This article was downloaded by: [187.107.18.

221]
On: 10 May 2014, At: 17:33
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
The Translator
Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rtrn20
The Audio Description of Scientific
Multimedia
Lidia Cmara
a
& Eva Espasa
b
a
TED.com, Ideas Worth Spreading
b
University of Vic, Spain
Published online: 21 Feb 2014.
To cite this article: Lidia Cmara & Eva Espasa (2011) The Audio Description of Scientific
Multimedia, The Translator, 17:2, 415-437, DOI: 10.1080/13556509.2011.10799496
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13556509.2011.10799496
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
Content) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or
arising out of the use of the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms
& Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/
terms-and-conditions
ISSN 1355-6509 St Jerome Publishing Manchester
The Translator. Volume 17, Number 2 (2011), 415-37 ISBN 978-1-905763-27-6
The Audio Description of Scientifc
Multimedia
1
LIDIA CMARA
TED.com, Ideas Worth Spreading
EVA ESPASA
University of Vic, Spain
Abstract. Multimedia documents are increasingly used to dis-
seminate specialized scientifc knowledge. They are addressed
to, and accessed by, different audiences: experts, students (with
differing degrees of specialization) and general audiences. This
range of audiences and products can help to bridge the gap between
scientifc communities and the rest of the population. Multimedia
documents convey verbal and non-verbal information through visual
and acoustic channels. The multiplicity of codes and channels both
helps the acquisition of knowledge and allows for the inclusion of
different types of accessibility resources, such as audio description
for the visually impaired (AD). This article focuses on audio descrip-
tion of dynamic images in non-fction scientifc genres, including
documentaries and multimedia presentations. It discusses current
research on images, scientifc translation and accessibility, analyzes
existing audio-described documentaries, and proposes alternatives
that can improve visual accessibility to multimedia scientifc texts
in different formats.
Keywords: Audio description, Multimedia, Scientifc text, Non-fction,
Documentaries.
Audio description is an assistive service that allows the blind and visually im-
paired to access images. It is part of a communication system known as Visual
Assistive Discourse (Piety 2003) which uses language for special purposes. The
1
We wish to acknowledge the help of Anas Garca Balmaa, Head of the Culture and
Sports Department, ONCE (Organizacin Nacional de Ciegos Espaoles; the Spanish
National Organization for the Blind), Barcelona, who facilitated the researchers access to
audio-described documentaries in Spanish.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

The Audio Description of Scientifc Multimedia 416
minimal units of such assistive discourse are called Audio Description units
(ADUs); they consist of textual chains with linguistic information dependent
on visual representation inserted in the message presented as pre-recorded
auditory or textual information, and are read by a text-to-speech system. Audio
description can be considered a very specifc mode of constrained translation,
as defned by Mayoral et al. (1998:357), where the target text is subordinate to
other requirements, in this case the image. More specifcally, it may be seen
as a type of intersemiotic constrained translation, since the descriptions, when
not accompanied by the document in which the images are included, do not
make sense by themselves.
Documentaries and multimedia documents are increasingly used to dis-
seminate specialized knowledge. They are addressed to, and accessed by,
different audiences: experts, students and general audiences. Today, the
multiplicity of multimedia resources created for such diverse audiences
can help to bridge the gap between scientifc communities and the rest of
the population. However, while the use of multimedia enhances knowledge
representation, knowledge acquisition and knowledge transfer, it is also true
that it poses issues of accessibility, since users must possess the full range of
sensory abilities in order to take full advantage of such resources. Modes of
accessibility to multimedia products must therefore be carefully examined,
the most common of these being subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing
(SDHH) and audio description (AD) for the blind and visually impaired, felds
in which scholars of translation began to develop an interest at the turn of the
century (Orero 2005, 2007).
This paper will focus on audio description for the blind and visually im-
paired and will limit itself to non-fctional scientifc material published in
multimedia formats. The largely uncharted territory of dynamic images in
non-fctional scientifc documents (documentaries and multimedia presenta-
tions) will be addressed from two perspectives: the examination of current
research, guidelines and usages in AD in connection with documentaries, and
the exploration of alternatives to current AD practices and techniques. We
start by analyzing ADUs in documentaries, in order to ascertain to what extent
current audio description practices are appropriate for non-fctional scientifc
material, before proposing alternatives to such practices by creating ADUs of
specifc application to scientifc talks available on the web.
1. Images in scientifc and technical translation and the issue of
accessibility
Given that audio description was created as an aid for use in theatre and, later,
in cinema, it is not surprising that it is associated with leisure activities in an
established defnition by the UKs Royal National Institute of Blind People
(RNIB 2008; emphasis added):
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

Lidia Cmara and Eva Espasa 417
Audio description is a vital service that can help people with sight
problems to fully enjoy leisure activities. It is an additional narration
that describes all signifcant visual information such as body language,
facial expression, scenery, action, costumes anything that is important
to conveying the plot of the story, event or image. Audio description
is available on television, on video and DVD, at cinemas, museums
and galleries, and theatres.
AD has been addressed in non-fction documents only as an exceptional
case. For example, the pioneering study by Schmeidler and Kirchner (2000),
a research project which started in 1993 when AD was still in its infancy,
evaluated the impact on visually impaired viewers of adding description to
science documentaries. It concluded that AD enhanced viewers learning of
the programmes science content, and made them more enjoyable and interest-
ing. Other studies, including research by Maribel Tercedor and her colleagues
(Tercedor and Abada 2005), focused on the importance of describing images
in the translation of scientifc and technical texts, and later on web accessi-
bility and the need to provide precise textual descriptions for images in that
environment (Tercedor et al. 2007, Tercedor and Jimnez 2008).
Providing e-accessibility of images is another important focus of study. In
the context of academic courses on scientifc and technical translation, Prieto
et al. (2007) introduced activities geared towards making images accessible
(for example, by providing descriptions of images, defning specialized terms
for lay audiences, summarizing translations, providing multilingual multimedia
glossaries extracted from audiovisual documents, and voicing over translations
in html animations). These activities are considered very useful preparation
for the drafting of AD scripts.
All of this research emphasizes the importance of images in scientifc and
technical texts as well as the impact of multimedia communication scenarios
on professional translation and training (Tercedor et al. 2009:143):
Images are central to scientifc and technical contexts at all levels of
specialisation, conveying important information that complements or
substitutes that contained in the text. There is a growing need to present
information contained in images multimodally (i.e. using different
channels of information: audio, animations, dynamic images, etc.),
and such need comes from the multimedia communication scenarios
in professional translation and translation training .... These profes-
sional shifts may infuence the way images are conveyed, described,
and explained for online settings so as to give access to as wide an
audience as possible. All the above may affect the way translators ap-
proach the text in new professional environments.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

