positively assessed and preferred by beach users
(Lamberti and Zanuttigh, 2005; Zanuttigh et al., 2005; Davila et al.,
2014). According to Gabbianelli (2004), the recent management
approaches were considered relatively good and effective in-
terventions, which helped to mitigate erosion, stabilise and save
the beach for recreation.
6. Discussion and conclusions
6.1. Impact of tourism and urban development on highly vulnerable
coasts
The economic exploitation of coastal areas in Portugal, Spain
and Italy induced rapidly growing tourism and urban development
during 1930e1970s. The natural vulnerability and exposure of
coastal areas to wave actions were being aggravated by anthropo-
genic forces. This study clearly demonstrates that lacking of
appropriate policies and legislations to control human activities in
the past, contributed to the degradation of beaches. Thus, building
of infrastructure, construction of hotels and private property close
to the beach, human activities in the river basins (e.g. dredging),
harbour construction, coastal engineering and massive tourism
were the main causes of coastal erosion and deterioration of beach
quality. In the same time, coastal tourism was a significant
contributor to local economies, thus the management solution
were mainly aimed to protect the urban fronts from destruction by
the sea, provide leisure facilities and maintain the beaches for
recreation.
6.2. Effect of beach quality awards on tourism quality
Beach quality awards and rating systems have an essential
importance for the recreational experience and public health. For
instance, a mandatory bathing water quality assessment in accor-
dance with the European Bathing Water Quality directive 2006/7/
EC allows determination of potentially harmful bacteria pathogens
and/or cyanobacterial risks, which cause human illnesses. Such
monitoring ensures safe bathing water and provides public with
useful information, which helps to choose bathing sites. Obtaining
of an award such as ‘Blue Flag’ is an optional decision of a munic-
ipality, however it is necessary to claim and pay for it. Nevertheless,
it is an important instrument for enhancing beach tourism in
coastal areas. If beach managers use this instrument accurately,
considering the variations of beach types and permitted level of
development, the recreational quality of beaches can be enhanced
and the harmful environmental effect from recreation minimized
8 V. Semeoshenkova, A. Newton / Ocean & Coastal Management xxx (2015) 1e10
through the public education, awareness and environmental
management.
The review of existing beach quality awards and indices
demonstrated that besides the ‘Blue Flag’ and European environ-
mental certifications (e.g. EMAS, ISO 14001, ISO 9001 and EU
Bathing Water Directive 2006/7/EC), three countries are advanced
in implementing awards and rating systems launched by national
institutes and agencies. The common criteria covered by those
awards correspond with the results obtained from previous
research about public perception of beach quality. For instance,
such parameters as water quality, cleanliness of beach, scenery,
facilities and safety were given the highest priority for beach users
in Portugal (Semeoshenkova and Williams, 2011; Quintela et al.,
2009), Spain (Lozoya et al., 2014; Roca and Villares, 2008; Roca
et al., 2009); Italy (Marin et al., 2009), Malta (Micallef et al.,
1999); UK (McKenna et al., 2011; Morgan et al., 1993; Tudor and
Williams, 2006) and Colombia (Botero et al., 2013).
It is important to highlight that aspects of beach quality, which
covered by the awards and rating systems are partially included in
to the beach management cycle in study countries. For example, an
estimation of recreational carrying capacity, evaluation of coastal
scenery and provision of environmental information are important
practices of current management plans aimed to preserve natural
state of beaches, improve experience of beach users and even
prevent beaches from erosion.
6.3. Effectiveness and impact of coastal erosion approaches on
environment and human welfare
The reviewed approaches to beach erosion demonstrated that
coastal tourism was the main target for beach management in the
three countries and due to this, most of implemented approaches
were designed to fulfil tourism requirements.
The analyses of success and failures of coastal structures have
proved the inefficiency of hard engineering measures to stop
coastal erosion. Such management solutions were driven by
emergency problems and were not supported by proper knowledge
of marine and coastal process.
