Cryptography and

Applications
PHAM VAN HAU ( PVHAU@HCMI U. EDU.VN)
SCHOOL OF COMPUTER SCI ENCE AND ENGI NEERI NG-
I NTERNATI ONAL UNI VERSI TY
The History of Cryptography
Cryptography has roots that
begin around 2000 B.C. in Egypt
used to decorate tombs to tell
the life story of the deceased
not so much about hiding the
messages themselves; rather, the
hieroglyphics were intended to
make the life story seem more
noble, ceremonial, and majestic
Some Basic Terminology
plaintext - original message
ciphertext - coded message
cipher - algorithm for transforming plaintext to ciphertext
key - info used in cipher known only to sender/receiver
encipher (encrypt) - converting plaintext to ciphertext
decipher (decrypt) - recovering ciphertext from plaintext
cryptography - study of encryption principles/methods
cryptanalysis (codebreaking) - study of principles/
methods of deciphering ciphertext without knowing key
cryptology - field of both cryptography and cryptanalysis
3
Classical Substitution Ciphers
where letters of plaintext are replaced by other letters or by
numbers or symbols
or if plaintext is viewed as a sequence of bits, then substitution
involves replacing plaintext bit patterns with ciphertext bit patterns
4
Caesar Cipher
earliest known substitution cipher
by Julius Caesar
first attested use in military affairs
replaces each letter by 3rd letter on
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w
x y z
D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A
B C
example:
meet me after the toga party
PHHW PH DIWHU WKH WRJD SDUWB
5
Caesar Cipher
mathematically give each letter a number
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y
z
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25
then have Caesar cipher as:
c = E(p) = (p + k) mod (26)
p = D(c) = (c k) mod (26)
6
Cryptanalysis of Caesar Cipher
only have 26 possible ciphers
A maps to A,B,..Z
could simply try each in turn
given ciphertext, just try all shifts of letters
do need to recognize when have plaintext
eg. break ciphertext "GCUA VQ DTGCM"
7
More substitution ciphers
Mono-alphabetic Cipher
Playfair Cipher
Polyalphabetic Cipher
Vigenre Cipher
Autokey Cipher
One Time Pad
Monoalphabetic Cipher
rather than just shifting the alphabet
could shuffle (jumble) the letters arbitrarily
each plaintext letter maps to a different random
ciphertext letter
hence key is 26 letters long
Plain: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Cipher: DKVQFIBJWPESCXHTMYAUOLRGZN
Plaintext: ifwewishtoreplaceletters
Ciphertext: WIRFRWAJUHYFTSDVFSFUUFYA
9
Monoalphabetic Cipher
Security
now have a total of 26! = 4 x 1026 keys
with so many keys, might think is secure
but would be !!!WRONG!!!
problem is language characteristics
10
The Strength of the
Cryptosystem
The strength (work factor): an estimate of the effort and resources it
would take an attacker to penetrate a cryptosystem
strength of an encryption method comes from
the algorithm,
the secrecy of the key,
the length of the key,
the initialization vectors,
how they all work together within the cryptosystem
Cryptanalysis
letters are not equally commonly used
in English E is by far the most common letter
followed by T,R,N,I,O,A,S
other letters like Z,J,K,Q,X are fairly rare
have tables of single, double & triple letter frequencies
for various languages
12
English Letter Frequencies
13
Use in Cryptanalysis
key concept - monoalphabetic substitution ciphers do not
change relative letter frequencies
discovered by Arabian scientists in 9
th
century
calculate letter frequencies for ciphertext
compare counts/plots against known values
if caesar cipher look for common peaks/troughs
peaks at: A-E-I triple, NO pair, RST triple
troughs at: JK, X-Z
for monoalphabetic must identify each letter
tables of common double/triple letters help
14
Example Cryptanalysis
given ciphertext:
UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZ
VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX
EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ
count relative letter frequencies (see text)
