SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CHE 451: Transport Phenomena Lab 2
Summer 2013


Experiment # 4
Continuously Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)









Submitted to: Dr. Essam

Submission Date: July 6
th
, 2013

Name ID #
Moafak Sakka @00041370
Ula Aboutiman @00035366
Aliyu Usman @00042426
Fatima Rufai @00038850
Javadian farnoosh @00031560
Abstract
























Table of Contents

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... 2
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 4
Apparatus .................................................................................................................................................... 12
Procedure .................................................................................................................................................... 14
Data Collected ............................................................................................................................................. 16
Calculations and Results ............................................................................................................................. 18
Run #1: Room temperature & pump speed at 50% ................................................................................ 18
Run #2: Room temperature & pump speed at 40% ................................................................................ 20
Run #3: Room temperature & pump speed at 30% ................................................................................ 22
Run #4: Elevated temperature & pump speed at 30% ........................................................................... 24
Run #5: Elevated temperature & pump speed at 50% ........................................................................... 25
Sample Calculation ...................................................................................................................................... 29
Discussion.................................................................................................................................................... 30
Sources of errors ......................................................................................................................................... 32
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 33
References .................................................................................................................................................. 34
Appendix ..................................................................................................................................................... 36









List of Table






List of Figures















Introduction

Reactors are one of the most vital pieces of equipment in the chemical engineering
industry. These reactors are to get optimum conversion rates by tweaking other variables
such as temperature, contact surface area, stirring speed etc. There are different types of
reactors used in the industry depending on the type of application. Examples of such
reactors are the batch reactor, continuously stirred tank reactor, Plug flow reactor, packed
bed reator etc. Previously, the study of the kinetics and mode of operation of the batch
reactor was carried out but this experiment will be a continuously stirred tank reactor
(CSTR).
Continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR)
This type of reactor is used for fluid reactants. The reactants are continuously fed
through an inlet and the product leaves the vessel through the outlet. This reactor is
important in the sense that there is homogeneity of the mixture due to the stirrers. It is also
important because heat can easily be added or removed by the use of a coil or jacket. It is
also imperative that we know what the space time is for this type of reactor. The space time
is the time it takes for the fluid to remain in the reactor. This parameter is significant for
the CSTR because it is a continuous process. The schematic below shows what a typical
CSTR looks like.

Figure 1: CSTR Vessel

The saponification of ethyl acetate with sodium hydroxide to give ethanol and a salt was
carried out in the CSTR for this experiment. This experiment is a pseudo-elementary
chemical reaction in theory. The reaction for this process is shown below.
NaOH + CH3COOC2H5 CH3COO Na + C2H5OH
Firstly, we measure the conductivity of unreacted NaOH because it will be used in the
calculation of conversion. The calculations are based on that of the NaOH because its
conductivity is substantially higher than that of the other reagents involved in this
experiment, hence, making them negligible. The rate law for this reaction is as follows
which show that the reaction is second order:
R k C C
A A B
=
(1)
The steady state equation for the CSTR is shown below;
F F R V
AO A A R
+ = 0
(2)
Where:
RA : Rate of reaction
k: Rate constant
CA : Ethyl acetate concentration
CB : sodium hydroxide concentration
FAO= Ethyl acetate inlet flow rate
FA= Ethyl acetate outlet flow rate
VR = Reactor volume filled with liquid
Substituting the rate law into the design equation for the CSTR gives an expression that will
aid in determining the rate constant as shown below.
k
C C
C C
AO A
A B
=

t
(3)
Where
CAO = Ethyl acetate inlet concentration
CA = Ethyl acetate outlet concentration
CB = Sodium hydroxide outlet concentration
= Space time= VR/vo
vo = Total volumetric flow rate
As previously mentioned, space time is an important factor because it represents the time
the fluid spends in the reactor.
The reaction is monitored by measuring the conductivity of NaOH and using the following
equation.
C - C CA CA
= (4)
Co - C CAo CA