The Audio Description of Scientifc Multimedia 418
Given that dynamic images are so important in multimodal scientifc and
technical texts and their translations, they should be made accessible for all.
This means that audio description, or setting ears in the eyes,
2
should be an
integral part of technical and scientifc multimedia materials, in order to op-
timize the acquisition of specialized knowledge.
2. Audio description: between guidelines and actual practice
Generally speaking, current guidelines on audio description, such as the ITC
Guidance for Standards on Audio Description and the Spanish Standard UNE
153020, devote much more attention to fction than to non-fction flms.
The British ITC guidelines make some explicit reference to documentaries.
There is a specifc section on nature documentaries, which are considered to
be appropriate for audio description. Unlike current affairs documentaries
which offer less scope for description because they tend to be wordy, nature
documentaries are slower in pace and very visual, and are also popular pro-
grammes, particularly with middle-aged and elderly audiences (ITC 2000:26).
The ITC guidelines provide an indication of where to insert descriptions:
where there are long pauses with only the natural sounds being heard. This
follows the general rules of AD, in that descriptive units can only be inserted
in the gaps where there is no verbal narration or dialogue in the original sound
track. In practice, this technical restriction means that the basic criterion in AD
is not only the relevance of the images which are being presented on screen
but the possibility of inserting AD units; this has specifc consequences for
the representation of specialized knowledge.
The ITC Guidelines provide two further specifc instructions: the recom-
mendation to use specialist vocabulary with precision (ibid.:9) and the relative
importance of providing details in the script (ibid.:22):
In a nature flm, there may be wildlife in the distance, but if they are
too far away to identify, there is little point in examining them through
a telescope. If they were more than incidental to the sequence, they
would have been flmed in close-up.

The Spanish Standard on audio description, UNE 153020,
3
mentions that it
is generally applicable for documentaries (AENOR 2005:4), although, unlike
the ITC guidelines, there are no specifc sections for each programme type.
2
This is a variant on the phrase Eyes in your ears; ears in your eyes, the title of teach-
ing materials used in a seminar on Subtitling for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing, conducted
by Dr Joslia Neves at the international event Media for All: Quality made to Measure,
Antwerp, 22-24 October 2009.
3
A note on the use of Standard: The word norma of its original title is translated as guide-
lines in the English abstract included in the text of UNE 153020. However, it is usually
translated as standard, for example, in Utray, Pereira & Orero (2009).
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

Lidia Cmara and Eva Espasa 419
The most relevant recommendations which might apply to documentaries are
summed up as follows (AENOR 2005:8):
1) Respect for information conveyed by images: there should be no cen-
sorship, nor editing, of alleged excesses or gaps in source-material.
2) Use of concrete versus vague adjectives, and of specifc terminology.
3) No description of what can be deduced.
4) No anticipation of events.
5) Avoiding the inclusion of personal points of view (on the part of the
describer).
Against the background of such guidelines, it is useful to examine ADUs in
a number of actual documentaries in order to illustrate the potential benefts
and limitations of current AD practices in scientifc audiovisual documents.
4

The frst case study is of the frst of a series of 28 documentaries audio de-
scribed in Spanish for members of ONCE (Organizacin Nacional de Ciegos
Espaoles; the Spanish National Organization for the Blind); the second is
of a scientifc talk.
2.1 Case study 1: The Rhythms of Life
The Rhythms of Life was the frst documentary to be audio described in Spain.
It is a nature documentary produced by the National Geographic Society Tel-
evision in 1995, and distributed and audio described in Spain in 1997.
5

The most salient feature of the Spanish AD is its total duration: 75 min-
utes, ffteen minutes more than the original 60-minute flm. This is due to an
introduction added (while the image on screen is frozen) at the beginning of
the documentary. The introduction provides a commentary on flmic concepts
which are considered to be relevant for the documentary, even including
information about the number of frames per second in flms. The Rhythms
of Life focuses on the different rhythms of life of living creatures, which are
shown with camera shots in slow or fast motion; these terms are glossed in
the introduction. Moreover, explicit mention is made of the use of animated
infographics, which is combined in the flm with real camera shots. The
Spanish AD script features the cinema terms explained in the introduction
throughout the flm, e.g. la infografa nos muestra (infographics show us);
4
In Spain, there is a useful database for AD and SDH flms in Spain, http://cesya.uc3m.
es/sabado/, but it does not include all AD documentaries as yet.
5
The documentary was distributed by RBA, frst as VHS, and later as DVD in 2000, with
English and Spanish soundtracks. It does not include the AD, which is only available as
VHS at the ONCE library, for the exclusive use of ONCE members. The AD script is by
Antonio Vzquez, from Aristia, the company responsible for AD for ONCE. We acknowl-
edge the help of Anas Garca Balmaa, Head of the Culture and Sports Department, ONCE,
Barcelona, who allowed us to view all the AD documentaries available at the library of
ONCE, Barcelona, for the purpose of this research.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

The Audio Description of Scientifc Multimedia 420
a cmara rpida (in fast motion).
6
The RNIB Audio Description Guidelines
published in 2005 and not necessarily applicable to Spain do not recom-
mend the use of cinema terms. However, James OHara, Managing Editor of
the Audio Description Department at ITFC (Independent Television Facilities
Centre), agreed that in this case cinema terms could be relevant (personal
communication, October 2009). No mention is made of cinema terms in AD
script in the Spanish Standards on AD: UNE 153020.
7
The additional length of the described documentary did not pose any
problem of synchrony as it was released as a VHS intended for a specifc audi-
ence: the blind community in Spain affliated to ONCE. However, if it were
to be broadcast on TV or added as an optional additional track onto a DVD,
the lack of synchrony would be problematic. The same applies to other AD
documentaries in Spanish, where the image on screen is frozen while a detailed
AD unit is introduced in order to explain specialized images: for example, an
account on thermography imaging and a description of the bronchial tree in
Incredible Human Machine.
8