guess P & Z are e and t
guess ZW is th and hence ZWP is the
proceeding with trial and error finally get:
it was disclosed yesterday that several informal but
direct contacts have been made with political
representatives of the viet cong in moscow
15
Playfair Cipher
not even the large number of keys in a monoalphabetic cipher
provides security
one approach to improving security was to encrypt multiple letters
the Playfair Cipher is an example
invented by Charles Wheatstone in 1854, but named after his
friend Baron Playfair
16
Playfair Key Matrix
a 5X5 matrix of letters based
on a keyword
fill in letters of keyword (sans
duplicates)
fill rest of matrix with other
letters
eg. using the keyword
MONARCHY
17
Z X W V U
T S Q P L
K I/J G F E
D B Y H C
R A N O M
Encrypting and Decrypting
plaintext is encrypted two letters at a time
1. if a pair is a repeated letter, insert filler like 'X
2. if both letters fall in the same row, replace each with letter to right
(wrapping back to start from end)
3. if both letters fall in the same column, replace each with the letter
below it (again wrapping to top from bottom)
4. otherwise each letter is replaced by the letter in the same row and in
the column of the other letter of the pair
18
Example
Encryption of the Hello world message
Step 1: split into two letter tokken:
Hello world= he ll ow or ld
Step 2: Encrypt each two letter tokken
19
Security of Playfair Cipher
security much improved over monoalphabetic
since have 26 x 26 = 676 digrams
would need a 676 entry frequency table to analyse
(verses 26 for a monoalphabetic)
and correspondingly more ciphertext
was widely used for many years
eg. by US & British military in WW1
it can be broken, given a few hundred letters
since still has much of plaintext structure
20
Polyalphabetic Ciphers
polyalphabetic substitution ciphers
improve security using multiple cipher alphabets
make cryptanalysis harder with more alphabets to guess
and flatter frequency distribution
use a key to select which alphabet is used for each letter
of the message
use each alphabet in turn
repeat from start after end of key is reached
21
Vigenre Cipher
simplest polyalphabetic substitution cipher
effectively multiple caesar ciphers
key is multiple letters long K = k
1
k
2
... k
d
i
th
letter specifies i
th
alphabet to use
use each alphabet in turn
repeat from start after d letters in message
decryption simply works in reverse
22
Example of Vigenre Cipher
write the plaintext out
write the keyword repeated above it
use each key letter as a caesar cipher key
encrypt the corresponding plaintext letter
eg using keyword deceptive
key: deceptivedeceptivedeceptive
plaintext: wearediscoveredsaveyourself
ciphertext:ZICVTWQNGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ
23
Security of Vigenre Ciphers
have multiple ciphertext letters for each plaintext letter
hence letter frequencies are obscured
but not totally lost
start with letter frequencies
see if look monoalphabetic or not
if not, then need to determine number of alphabets, since then can
attach each
24
Kasiski Method
method developed by Babbage / Kasiski
repetitions in ciphertext give clues to period
so find same plaintext an exact period apart
which results in the same ciphertext
of course, could also be random fluke
eg repeated VTW in previous example
suggests size of 3 or 9
then attack each monoalphabetic cipher individually
using same techniques as before
25
Autokey Cipher
ideally want a key as long as the message
Vigenre proposed the autokey cipher
with keyword is prefixed to message as key
knowing keyword can recover the first few letters
use these in turn on the rest of the message
but still have frequency characteristics to attack
eg. given key deceptive
key: deceptivewearediscoveredsav
plaintext: wearediscoveredsaveyourself
ciphertext:ZICVTWQNGKZEIIGASXSTSLVVWLA
26
One-Time Pad
if a truly random key as long as the message is used, the
cipher will be secure
called a One-Time pad
is unbreakable since ciphertext bears no statistical
relationship to the plaintext