Where
C = Specific conductivity at time t
Co = Specific conductivity at time t=0
C= Specific conductivity at time t=
CA= NaOH concentration at time t
CAo = NaOH concentration at time t=0
CA = NaOH concentration at time t=

Knowing that CA 0 as t , we determine the conversion using equations below.
C A C - C
= = 1 - XA (5)
CAo Co - C

Where
XA is the fractional conversion of sodium hydroxide.
Equation (5) is manipulated so that we can get the conversion using the conductivity
instead of concentrations.

eq
A
0 eq
x 1
k k
=
k k
(7)
Where
is the measured specific conductivity at the reactor exit [Sm
-1
]
0 is the measured specific conductivity of the mixture at initial conditions [Sm
-1
]
eq is the measured specific conductivity at equilibrium [Sm
-1
]

With knowledge that the reactant fed in equimolar proportions and the conversion gotten
from equation (7), the equation below can be used to find the rate constant at any
temperature.
XA
= CAO K (8)
1 XA

A plot of plotting XA/[CAO (1-XA)] vs. is generated upon completion of calculations. This
should depict a straight line that passes through the origin with its slope being the reaction
rate constant. If the plot conforms to the above description, then it is confirmed that the
reaction is indeed a pseudo-elementary reaction.
Also, Arrhenius equation is used to calculate the reaction rate which can be compared with
the other value.
K = A e
Ea/RT
(9)
Where:
A =Pre-exponential factor or frequency factor
Ea= Activation energy in J/mole
R =Gas constant = 8.314 J/mole
o
K
T = Absolute temperature
=Space time, second
A plot of ln(k) vs. 1/T gives use the activation energy and the pre-exponential factor. The
slope is used to fing the activation energy while the intercept is used to calculate the pre-
exponential factor.
ln( ) ln( ) k
E
R T
A =
|
\

|
.
| +
1
(10)
Where:
k = specific rate constant
(E/R) = slope of the line
ln (A) = y- intercept of the line

The above equations and relations for the CSTR are all based on the assumption of
steady state. The calculations above were based on the assumption that the CSTR was
operated at steady state where variables do not change with time. Another way of carrying
out these calculations is to eliminate the assuption of steady state. The set overflow at the
beginning of the experiment enables volume (V) determination and knowing the equimolar
flow rates of the reactant Q allows calculation of space time. Since the assumption of steady
state is not applied here, the concentration of NaOH will change with time (decrease) and
also from inlet to outlet. This makes the process to become a transient one at the beginning
until it finally reaches steady state. The concentration of sodium hydroxide at the outlet
(CE) will consequently change until the new equilibrium is reached. On the other hand, the
CE is the same as the concentration of NaOH inside the vessel at a given time. The equations
that are used for the transient part of this process is as follows:
Input = output + consumption + accumulation
d (CE V)
Q Co = Q CE + (-r) V + (11)
dt

By introducing residence time into the equation, the equation becomes:
dCE
+ CE r = Co (12)
dt

Where:
= V/Q = The theoretical residence time of the reactor.





Apparatus

The apparatus used in the continuous stirred tank reactor experiment is G.U.N.T.
Gerrbau Gmbh CH 310.

Figure 2: G.U.N.T. Gerrbau Gmbh CH 310

As seen from figure (2) above, the apparatus consists of a water bath (1) that is used to
keep the reactor (2) at a constant operating temperature. The water bath temperature is
kept constant by recycling the water in the water bath. The water bath temperature is read
on the control panel temperature display (3), with the aid of a temperature sensor that
transmits a signal to the temperature controller (TC) (4), as the reactors temperature is
being controlled by an electrical heating coil inside the water bath (5). The reactor
temperature is set on the temperature control panel (6). Switches (7) & (8) are used to
switch on or off the heater and the recycling pump respectively. The feed to the reactor is
supplied from two glass tanks (9). One of the tanks contains sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
solution, while the other contains ethyl acetate solution. The apparatus also has two pumps
(10), which assist in pumping the feed of the reactant solutions from their respective tanks.
Switches (11) & (12) on the control console are used to switch on or off the pumps for the
sodium hydroxide and ethyl acetate solutions respectively. The feed flow to the reactor is
controlled by turning the potentiometers under the flow displays (13) & (14). The
conductivity of the reaction product in the reactor is measured by using the conductivity
sensor (15) with a cell constant 0.09 cm
-1
and the conductivity is read on the conductivity
display (16) on the control console. The reactors product solution is discharged directly to
the swamp tray (17) and emptied afterwards through a drain to a waste container (18).
Finally, electricity is supplied through an integral cable and turned on or off by turning the
main switch (19)