One of the most recurrent and prominent features of the audio description
of this documentary is the use of fgures of speech, in particular similes and
metaphors, in order to convey the shapes and movements of specifc images
shown on screen, as can be seen in the following examples:
las hojas se despliegan como los dedos de la mano al abrirse
[leaves unfold like fngers opening]
[clulas] a modo de setas transparentes
[[cells] like transparent mushrooms]
La nube de huevos y esperma fota entre delgadas cintas que se mecen
sinuosas como serpentinas entre las nubes de confeti de una festa
[The cloud of eggs and sperm foats among thin ribbons winding like
streamers among clouds of confetti at a party]
This fgurative language in the AD script is in keeping with the tone of the
voice-over narration, both in its English source text and its Spanish transla-
tion, which also includes extremely detailed comparisons. This interaction
between the style of the AD and that of the narration is consistent with current
AD guidelines. Rhetorical language (in particular similes and metaphors) is
6
All translations of AD units are our own.
7
The use of cinematic terms in AD is currently being researched, and was the focus of
discussions in ARSAD III (Advanced Research Seminar on Audio Description), Barcelona,
March 2011); see http://grupsderecerca.uab.cat/arsad/content/2011-seminar (accessed 7
April 2011).
8
Incredible Human Machine, National Geographic Society, 1975; translated and audio
described in Spanish as El cuerpo humano: la increble mquina humana (1998).
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

Lidia Cmara and Eva Espasa 421
also a distinctive feature of popular scientifc discourse, which helps to con-
vey specialized knowledge to general audiences, as is shown by the style of
National Geographic documentaries.
There is also a strong connection between the images shown and the flms
sound track, as can be seen in the following example, in which the description
is read against a rhythmic sound track:
A vista de pjaro y a cmara rpida vemos a los cangrejo[s] basurero
horadando por completo toda la superfcie de arena. La msica marca
el ritmo acelerado de su trabajo de hormiga.
[From a birds-eye view and in fast motion, we see sand-bubbler crabs
boring through the sand. The music marks the accelerated rhythm of
their ant-like task.]
This refects a general pattern in the narration, which features an extended
musical metaphor applied to the varied rhythms in the life of different beings,
as signalled in the title of the documentary The Rhythms of Life/Los ritmos
de la vida and demonstrated in different examples:
Spanish narration:
Va al ritmo de la msica de las mareas perfecta armona
English narration:
leads a life scored to the music of the tides ... perfect harmony
This interaction between music and images is also found in other National Geo-
graphic documentaries. In Incredible Human Machine, human heart beats are
described verbally, and also enhanced by drums in the soundtrack of the flm.
As in described fction flms, examples of interpretative adjectives can
be found, although most current AD guidelines insist on avoiding subjective
language given that objectivity is normally expected in scientifc discourse.
However, these descriptions might be defended from the viewpoint of relating
the description to the style of the documentary, based on the spectacular pho-
tography which is a distinctive feature of the National Geographic Society:
visin microscpica de la mitosis de una hermosa clula estrellada
[microscopic view of the mitosis of a beautiful starlike cell]
preciosas bolitas con varios ncleos
[lovely little balls with several nuclei]
Nevertheless, in the following two examples there is no clear connection be-
tween the image portrayed and the description provided, where the describers
subjectivity is clearly in view:
siniestras siluetas
[sinister silhouettes] (in reference to bats)
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

The Audio Description of Scientifc Multimedia 422
De orifcios de sensual aspecto salen chorros de esperma como una
nube
[from sensual-looking orifces jets of sperm come out like a cloud] (in
reference to coral)
The main drawback in the Spanish AD and its attention to detail is that the
resulting descriptions are very long, and have to be read extremely quickly,
which can be tiring for audiences, according to studies conducted on Spanish
AD users (Hidalgo 2007). Later AD scripts by the same company, Aristia, for
the same client, ONCE, are much shorter and more succinct, compared to older
Spanish AD, where detailed descriptions, using fgurative language, prevail.
9

Due to space restrictions, later AD documentaries are not analyzed in depth
here; we only make a brief mention of the documentary series Discapacidades
Humanas (2006) (Human Disabilities), a TV documentary series of 13 episodes
produced with the support of enterprises and institutions working with people
with disabilities in Spain. It was described after the publication of Spanish AD
Standards, in 2005, and accessibility was considered in the initial design of
the product. The series is both audio described and subtitled for deaf and hard
of hearing, by Spanish Public TV (RTVE). Its DVD version includes talking
menus, as well as optional AD and SDHH.
The AD provided is very succinct and focuses on the place and names of
the people involved, which are usually also shown as captions on screen. There
is no AD of the infographics shown, a feature which can be easily explained:
there are no gaps in the narration. This is a general trend in documentaries in
the series, intended for general audiences: few images are used to represent
specialized scientifc knowledge; when they do appear, the images are not
described because of lack of time.
In summary, the most salient feature of the audio described version of
Discapacidades Humanas is the concision of the description, which may be
due to the following reasons: (1) The Spanish Standards were published a year
earlier, in 2005, and recommend a short informative description; (2) studies on
audience perception of audio description, carried out between 2005 and 2006,
also recommend concision in order to avoid tiredness (Hidalgo 2007); and (3)
the needs of the visually impaired are anticipated in the design of the product,
generally included in the voice-over narration, so that AD is often deemed
unnecessary in a documentary intended for a general audience. These reasons
can be linked with the study by Schmeidler and Kirchner (2001) mentioned
above, which demonstrated that the positive impact of audio descriptions was
greater for programmes with less narration in their original format. Mereijn van
der Heijden (2009:17) reports a trend towards concision in European AD:
9
The most recent available documentaries audio described by Aristia are Parque Natural
del Delta del Ebro (2000) and Planeta azul (2002).
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