since for any plaintext & any ciphertext there exists a key
mapping one to other
can only use the key once though
problems in generation & safe distribution of key
27
Transposition Ciphers
now consider classical transposition or permutation ciphers
these hide the message by rearranging the letter order
without altering the actual letters used
can recognise these since have the same frequency distribution as
the original text
28
Rail Fence cipher
write message letters out diagonally over a number of
rows
then read off cipher row by row
eg. write message out as:
m e m a t r h t g p r y
e t e f e t e o a a t
giving ciphertext
MEMATRHTGPRYETEFETEOAAT
29
Row Transposition Ciphers
a more complex transposition
write letters of message out in rows over a specified number of
columns
then reorder the columns according to some key before reading off
the rows
Key: 4 3 1 2 5 6 7
Plaintext: a t t a c k p
o s t p o n e
d u n t i l t
w o a m x y z
Ciphertext: TTNAAPTMTSUOAODWCOIXKNLYPETZ
30
scytale cipher
Around 400 B.C., the Spartans
would write a message on a sheet
of papyrus (a type of paper) that
was wrapped around a staff (a
stick or wooden rod), which was
then delivered and wrapped
around a different staff by the
recipient. The message was only
readable if it was wrapped around
the correct size staff, which made
the letters properly match up
Enigma Code Machine
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hb44bGY2KdU
Product Ciphers
ciphers using substitutions or transpositions are not
secure because of language characteristics
hence consider using several ciphers in succession to
make harder, but:
two substitutions make a more complex substitution
two transpositions make more complex transposition
but a substitution followed by a transposition makes a new
much harder cipher
this is bridge from classical to modern ciphers
33
Symmetric Cryptography
Block and Stream Ciphers
BLOCK CIPHERS WORK ON
BLOCKS OF BITS
STREAM CIPHERS, WHICH WORK
ON ONE BIT AT A TIME
Initialization Vectors
Random values that are used with algorithms to ensure patterns are not
created during the encryption process.
(If IVs are not used, then two identical plaintext values that are
encrypted with the same key will create the same ciphertext. )
They are used with keys
Do not need to be encrypted when being sent to the destination.
Key Distribution
given parties A and B have various key distribution
alternatives:
1. A can select key and physically deliver to B
2. third party can select & deliver key to A & B
3. if A & B have communicated previously can use previous
key to encrypt a new key
4. if A & B have secure communications with a third party C,
C can relay key between A & B
Strengths and Weaknesses
Strengths
Much faster (less computationally intensive) than asymmetric
systems.
Hard to break if using a large key size.
Weaknesses
Requires a secure mechanism to deliver keys properly.
Each pair of users needs a unique key, so as the number of individuals
increases, so does the number of keys, possibly making key
management overwhelming.
Provides confidentiality but not authenticity or nonrepudiation
Types of Symmetric Systems
Data Encryption Standard (DES)
3DES (Triple DES)
Blowfish
Twofish
IDEA (International Data Encryption Algorithm)
RC4, RC5, RC6
AES (Advanced Encryption Standard)
SAFER (Secure and Fast Encryption Routine)
Serpent
Asymmetric Cryptography
RSA
by Rivest, Shamir & Adleman of MIT in 1977
best known & widely used public-key scheme
based on exponentiation in a finite (Galois) field over
integers modulo a prime
nb. exponentiation takes O((log n)
3
) operations (easy)
uses large integers (eg. 1024 bits)
security due to cost of factoring large numbers
nb. factorization takes O(e
log n log log n
) operations (hard)
Ideas...
Given a big number n, a message M (that is converted to
integer value), if we can choose e and d that satisfy the
following conditions:
C=M
e
mod n for all M<n
M=C
d
mod n=M
ed
mod n
or M
ed
M mod n (denote M
ed
conguence M modulo n)
It is infeasible to dermine d given e and n.