Procedure

The equipment is operated by the following step-by-step procedure:
1. 5 liters of each of 2.3 weight-% sodium hydroxide and 5 volume % ethyl acetate
solutions should be prepared and filled in the tanks specific for each solution.
2. Measure the conductivity and the temperature of each material at room
temperature.
3. Insert the conductivity-measuring sensor in the measuring opening on the lid and
connect the stirrer.
4. Supply water to the system by connecting the water hose from the heating system to
the connections on the lid placed on the reactor and to to the switch housing,
5. Connect the chemical hoses from the pumps to the tank using the rapid actor
connectors.
6. Adjust the overflow on the tank such that the measuring sensor is immersed about
50 mm in the liquid with the tank filled. Adjust the overflow pipe in preparation for
the measurements of the space time of the reactor.
7. Switch on the main switch
8. Fill the two feed vessels with water and measure the residence time at flow rates of
30%, 40% & 50% using a stopwatch.
9. Fill the two feed vessels with the prepared materials in 1
10. Switch on the chemical pumps and adjust both to the same flow rates (initially
30%).
11. Switch on the stirrer and adjust to a suitable speed.
12. Record the conductivity, reaction temperature and time of the effluent from the
reactor every 10 seconds until a steady reading is obtained.
13. Repeat the procedure for flow rates of 40% and 50%.
14. Same steps (9-12) are applied for elevated temperatures.
15. Stop the NaOH & ethyl acetate flow.
16. Turn off the pumps, empty and rinse the reactor and feed tanks with water


















Data Collected

Table 1: Data collected for run #1

Time (sec) Specific Conductivity (mS/cm) Temperature
0
C
Space Time 83 0.15 27.4

10 6.65 28.2
20 6.40 28.3
30 6.32 28.4
40 6.24 28.4
50 6.23 28.5
60 6.28 28.5
70 6.23 28.6
80 6.29 28.6
90 6.26 28.7
100 6.29 28.7


Table 2: Data collected for run #2
Time (sec)
Specific Conductivity
(mS/cm)
Temperature (
o
C)
10 6.88 28.9
20 6.62 29
30 6.64 29
40 6.46 29
50 6.44 29.1
60 6.44 29
70 6.38 29.1
80 6.29 29.1
90 6.37 29.1
100 6.32 29.1


Table 3: Data collected for Run #3











Table 4: Data collected for run #5
Time (sec)
Specific
Conductivity
(mS/cm)
Temperature (
o
C)
10 6.13 33.9
20 5.84 34.2
30 5.82 34.5
40 5.64 34.8
50 5.6 35
60 5.57 35.2
70 5.46 35.3
80 5.37 35.5
90 5.35 35.7
100 5.42 35.7



Time (s) Conductivity (mS/cm) Temperature (
o
C)
Space Time
96 0.03 28.8
10 6.48 29.1
20 6.39 29.2
30 6.30 29.2
40 6.26 29.2
50 6.19 29.2
60 6.17 29.2
70 6.17 29.2
80 6.13 29.2
90 6.13 29.2
100 6.15 29.2
Calculations and Results

Table 5 : Data Collected before operation
Volume of the CSTR (mL) 1086
Specific conductivity (NaOH) mS/cm 19.1
Cell Constant (1/cm) 0.09
CA0 Ethyl Acetate 0.5502