Lidia Cmara and Eva Espasa 423
An important evolution that has presented itself in the past years is
the amount of text used. In the early years, the audio describer always
tried to insert the maximum amount of information in between the
dialogue. This often led to an overload of information this is still
common in North American AD productions. In the UK, the amount
of text has been consciously sized down, so the voice-over can read
out the AD texts at a calm pace. This makes the AD track much more
enjoyable to listen to, while also making it easier to follow the flm
or programme.
With the new channels of distribution and technical possibilities of interac-
tion available in multimedia documents, it is imperative to explore technical
solutions which will allow for the description of dynamic images, not only
when there is space for them, but also when they are relevant to the specifc
knowledge being represented.
2.2 Case study 2: The coming neurological epidemic
For the second case study we selected a scientifc talk published by TED, The
Coming Neurological Epidemic, by Gregory Petsko.
10
TED, a project founded
by Richard Saul Wurman in 1984, invites experts from different disciplines to
share their expertise. Many of the most interesting and innovative scientifc
projects are presented as talks organized by TED, and available for free on
the Internet, to be downloaded and shared under Creative Commons licence.
These scientifc talks include many forms of multimedia support that can be
audio described.
The decision to choose material from the TED Project is directly related
to the issue of accessibility. The TED project deals with accessibility in the
sense of spreading knowledge without linguistic barriers, as is refected in
the motto of the project: Ideas worth Spreading. Although all the scientifc
talks published by TED are presented in English, a TED subproject, the Open
Translation Project, offers users worldwide the opportunity to subtitle the talks
transcribed in English and published on the Internet into different languages.
For this purpose it uses dotSUB technology, a free service which allows the
uploading, transcribing and subtitling of videos so that users can view them in
their own language. The main idea behind the project is to enable the spread
of audiovisual material to new audiences using transcriptions and translations
voluntarily provided by the user community. This phenomenon is known as
crowdsourcing.
11
Such efforts to break down linguistic barriers have also made
10
Gregory Petsko by TED : http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/gregory_petsko_on_the_
coming_neurological_epidemic.html (accessed 20 February 2011).
11
For an examination of the evolution and professional implications of crowdsourcing,
see Garcia (2009).
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

The Audio Description of Scientifc Multimedia 424
scientifc knowledge available to the deaf and those with hearing impairment.
In this sense they fulfl one of the fundamental principles of the Web Content
Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG 2008):
Principle 1: Perceivable Information and user interface components
must be presentable to users in ways they can perceive.
Guideline 1.1 Text Alternatives: Provide text alternatives for any non-
text content so that it can be changed into other forms people need,
such as large print, braille, speech, symbols or simpler language.
It is of considerable interest therefore, in this global, scientifc, multilingual and
accessibility-conscious context, to analyze the possibilities of audio describing
the visual resources supporting one of these talks, so that the blind or visu-
ally impaired can fully access and enjoy its contents. This interest refects the
growing trend towards using visual resources in scientifc presentations; the
desire of the visually impaired to have access to audio described technical and
scientifc material (Schmeidler and Kirchner 2001:205); and the positive im-
pact of such access on the acquisition of knowledge by users (ibid.:202-03).
The structure of the analysis follows a prototype of specifcations that may
be used for subsequent systematic collection of data to develop a multimedia
corpus for consultation. For this purpose, we frst prepared the documentary
sheet for the multimedia talk (Table 1). In the fnal cell of Table 1 we indi-
cate the visual support units that are likely to be audio described. The audio
description units (ADUs) correspond to each of these support elements and
require information linked to the resources they describe, as per the model
in Table 2.
ID No. 1
Title The coming neurological epidemic
Author Gregory Petsko
Publisher / Video editor TED <http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/gregory_
petsko_on_the_coming_neurological_epidemic.
html>
Length 350
Textual and visual
typology
Scientifc talk with visual support elements
Table 1. Documentary sheet for a multimedia scientifc talk
Following the structure proposed in Table 2, we analyzed all the visual support
elements shown below, and identifed our own ADUs. In preparing the ADUs,
we did not restrict this to the space that the speaker may leave between each
phrase, given the diffculties this causes in conventional AD use, as seen in
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

Lidia Cmara and Eva Espasa 425
case study one. Our proposal to enable the talk to be presented technically in
a way that is totally accessible is presented below.
ID No.: Order No. time
of onset
The ID No. is that of the
documentary sheet in Table
1. The order number cor-
responds to the appearance
of the resource and the time
of appearance
Class of
imaging
Types
Animation 2D, 3D
Chart histogram, bar chart, pie chart, line
chart, cartogram
Photo B/W, Colour
Drawing artistic, computer, sketch,
technical
Map Map: political, physical
Biomedical
imaging
electron microscope imaging
Magnetic resonance imaging,
radiography, tomography,
ultrasonography
Mind map cyclical, radial, converging,
hierarchical, interacting
comparison, linear
Table numeric, alphanumeric
Sign &
symbols
Transcription of the talk by the speaker
Screen shot of the frst frame where the visual resource appears
Commentary on the diffculties involved in describing the image
ADU
Table 2. Descriptive sheet for the ADUs
1:1 00:27
Map Political world map
Unless we do something to prevent it, over
the next 40 years were facing an epidemic of
neurologic diseases on a global scale. A cheery
thought. On this map, every country thats
colored blue has more than 20 percent of its
population over the age of 65. This is the world
we live in.
Although the speaker uses the expression On this map, he does not state that
it is a map of the world. He also refers to countries coloured in blue which we
should see with words.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

The Audio Description of Scientifc Multimedia 426
ADU: Map of the world with Japan and almost all of Europe in blue.
1:2 00:36 Map Political world map
And this is the world your children will live in.

If we state all the countries that are not coloured in blue, this could be a never-
ending list and therefore the problem is solved by excluding some zones such
as the centre of the American continent or some islands of Oceania.
ADU: Map of the world in which everything is blue except Greenland, the Mid-
dle East and Africa excluding North Africa.
1:3 00:40 Chart Three histograms
For 12,000 years, the distribution of ages in the hu-
man population has looked like a pyramid, with the
oldest on top. Its already fattening out. By 2050,
its going to be a column and will start to invert.
Although there is a support element in the form of the graph with three columns, an
AD is not necessary since the speaker explains the features of the graph. However,
an AD unit could be used for repetition purposes and thus consolidate knowledge.
ADU: Chart comprised of three histograms showing the evolution over time of
the distribution of the global population. The population segments are grouped
into cohorts in blocks of ages, represented as horizontal bars from a common axis;
men to the left and women to the right. Thus, the frst histogram representing the
population up to 1950 has a pyramid structure. The base of the pyramid on the
second histogram, representing the current population, is much smaller. In the third
histogram, forecasting what will happen in 2050, it has become a column.
1:4 00:55 Chart Line chart
This is why its happening. The average
lifespans more than doubled since 1840, and
its increasing currently at the rate of about
fve hours every day.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