In all reviewed cases, construction of hard engineering mea-
sures interrupted longshore littoral drift and intensified erosion
downdrift to the adjacent areas. In some cases (Costa da Caparica,
Marina di Massa, Marina di Ravenna) the groynes and breakwaters
had to be reshaped or extended in length that also highlights the
shortcomings of the initial design and planning. Moreover, hard
engineering approaches induced a scope of environmental prob-
lems (decrease of water quality, generation of litter, deterioration of
flora and fauna) and negatively affected human welfare (decreased
safety, comfort and aesthetic quality). In some cases, there was a
gap of information and future research is needed to examine the
impact of applied measures on environmental quality.
Recent management approaches were switched on application
of soft methods such as beach and dune nourishment, dune sta-
bilisation, bioengineering (sand bags), sometimes supported by
hard structures. The results of the study showed, that contrary to
hard solutions, soft methods allowed to mitigate coastal erosion
without such harmful effects on the ecological status of beaches
and human welfare. Soft techniques allowed increasing of beach
surface for recreation, improved services and facilities and
enhanced coastal scenery. Although, few cases of nourishment
failed due to the use of inappropriate grain size of sand (Sitges,
Marina di Massa), in most cases application of soft engineering
approaches were effective in achievement of management objec-
tives. However, beach and dune nourishment are still only temporal
solutions, which require systematic fills.
Please cite this article in press as: Semeoshenkova, V., Newton, A., Overview of erosion and beach quality issues in three Southern European
countries: Portugal, Spain and Italy, Ocean & Coastal Management (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.08.013
7. Recommendations
(i) Awareness raising: Priority should be given to affordable
and effective measures, such as public education (e.g. envi-
ronmental campaigns) and information (e.g. warning no-
tices, information boards). These techniques are not
expensive, can be easily implemented on a local level and
help to increase public awareness about the necessity of
beach conservation.
(ii) Beach quality awards: Adaptive beach management should
integrate physical management against coastal erosion and
improvement of environmental and recreational beach
quality. Provision of beach quality awards, respecting natural
characteristics of beaches and application of hard/soft engi-
neering approaches can help to achieve sustainable devel-
opment of coastal areas.
(iii) Prioritization: Beach management priorities in different
countries depend on local problems. For instance, blooming
of ‘box’ jellyfish in N.E. Australia (Tibballs et al., 2012),
occurrence of harmful algal blooms (HABs) in China (Wang
and Wu, 2009), or untreated sewage in coastal waters in
Brazil (Moresco et al., 2012) are especially dangerous for
human health and the welfare of coastal communities.
Therefore, the management approaches should be concen-
trated on mitigation of these issues.
(iv) Knowledge-based decisions: The implementation of both
hard and soft methods should be supported by comprehen-
sive knowledge on the state, causes and impacts of coastal
erosion and especially a consideration of the potential
negative effects of those measures on the environment and
human welfare. Knowledge-based decisions play a crucial
role in effectiveness of protection measures. In particular,
solving a local problem by causing a problem elsewhere
should be avoided. Examples of the knowledge that is
necessary include the sources of sediment, the size of sedi-
ment cells, the dimension and position of hard structures as
well as the proper grain size of nourished sediment.
(v) Adopting and adapting solutions: Good practices in man-
aging coastal erosion and beach quality issues in other
coastal regions worldwide should be adapted for local
specifics.
(vi) Assessment of effectiveness and impact: The Application of
hard/soft measures should be followed by environmental
impact study and assessment of effectiveness, in order to
prevent deterioration of beach quality and address timely
management solutions.
Acknowledgements
Vera Semeoshenkova thanks the European Union for financing
her research in the Erasmus Mundus Joint Doctorate in Marine and
Coastal Management (MACOMA). Alice Newton's research was
partially supported by the European Union 7FP project, COMET-LA,
http://www.comet-la.eu/.
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