Table 6: Space Time Data
Pump speed % Space time (sec)
30 100
40 83
50 79



Run #1: Room temperature & pump speed at 50%

Table 7 : Calculations for run #1
Time
(sec)
Specific Conductivity
(mS/cm)
Conductivity
(mS)
XA Xa/((1-Xa)*Ca0)
Temperature
0
C
83 0.15 1.6667 0.9968 574.0331 27.4
10 6.65 73.8889 0.6549 3.4494 28.2
20 6.40 71.1111 0.6681 3.6581 28.3
30 6.32 70.2222 0.6723 3.7284 28.4
40 6.24 69.3333 0.6765 3.8005 28.4
50 6.23 69.2222 0.6770 3.8097 28.5
60 6.28 69.7778 0.6744 3.7642 28.5
70 6.23 69.2222 0.6770 3.8097 28.6
80 6.29 69.8889 0.6739 3.7552 28.6
90 6.26 69.5556 0.6754 3.7823 28.7
100 6.29 69.8889 0.6739 3.7552 28.7



Figure 3: Conversion Vs. Time for run #1



Figure 4: Conductivity Vs. Time for run #1


0.6500
0.6550
0.6600
0.6650
0.6700
0.6750
0.6800
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Xa
Time (Sec)
Conversion Vs. Time
68.0000
69.0000
70.0000
71.0000
72.0000
73.0000
74.0000
75.0000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Conductivity (mS)
Time (Sec)
Conductivity Vs. Time

Figure 5: Temperature Vs. Time for run #1

Run #2: Room temperature & pump speed at 40%

Table 8 : Calculations for run #2
Time
(sec)
Specific Conductivity
(mS/cm)
Temperature
(
o
C)
Conductivity
(mS)
xa
Xa/((1-
Xa)*Ca0)

10 6.88 28.9 76.44444444 0.62712795
3.27100227
20 6.62 29 73.55555556 0.64140582
3.47360809
30 6.64 29 73.77777778 0.64030752
3.45745197
40 6.46 29 71.77777778 0.6501922
3.60650929
50 6.44 29.1 71.55555556 0.6512905
3.62359285
60 6.44 29 71.55555556 0.6512905
3.62359285
70 6.38 29.1 70.88888889 0.65458539
3.67549537
80 6.29 29.1 69.88888889 0.65952773
3.7552327
90 6.37 29.1 70.77777778 0.65513454
3.68424221
100 6.32 29.1 70.22222222 0.65788029
3.72839761
28.1
28.2
28.3
28.4
28.5
28.6
28.7
28.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Temperature
0
C
Time (Sec)
Temperature Vs. Time

Figure 6: Conversion vs. Time for run #2



Figure 7: Conductivity vs. time for run #2

0.64
0.645
0.65
0.655
0.66
0.665
0.67
0.675
0.68
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
X
a

Time (sec)
Conversion vs Time
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
C
(
m
S
)

Time(secs)
Conductivity vs Time

Figure 8: Temperature Vs. Time for run #2

Run #3: Room temperature & pump speed at 30%

Table 9 : Calculations for run #3
Time
(s)
Specific Conductivity
(mS/cm)
Temperature
(
o
C)
Conductivity
(mS)
xa xa/Cao(1-xa)
10 6.48 29.1 72.0000 0.6654 3.4294
20 6.39 29.2 71.0000 0.6702 3.5030
30 6.30 29.2 70.0000 0.6749 3.5788
40 6.26 29.2 69.5556 0.6770 3.6131
50 6.19 29.2 68.7778 0.6806 3.6744
60 6.17 29.2 68.5556 0.6817 3.6922
70 6.17 29.2 68.5556 0.6817 3.6922
80 6.13 29.2 68.1111 0.6838 3.7280
90 6.13 29.2 68.1111 0.6838 3.7280
100 6.15 29.2 68.3333 0.6827 3.7100

28.85
28.9
28.95
29
29.05
29.1
29.15
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
o
C
)