Lidia Cmara and Eva Espasa 427
We have decided not to specify the additional estimate information, since we
do not think it is essential to describe the graph in words.
ADU: Line chart with the horizontal axis showing the declining early/mid-life
mortality from 1840 and developing into late life mortality from 1960, with an
outlook up to 2040. Life expectancy in years is represented on the vertical axis.
The line on the graph shows continuous and geometric progression.
1:5 01:05 Chart (2) Line chart (2 lines each)
And this is why thats not entirely a good thing:
because over the age of 65, your risk of getting
Alzheimers or Parkinsons Disease will increase
exponentially.
Since there are two graphs on the same slide, our ADU refers to both. How-
ever, it does not provide an analysis as this is not part of the remit of the audio
describer.
ADU: 2 Line charts with two lines each. The frst chart shows the evolution in
the number of Alzheimers sufferers, with one line for women and another for
men. The horizontal axis shows cohorts in blocks of age which represent the
age in years of the sufferers. The vertical axis shows the cases of those affected
per every 1000 people. The lines are ascending and the line corresponding to
women sufferers is greater. The second chart shows the evolution in the number
of Parkinsons sufferers. The line for men sufferers is signifcantly greater than
that of women.
1:6 01:15 Chart Histogram
By 2050, therell be about 32 million people in
the United States over the age of 80, and unless
we do something about it, half of them will have
Alzheimers Disease and three million more will
have Parkinsons Disease.
We decided to provide the data for the earliest date, that of the current year and
the last date, so that the evolution of this phenomenon showed in the graph may
be appreciated.
ADU: Histogram showing the evolution of the population over 80 in the US
suffering from Alzheimers or Parkinsons from 1900 when it was determined
that there were 0.4 million sufferers. The graph shows progressive evolution
which reaches 11.4 in 2010. The forecast for 2050 is 31.6 million.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

The Audio Description of Scientifc Multimedia 428
1:7 01:33 Table Alphanumeric table
with three columns
Right now, those and other neurologic
diseases for which we have no cure or
prevention cost about a third of a trillion
dollars a year. It will be well over a trillion
dollars by 2050.
The diffculty in this case is deciding whether we should transcribe all the data
shown in the table. Not to do so seems too simplistic and if we were to break it
down completely, we would not be applying criteria for selecting and prioritiz-
ing information. We have therefore decided to state the type of illness without
expanding on the abbreviations, and we do not state the number of cases and
costs per illness. However, if the presentation was being given for uses with
more specifc interests, the entire table would have to be published in a format
which could be read by a voice synthesizer.
ADU: The table shows the cost generated by neurological diseases and those of
the nervous system. The information is organized into three columns: The frst
identifes the types of illness, the second the total number of cases in the US and
the third the healthcare costs per year. The illnesses included are: All depressive
disorders; Alzheimers disease; Huntingtons disease; Parkinsons disease; ALS
for Lou; Gerings disease; FTDP-17, PSP, CBO, MSA, Picks; Traumatic head
injury; Multiple Sclerosis; Spinal cord injury; Stroke; Schizophrenia The total
healthcare cost per year amounts to $334.9 billion. Gross domestic product in
the U.S. is 12,770 billion.
1:8 01:45 Drawing Computer drawing
Alzheimers Disease starts when a
protein that should be folded up prop-
erly misfolds into a kind of demented
origami.
We decided not to state the colour of the images as it is not relevant.
ADU: The slide shows a perfect paper bird to the left and a crumpled paper to
its right.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

Lidia Cmara and Eva Espasa 429
1:9 01:52 Biomedical
imaging
Electron microscope imaging
So one approach were taking is to try to
design drugs that function like molecular
Scotch tape, to hold the protein into its
proper shape.
ADU: Three electron microscope images of neurons. There are two arrows
coming from the frst image towards the other two images. One shows healthy
neurons and the other damaged neurons.
1:10 02:00 Recreation of a
dissected brain
Computer drawing
That would keep it from forming the tangles
that seem to kill large sections of the brain when
they do.
In line with Mrquezs strategy (2007:215), we only include the colour char-
acteristics when we consider this relevant for providing more information
relating to the scientifc rather than the aesthetic concept. We therefore decided
to include information on the colour since in this context it has more conceptual
connotations.
ADU: Drawing of a brain cut in half. One part represents a healthy brain in a
lighter colour and the other shows a brain damaged by Alzheimers whose darker
zones show shrunken parts.
1:11 02:11 Power Point: diagram (New Idea)
Interestingly enough, other neurological diseas-
es which affect very different parts of the brain
also show tangles of misfolded protein, which
suggest that the approach might be a general
one, and might be used to cure many neurologic
diseases, not just Alzheimers Disease. Theres
also a fascinating connection to cancer here,
because people with neurologic diseases have
a very low incidence of most cancers.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

The Audio Description of Scientifc Multimedia 430
The problem here is the abbreviations which refer to different pathologies linked
to neurological disorders. Presumably, the people seeing the talk directly are
either not able to expand upon all the abbreviations or to identify them in the few
seconds during which the slide appears. However, since we believe that the most
important information in this case is that the solution that may be found for PD
(Parkinsons Disease) or for AD (Alzheimers Disease) may help alleviate other
illnesses, we have decided to expand upon the abbreviations in all cases.
ADU: In this slide we read: New Idea: theyre just different manifestations of
the same underlying disease. Between AD (for Alzheimers disease) and PD (for
Parkinsons disease) are the following abbreviations: Picks for Pick disease;
FTDP-17 for Frontotemporal dementia and parkinsonism linked to chromosome
17; PSP for Progressive supranuclear palsy; CBD for Corticobasal degeneration;
DLB for Dementia with Lewy bodies; GSS for GerstmannStrusslerSchein-
ker syndrome; HSD for Hallervorden-Spatz disease; MSA for Multiple system
atrophy. If thats true, then fnding a treatment for any of them should help in
treating all of them.
1:12 02:32 Photos Colour photos
And this is a connection that most people arent
pursuing right now, but which were fascinated
by. Most of the important and all of the creative
work in this area is being funded by private
philanthropies. And theres tremendous scope
for additional private help here, because the
government has dropped the ball on much of
this, Im afraid.
In this case we have decided to name the people appearing in the photographs,
but without describing their features, which are not relevant here.
ADU: The slide shows photos of people representing the Foundations. Mcknight
Endowment for Neuroscience; Ellison Medical Foundation; Michael J. Fox Foun-
dation; Dr. Miriam and Sheldon G. Adelson Medical Research Foundation.
1:13 2:57 Slide with text Text
In the meantime, while were waiting for all these
things to happen, heres what you can do for
yourself. If you want to lower your risk of Par-
kinsons Disease, caffeine is protective to some
extent; nobody knows why. Head injuries are bad
for you. They lead to Parkinsons Disease. And
the Avian Flu is also not a good idea.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