How RSA Works
Given two primes p, q, and two integers m, n, such that n=p.q
and 0<m<n, an arbitrary integer k. Because of Euler's
Theorem:
m
(n)*k+1
m mod n (1)
in which, the totient (n) of a positive
integer n is defined to be the number of
positive integers less than or equal to n that
are coprime to n. (9)=6 since the six numbers
1, 2, 4, 5, 7 and 8 are coprime to 9
We can have m
ed
m mod n, if
ed=(n)*k+1 or ed 1 mod (n)
according to rules of modular arithmetic, this
happens only if e (and therefore d) is
relative prime to (n). Or gcd((n),e)=1
Since p, q are two primes, we have
(n)=(p-1)(q-1), it is easy to have e, and d
RSA Key Setup
each user generates a public/private key pair by:
selecting two large primes at random - p, q
computing their system modulus n=p.q
note (n)=(p-1)(q-1)
selecting at random the encryption key e
where 1<e<(n), gcd(e,(n))=1
solve following equation to find decryption key d
e.d 1 mod (n) and 0dn
publish their public encryption key: PU={e,n}
keep secret private decryption key: PR={d,n}
RSA Use
to encrypt a message M the sender:
obtains public key of recipient PU={e,n}
computes: C = M
e
mod n, where 0M<n
to decrypt the ciphertext C the owner:
uses their private key PR={d,n}
computes: M = C
d
mod n
note that the message M must be smaller than the
modulus n (block if needed)
RSA Example - Key Setup
Select primes: p=17 & q=11
Compute n = pq =17 x 11=187
Compute (n)=(p1)(q-1)=16 x 10=160
Select e: gcd(e,160)=1; choose e=7
Determine d: de 1 mod 160 and d < 160 Value is
d=23 since 23x7=161= 10x160+1
Publish public key PU={7,187}
Keep secret private key PR={23,187}
RSA Example - En/Decryption
sample RSA encryption/decryption is:
given message M = 88 (nb. 88<187)
encryption:
C = 88
7
mod 187 = 11
decryption:
M = 11
23
mod 187 = 88
RSA Security
possible approaches to attacking RSA are:
brute force key search (infeasible given big size of keys)
mathematical attacks (based on difficulty of computing
(n), by factoring modulus n)
timing attacks (on running of decryption)
Factoring Problem
mathematical approach takes 3 forms:
factor n=p.q, hence compute (n) and then d
determine (n) directly and compute d
find d directly
currently believe all equivalent to factoring
Cryptanalysis have seen slow improvements over the years
currently assume 1024-2048 bit RSA is secure
ensure p, q of similar size and matching other constraints
Timing Attacks
developed by Paul Kocher in mid-1990s
exploit timing variations in operations
eg. multiplying by small vs large number
or IF's varying which instructions executed
infer operand size based on time taken
RSA exploits time taken in exponentiation
countermeasures
use constant exponentiation time
add random delays
blind values used in calculations
Strengths and Weaknesses
Strengths
Better key distribution than symmetric systems
Better scalability than symmetric systems
Can provide authentication and nonrepudiation
Weaknesses
Works much more slowly than symmetric systems
Mathematically intensive tasks
Key Management
public-key encryption helps address key distribution
problems
have two aspects of this:
distribution of public keys
use of public-key encryption to distribute secret keys
Distribution of Public Keys
can be considered as using one of:
public announcement
publicly available directory
public-key authority
public-key certificates
Public Announcement
users distribute public keys to recipients or broadcast
to community at large
eg. append PGP keys to email messages or post to news
groups or email list
major weakness is forgery
anyone can create a key claiming to be someone else and
broadcast it
until forgery is discovered can masquerade as claimed
user
Publicly Available Directory
can obtain greater security by registering keys with a
public directory
directory must be trusted with properties:
contains {name,public-key} entries
participants register securely with directory
participants can replace key at any time
directory is periodically published
directory can be accessed electronically
still vulnerable to tampering or forgery
Public-Key Authority
improve security by tightening control over
distribution of keys from directory
has properties of directory
and requires users to know public key for the
directory
then users interact with directory to obtain any
desired public key securely
does require real-time access to directory when keys are
needed
Public-Key Authority
Public-Key Certificates
certificates allow key exchange without real-time
access to public-key authority
a certificate binds identity to public key
usually with other info such as period of validity, rights of
use etc
with all contents signed by a trusted Public-Key or
Certificate Authority (CA)
can be verified by anyone who knows the public-key
authorities public-key
Public-Key Certificates
Public-key infrastructure (PKI)
A public-key infrastructure (PKI) is a set of hardware, software, people,
policies, and procedures needed to create, manage, distribute, use,
store, and revoke digital certificates
PKI is an arrangement that binds public keys with respective user
identities by means of a certificate authority (CA)
Differences Between Symmetric
and Asymmetric Systems
Attribute Symmetric Asymmetric
Keys One key is shared between
two or more entities
One entity has a public key,
and the other entity has the
corresponding private key.