Time (secs)
Temperature vs Time

Figure 9: Conversion Vs. Time for run #3


Figure 10: Conductivity Vs. Time for run #3

0.6600
0.6625
0.6650
0.6675
0.6700
0.6725
0.6750
0.6775
0.6800
0.6825
0.6850
0.6875
0.6900
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
X
a

Time (s)
Conversion Vs. Time
67.5000
68.0000
68.5000
69.0000
69.5000
70.0000
70.5000
71.0000
71.5000
72.0000
72.5000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
C
o
n
d
u
c
t
i
v
i
t
y

(
m
S
)

Time (s)
Conductivity Vs. Time

Figure 11: Temperature Vs. Time for run #3



Run #4: Elevated temperature & pump speed at 30%











29.08
29.1
29.12
29.14
29.16
29.18
29.2
29.22
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
o
C
)

Time (s)
Temperature Vs. Time
Run #5: Elevated temperature & pump speed at 50%

Table 10 : Calculations for run #5
Time
(sec)
Specific
Conductivity
(mS/cm)
Temperature
(oC)
Conductivity
(mS)
Xa xa/Cao(1-xa)
10 6.13 33.9 68.11 0.332 0.84640141
20 5.84 34.2 64.89 0.316 0.78814066
30 5.82 34.5 64.67 0.315 0.78421647
40 5.64 34.8 62.67 0.305 0.74942355
50 5.6 35 62.22 0.303 0.74181779
60 5.57 35.2 61.89 0.301 0.73614298
70 5.46 35.3 60.67 0.295 0.71554892
80 5.37 35.5 59.67 0.290 0.69894467
90 5.35 35.7 59.44 0.289 0.69528436
100 5.42 35.7 60.22 0.293 0.70814228




Figure 12: Conversion Vs. Time for run #5
0.27
0.275
0.28
0.285
0.29
0.295
0.3
0.305
0.31
0.315
0.32
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
X
a

Time (sec)
Conversion vs Time

Figure 13: Conductivity vs. time for run #5



Figure 14: Temperature Vs. Time for run #5



58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
C
(
m
S
)

Time(secs)
Conductivity vs Time
33.8
34
34.2
34.4
34.6
34.8
35
35.2
35.4
35.6
35.8
36
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
o
C
)

Time (secs)
Temperature vs Time
Table 11: Data used to determine the Rate constant at room temperature
Room Temperature

Pump speed % Space time (sec) Xa/((1-Xa)*Ca0)
30 100 3.71
40 83 3.278
50 79 3.755



Figure 15 : Xa/((1-Xa)*Ca0) vs. Space Time

From the Slope the value of K = 0.0422 M
-1
. Sec
-1





y = 0.0422x
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 101
X
a
/
(
(
1
-
X
a
)
*
C
a
0
)

(
1
/
M
)

(sec)
Xa/((1-Xa)*Ca0) vs. Space Time
Table 12: Data used to determine the Rate constant at elevated temperature
Elevated Temperature

Pump speed % Space time (sec) Xa/((1-Xa)*Ca0)
30 100

50 79





















Sample Calculation

Run #1:
Cell constant= 0.09

Specific conductivity of NaOH = 19.1

At Time = 20 sec
Conductivity (K) at 20s =


= 71.111 mS
K
0
=


= 212.222 mS
K
inf
= 1 mS
K = conductivity at time 20 sec
Xa=

= 0.6681

= C
ao
* K*
Density of ethyl acetate= 0.897

Molecular weight of ethyl acetate = 88.11

380 ml in 6.65 L of H
2
0
Mass of ethyl acetate= 0.897

* 380 ml =340.86 g
Moles=

= 3.868 moles
C
A0
of ethyl acetate=


= 0.0005502

= 0.5502

Slope = K = 0.0442

Discussion

Conversion Vs. Time
Figure 2 at the beginning of the reaction there is a fast increase in the rate conversion and after
50 second the conversion will fluctuate around 0.677 and 0.673 and it never reached a steady
value because the value of the temperature kept increasing and it wasnt steady.
Figure 5 shows a curve that is rapidly increasing. This is just as expected because the longer the
reactant spend in the vessel, the more the reactants are in contact with each other and hence an
increase in the degree of conversion.
Figure 12 displays a curve with an unsteady increase of conversion with respect to time at an
elevated temperature of 44.5
o
C. The unsteady increase is as a result of the system trying to attain
steady state while the reactants try to achieve perfect mixing with respect to time.