Lidia Cmara and Eva Espasa 431
There is a slide containing textual information that the speaker goes through
in the talk; in principle it does not need to be audio described. However, if it is
audio described, the entire text should be read.
ADU: (The text that appears in the screen shot)
1:14 3:08 Slide with text Text
As far as protecting yourself against Alzheim-
ers Disease, well, it turns out that fsh oil has
the effect of reducing your risk for Alzheimers
Disease.
Like No. 13
ADU: (The text that appears in the screen shot)
1:15 3:40 Map Political world map
You should also keep your blood pressure down, because chronic high blood
pressure is the biggest single risk factor for Alzheimers Disease. Its also the
biggest risk factor for glaucoma, which is just Alzheimers Disease of the eye.
And of course, when it comes to cognitive effects, use it or lose it applies, so
you want to stay mentally stimulated. But hey, youre listening to me. So youve
got that covered. And one fnal thing. Wish people like me luck, okay? Because
the clock is ticking for all of us.
The same image of visual support 1:2
ADU: The map of the world appears for a second time, in which everything is
blue except for Africa and Greenland.
As these examples show, AD units are determined by the specifc re-
quirements of AD and the diversity of communicative purposes, modes of
presentation, and variety of visual and graphic supports that are present in
scientifc multimedia documents. We are aware that our solutions are only ten-
tative, since further analyses of existing audio described documents would be
necessary to establish general guidelines for the audio description of multimedia
scientifc talks. These would help to improve the practices of Visual Assistive
Discourses that attempt to make other texts such as textbooks and hypermedia
accessible to persons with visual impairments (Piety 2003:15-16).
Current guidelines on AD, mentioned above, recommend that audio de-
scribers consult documentation related to the feld and subject matter dealt with
in the work (AENOR UNE 153020 2005:7). This can be seen in the examples
analyzed above, which show that audio describers of scientifc productions
need to master specifc terminology, while using a simple syntax and style
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

The Audio Description of Scientifc Multimedia 432
to explain the images. Although current guidelines do not dwell on specifc
types of text likely to be audio described, a classifcation of such text types
is necessary in future research, as it would help considerably to identify the
communicative purpose and visual resources used for different multimedia
products. Standardization and classifcation of visual supports could shape the
decisions that audio describers have to make, since such decisions are mainly
guided by visual perception. As is widely known, visual perception infers more
than the eye sees, and this process is guided by the brain via selective logic.
It would therefore be useful to conduct further research into the specifcity
of audio description of scientifc visual materials. It is for this reason that
we proposed a typology of visual supports specifcally for the talk analyzed.
The typology may be expanded and refned in future guidelines for the audio
description of scientifc documents. Such guidelines might also incorporate
the need for authors of presentations to prepare their visual material, such as
tables and graphs, in a format that can be easily read by a voice synthesizer.
3. Technology for accessibility: SMIL (Synchronized Multimedia
Integration Language)
One of the problems dealt with in the frst case analyzed, the audio description
of documentaries, relates to the actual space available for introducing an audio
described phrase. The AD locution sounds somewhat forced, with hurried dic-
tion. The reproduction of a documentary for uninterrupted broadcasting on the
television or in the cinema and, fnally on DVD, presents technical diffculties
that seem to be solved more easily in other contexts.
Where would the audio descriptions suggested for the Petsko talk on TED
ft in, especially since some are quite long? The answer has to start with the
fact that this is a multimedia talk published on the Internet, and hence relies on
web technology, which is constantly evolving and part of its evolution involves
designing relatively simple solutions for complex issues such as accessibility.
The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), active since 1997, launched the
Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI), which includes the development of the
Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) as part of its remit. These
guidelines have been fundamental both in developing technologies and web
tools and in attending to legal aspects relating to web accessibility.
Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language (SMIL)
12
is a standard
format of tags based on XML meta-language created by the W3C to allow
inclusion of information in video encoding so that the web browser can read
subtitles and audio descriptions. The format combines different resources
(audio, video, images, text and animation), ensuring synchronization between
12
Available at http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-smil/, http://www.w3.org/TR/smil20/ and
http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG-TECHS/smil.html (accessed 20 February 2011).
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

Lidia Cmara and Eva Espasa 433
them. To return to the initial problem, using SMIL encoding, ADUs can be
included without any synchronization problems or overlaps with the original
voice of the speaker. This is done by fragmenting the audio or video fles into
a series of fles which are then reproduced in sequence. SMIL facilitates the
encoding of the audio description, which is included either as a pre-recorded
sound unit or simply as a written text corresponding to each ADU. The ADUs
are reproduced, and in the event of the length of the unit interfering with the
synchronization of the original audio, the player freezes the image.
13
In the
frst case the audio fle is reproduced; in the second a voice synthesizer is
activated (text-to-speech system)
14
to resume the video automatically once
each of the ADUs has been read. Once the document has been encoded in the
SMIL format, a SMIL compatible player must be installed on the computer
15

or, preferably, a browser that can execute the SMIL fles.
16
We believe that the technical hurdles highlighted in experiments conducted
by Moreno et al. (2007) and Catenazzi and Sommaruga (2008) for example
incompatibility with the format of the most popular browsers can be over-
come, depending on how effectively audio description can be promoted as a
practice with social benefts and the implementation of a technical platform
to make this popular among users. As we have already mentioned, the TED
project supports accessibility because it was developed from the start on the
basis of using online subtitling technology, resulting in the creation by its
volunteers of thousands of fles with subtitles in multiple languages. Should
we not expect the same in terms of audio descriptions? The TED project is
the perfect channel for achieving these goals. Content is mainly provided by
users, making TED a social media platform, social media being a term used
to describe web services whose content is edited by volunteers (Lietsala and
Sirkkunen 2008:13). Other successful cases demonstrate the scope of social
media; these include Wikipedia, online dictionaries that are updated by sug-
gestions from users (Wordreference, LEO), Google Translator, where users
can participate by suggesting better translations than those proposed by the
system, and Fan Subs, the predecessors of online subtitling projects (Prez-
Gonzlez 2006).
13
In The Rhythms of Life the image is also frozen during the 15-minute introduction added
to the Spanish AD. In The Incredible Machine the image is frozen twice, for a few seconds,
while describing detailed images.
14
There are numerous online tutorials on SMIL which explain all the advantages, includ-
ing the following : http://www.cwi.nl/~media/SMIL/Tutorial/ and http://www.w3schools.
com/smil/default.asp
>
(accessed 20 February 2011).
15
Apples Quicktime player, Windows Media Player and RealNetworks RealPlayer sup-
port SMIL.
16
For more information on technical limitations with regard to the application of SMIL and
the possibilities for improving its implementation, see the SMIL experiments conducted
by Moreno et al. (2007) and Catenazzi and Sommaruga (2008).
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

The Audio Description of Scientifc Multimedia 434
4. Conclusions and future lines of action
Although some existing guidelines for audio description can be applied to
scientifc AD, the analysis of the frst documentary and the ADUs proposed
for the multimedia talk in the second case study highlight the specifc nature
of scientifc AD. This specifcity is closely linked to the particular communi-
cative purpose of the scientifc documents in question, which are intended to
be accessible to different types of audiences, as well as the resources used to
convey specialist knowledge. Discussion of two types of scientifc multimedia
products also shows that each multimedia product requires specifc visual
resources, the audio description of which demands standardization.
This article presented an alternative mode of AD and contrasted it with the
existing audio description standards applied in the audiovisual world. We also
proposed a typology specifcally designed for the visual resources employed in
the TED talk. We are very conscious of the limits of our analysis. The proposed
model, which is the result of a qualitative analysis of specifc audiovisual and
multimedia resources, cannot be extrapolated to other resources before further
quantitative analyses are conducted. As a means of expanding on the proposal
and to facilitate a quantitative analysis, we suggest as a future line of research
the creation of an AD corpus specifcally intended for scientifc multimedia
documents, based on a systematic collection of data from different supports
and involving the participation of blind and visually impaired users to evaluate
satisfaction levels. On the one hand, this would cover the diversity of scientifc
multimedia audio description units and, on the other, it would help to develop
working AD guidelines for scientifc multimedia documents.
With regard to the technical diffculties arising from the inclusion of ADUs
in the fles, we suggest that the speed of implementing audio descriptions
will be directly linked to their popularity among users and the availability of
volunteers able to describe the images. For example, in the TED environment,
a user-friendly implementation, along with a simple audio description guide,
would almost certainly encourage many people to describe visual resources
for non-proft purposes; it would also encourage the visually impaired com-
munity to provide feedback on the proposals. Based on the data collected, a
corpus could be created comprising ADUs for talks published by TED which
would complement the general multimedia corpus described above. Likewise,
AD scripts may be translated directly from available audio descriptions, or
they may be generated without using the source language of the talks, which
is English. The analysis of the data collected could also provide answers to
questions raised by other researchers (Bourne and Jimnez 2007) regarding
whether the AD scripts are language dependent and whether they should be
localized or, on the contrary, a type of interlingua with an independent control-
led language could be used as a basis for translation (Jimnez 2007).
With respect to the question of whether 100% accessibility to multimedia
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

Lidia Cmara and Eva Espasa 435
scientifc texts can be achieved, we believe that this does not depend on AD
only or, more generally, on other accessibility modes, such as SDHH (Subti-
tling for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing) or sign language interpreting. It also
depends on the way authors present their knowledge and on the end users.
Successful access depends on the cognitive capacity of end users, their previ-
ous knowledge, their interest in the issue and other variable environmental and
emotional factors. With regard to the way in which knowledge is presented,
it is hoped that the tenets of universal design will be increasingly considered
from the start and will take into account both the needs of the users and their
active participation in the product design process.
LIDIA CMARA
Spanish Language Coordinator for the Open Translation Project by TED.com
and researcher at GISTAL, Centre of Psychological and Linguistic Develop-
ment, Oral and Written Language Acquisition, Autonomous University of
Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Valls), Spain.
lidia.camara@gmail.com

EVA ESPASA
Department of Translation and Interpreting, University of Vic, Carrer de la
Laura, 13080500 Vic, Spain. eva.espasa@uvic.cat
References
Asociacin Espaola de Normalizacin y Certifcacin (AENOR) (2005) Au-
diodescripcin para personas con discapacidad visual. Requisitos para la
audiodescripcin y la elaboracin de audioguas, UNE 153020.
Bourne, Julian and Catalina Jimnez Hurtado (2007) From the Visual to the Verbal
in Two Languages: A Contrastive Analysis of the Audio Description of The
Hours in English and Spanish, in Jorge Daz-Cintas, Pilar Orero and Aline
Remael (eds) Media for All: Subtitling for the Deaf, Audio Description, and
Sign Language, Rodopi: Amsterdam, 175-87.
Catenazzi, Nadia and Lorenzo Sommaruga (2008) Accessibility Experiences in
SMIL, in Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hy-
permedia and Telecommunications 2008, Chesapeake, VA: AACE: 6117-25.
Discapacidades humanas (2006) DVD produced by the Fundacin ONCE and the
Productora FARO. With the support of the European Union (European Social
Fund) and the Galician Government (Xunta de Galicia).
Garcia, Ignacio (2009) Beyond Translation Memory: Computers and the Pro-
fessional Translator, JosTrans: The Journal of Specialised Translation 12:
199-214 . Available at http://www.jostrans.org/issue12/art_garcia.pdf (accessed
20 February 2011).
Hidalgo, Miguel (2007) Las preferencias de los usuarios de audiodescripciones,
in Beln Ruiz Mezcua and Francisco Utray Delgado (eds) Accesibilidad a los
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