.


Conductivity Vs. Time
On Figure 3 the conductivity with time decreased in an exponential fashion, one reason behind
that due to the fact that most of the NaOH reacted with Ethel acetate and the amount of the
hydroxyl ions decreased in the solution.
(Figure 6) rapidly decreasing. This pattern is logical because as more and more NaOH reacts
with ethyl acetate, the quantity of NaOH in the reactor decreases, therefore, the conductivity will
decrease.
As seen from Figure 13,at an elevated temperature 44.5
o
C, conductivity decreases with time.
This decreasing pattern is due to the fact that the hydroxyl ions in the NaoH react with the ethyl
acetate for the reaction to carry out, thus, leading to a decrease in the hydroxyl ions present in the
reactant solution




Temperature Vs. Time
Figure 4 shows that the temperature increases with time however its not increasing in an
exponential fashion and it did not reached to a steady value but it kept fluctuation. This illustrate
that the 50% speed pump is not a good choice because it didnt affect the temperature only but tit
affected the conversion only.
Lastly the temperature vs. Time plot (Figure 7) spikes up at the beginning, then it decreases a
little and then it becomes constant. The explanation for these depictions of the graph is that the
increase in the temperature is attributed to the heat released when the reaction occurred, the
decrease might be as a result of heat losses, and the stabilizing of the line is probably because the
heating coil served its function in the end by keeping the temperature constant.
Figure14 shows an almost steady temperature increase with time. The steady temperature increase is
due to the fact that the system receives the heat of the reaction being released(exothermic reaction) in
a gradual manner and as such, a steady increase in temperature with time.







Sources of errors

Some of limitations that effect the obtaining of data are caused by the size of the reactor,
which in this case the reactor used is only capable of performing small scale experiments that are
under atmospheric pressure.
Another limitation is made by the conductivity meter that has some second delay, which
will affect the real value of conductivity. The overflow level of the reactors tank is another error;
this happens when the solution overfills the reactor which causes change in the space time and the
conductivity meter, that will result in a false value. This problem can be solved by enlarging the
overflow hole which use to bends the pipe and closes up and stop the overflow from happening.
The human errors is another limitation, which means that while reading the stop watch and
communicating with the person taking notes some values can be read or written wrongly (parallax
error.)
Also there might be some inaccuracy while preparing the feed solution for the reactor; this will affect the
stoichimetric ratios of the substances used.
If the amount of the solution is not enough in one of the runs, the experiment must be
stopped, so it is better to check the reactants levels before the runs and fill them if needed. But in
case the tanks run was stopped under this condition its is best to do the run all over again to get
the correct values.
The most important errors is that the thermostat also has a default in its design since only a
small part of the coil is merged from the top inside the tank; the solution cannot be heated exactly
to the temperature required. This problem can be solved by using Dr.Essams idea and designing
the coil from the bottom of the tank.
Conclusion
























References

CHE 451: Chemical Engineering Laboratory II Handout, American University of Sharjah.
Material safety data sheet ethyl acetate msds. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9927165
Material safety data sheet ethyl alcohol 200 proof msds. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9923955
Material safety data sheet sodium acetate anhydrous msds. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9924952 (Sodium Acetate)
Material safety data sheet sodium hydroxide, pellets, reagent acs msds. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9924997
Saponification. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saponification
Wikipedia [Print Photo]. Retrieved from:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Agitated_vessel.svg/350p
x-Agitated_vessel.svg.png
S. Bhaduri & D. Mukesh, Homogeneous Catalysis: Mechanism and Industrial Applications.
New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2000. Available: google e-book.
[2] H. Fogler, Elements of Chemical Reaction Engineering. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2006.























Appendix