The Audio Description of Scientifc Multimedia 436
medios audiovisuales para personas con discapacidad: AMADIS 06, Madrid:
Real Patronato sobre Discapacidad, 95-105.
Independent Television Commission (ITC) (2000) ITC Guidance on Standards for
Audio Description. Available at http://www.ofcom.org.uk/tv/if/guidance/tv_
access_serv/archive/audio_description_stnds/ (accessed 20 February 2011).
Jimnez Hurtado, Catalina (2007) De imgenes a palabras: la audiodescripcin
como una nueva modalidad de traduccin y de representacin del cono-
cimiento, in Gerd Wotjak (ed.) Quo vadis Translatologie?, Leipzig: Frank
und Timme, 143-60.
------ and Ana Rodrguez Domnguez (eds) (2008) Accesibilidad a los medios
audiovisuales para personas con discapacidad: AMADIS 07, Madrid: Real
Patronato sobre Discapacidad.
Lietsala, Katri and Esa Sirkkunen (2008) Social Media. Introduction to the Tools
and Processes of Participatory Economy, Tampere: Tampere University
Press.
Mrquez Linares, Irene (2007) Chuchotage para ciegos: un susurro ensayado,
in Catalina Jimnez Hurtado (ed.) Traduccin y accesibilidad: subtitulacin
para sordos y audiodescripcin para ciegos: nuevas modalidades de Traduc-
cin Audiovisual, Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 209-27.
Mayoral, Roberto, Dorothy Kelly and Natividad Gallardo (1998) Concept of
Constrained Translation. Non-Linguistic Perspectives of Translation, Meta
33(3): 355-67.
Moreno, Lourdes, Ana Mara Iglesias, Juan Manuel Carrero and Paloma Martnez
(2007) Subtitulado y audiodescripcin en pginas web accesibles, in Beln
Ruiz Mezcua and Francisco Utray Delgado (eds) Accesibilidad a los medios
audiovisuales para personas con discapacidad: AMADIS 06, Madrid: Real
Patronato sobre Discapacidad, 55-72.
National Geographic Society (1997) Los ritmos de la vida (The Rhythms of Life),
VHS distributed in Spain by RBA, dubbed into Spanish.
------ (1997) Los ritmos de la vida, AD VHS for members of ONCE (Spanish
Organization for the Blind), AD script by Antonio Vzquez, Aristia.
------ (1998) El cuerpo humano: la increble mquina humana (Incredible Hu-
man Machine), AD VHS for members of ONCE (Spanish Organization for
the Blind), AD script by Antonio Vzquez, Aristia.
Orero, Pilar (2005) La inclusin de la accesibilidad en comunicacin audiovisual
dentro de los estudios de traduccin audiovisual, Quaderns. Revista de tra-
ducci 12: 173-85.
------ (2007) La accesibilidad en los medios: una aproximacin multidisciplinar,
in Pilar Orero (ed.) Special issue on Media Accessibility, TRANS 11: 11-15.
Prez-Gonzlez, Luis (2006) Fansubbing Anime: Insights into the Butterfy
Effect of Globalisation on Audiovisual Translation, Perspectives: Studies in
Translatology 14(4): 260-77.
Petsko, Gregory (2008) Gregory Petsko on the coming neurological epidemic
(Video fle). Available at http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/gregory_petsko_
on_the_coming_neurological_epidemic.html (accessed 20 February 2011).
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4

Lidia Cmara and Eva Espasa 437
Piety, Philip (2003) Audio Description, A Visual Assistive Discourse: An In-
vestigation into Language Used to Provide the Visually Disabled Access to
Information in Electronic Texts, Communication, Culture, and Technology,
Washington, DC: Georgetown University.
Prieto Velasco, Juan Antonio, Mara Isabel Tercedor Snchez and Clara Ins Lpez
Rodrguez (2007) Using Multimedia Materials in the Teaching of Scientifc
and Technical Translation, Linguistica Antverpiensia 6: 115-34.
RNIB (Royal National Institute of Blind People) (2008). http://www.rnib.org.
uk/Pages/Home.aspx (accessed 20 February 2011).
Schmeidler, Emilie and Corinne Kirchner (2001) Adding Audio Description:
Does It Make a Difference?, Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness
95: 197-212.
Tercedor-Snchez, Mara Isabel and Francisco Abada Molina (2005) The Role of
Images in the Translation of Technical and Scientifc Texts, Meta 4(50). Avail-
able at http://id.erudit.org/iderudit/019857ar (accessed 20 February 2011).
Tercedor-Snchez, Mara Isabel, Clara Ins Lpez Rodrguez and Juan Antonio
Prieto Velasco (2007) Accesibilidad web a travs de la descripcin de im-
genes, in Beln Ruiz Mezcua and Francisco Utray Delgado (eds) Accesibilidad
a los medios audiovisuales para personas con discapacidad: AMADIS 06,
Madrid: Real Patronato sobre Discapacidad, 73-82.
Tercedor-Snchez, Mara Isabel and Miguel ngel Jimnez (2008) Accesibili-
dad web, imgenes y traduccin tcnica, in Catalina Jimnez Hurtado and
Ana Rodrguez Domnguez (eds) Accesibilidad a los medios audiovisuales
para personas con discapacidad: AMADIS 07, Madrid: Real Patronato sobre
Discapacidad, 129-40.
Tercedor-Snchez, Mara Isabel, Esperanza Alarcn-Navo, Juan Antonio Prieto
Velasco and Clara Ins Lpez-Rodrguez (2009) Images as Part of Technical
Translation Courses: Implications and Applications, JosTrans: The Journal
of Specialized Translation 11: 143-68. Available at http://www.jostrans.org/
issue11/art_tercedoretal.php (accessed 20 February 2011).
Utray, Francisco, Ana Mara Pereira and Pilar Orero (2009) The Present and
Future of Audio Description and Subtitling for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing
in Spain, Meta 54(2): 248-63.
Van der Heijden, Mereijn (2009) Making Film and Television Accessible to the
Blind and Visually Impaired: Research into the Function of Sound in Audio
Description. Unpublished research paper, Utrecht School of the Arts.
WCAG (Web Content Accessibility Guidelines) 2.0 (2008). http://www.w3.org/
TR/WCAG20/ (accessed 20 February 2011).
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
1
8
7
.
1
0
7
.
1
8
.
2
2
1
]

a
t

1
7
:
3
3

1
0

M
a
y

2
0
1
4