Key exchange Out-of-band through secure
mechanisms.
A public key is made available
to everyone, and a private key
is kept secret by the owner.
Speed Algorithm is less complex
and faster.
The algorithm is more
complex and slower.
Use Bulk encryption, which
means encrypting files and
communication paths.
Key distribution and digital
signatures.
Security service
provided
Confidentiality. Authentication and
nonrepudiation
Types of Asymmetric Systems
The Diffie-Hellman Algorithm
RSA
El Gamal
Elliptic Curve Cryptosystems
LUC
Knapsack
Zero Knowledge Proof
Hybrid Encryption Methods
Public-Key Distribution of Secret Keys
use previous methods to obtain public-key
can use for secrecy or authentication
but public-key algorithms are slow
so usually want to use private-key encryption to
protect message contents
hence need a session key
have several alternatives for negotiating a suitable
session
Simple Secret Key Distribution
proposed by Merkle in 1979
A generates a new temporary public key pair
A sends B the public key and their identity
B generates a session key K sends it to A encrypted using
the supplied public key
A decrypts the session key and both use
problem is that an opponent can intercept and
impersonate both halves of protocol
Public-Key Distribution of Secret Keys
if have securely exchanged public-keys:
Hybrid Key Distribution
retain use of private-key KDC
shares secret master key with each user
distributes session key using master key
public-key used to distribute master keys
especially useful with widely distributed users
rationale
performance
backward compatibility
Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
first public-key type scheme proposed
by Diffie & Hellman in 1976 along with the exposition
of public key concepts
note: now know that Williamson (UK CESG) secretly
proposed the concept in 1970
is a practical method for public exchange of a secret
key
used in a number of commercial products
Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
a public-key distribution scheme
cannot be used to exchange an arbitrary message
rather it can establish a common key
known only to the two participants
value of key depends on the participants (and their private
and public key information)
based on exponentiation in a finite (Galois) field (modulo a
prime or a polynomial) - easy
security relies on the difficulty of computing discrete
logarithms (similar to factoring) hard
Diffie-Hellman Setup
all users agree on global parameters:
large prime integer or polynomial q
a being a primitive root mod q
each user (eg. A) generates their key
chooses a secret key (number): x
A
< q
compute their public key: y
A
= a
x
A
mod q
each user makes public that key y
A
Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
shared session key for users A & B is K
AB
:
K
AB
= a
x
A.
x
B
mod q
= y
A
x
B
mod q (which B can compute)
= y
B
x
A
mod q (which A can compute)
K
AB
is used as session key in private-key encryption scheme
between Alice and Bob
if Alice and Bob subsequently communicate, they will have the
same key as before, unless they choose new public-keys
attacker needs an x, must solve discrete log
Diffie-Hellman Example
users Alice & Bob who wish to swap keys:
agree on prime q=353 and a=3
select random secret keys:
A chooses x
A
=97, B chooses x
B
=233
compute respective public keys:
y
A
=3
97
mod 353 = 40 (Alice)
y
B
=3
233
mod 353 = 248 (Bob)
compute shared session key as:
K
AB
= y
B
x
A
mod 353 = 248
97
= 160 (Alice)
K
AB
= y
A
x
B
mod 353 = 40
233
= 160 (Bob)
Key Exchange Protocols
users could create random private/public D-H keys
each time they communicate
users could create a known private/public D-H key
and publish in a directory, then consulted and used
to securely communicate with them
both of these are vulnerable to a meet-in-the-
Middle Attack
authentication of the keys is needed
Kerckhoffs Principle
Auguste Kerckhoffs published a paper in 1883 stating that
the only secrecy involved with a cryptography system should be the key.
algorithm should be publicly known.
if security were based on too many secrets, there would be more
vulnerabilities to possibly exploit.
Hash Functions
condenses arbitrary message to fixed size
h = H(M)
usually assume that the hash function is public and not keyed
hash used to detect changes to message
can use in various ways with message
most often to create a digital signature
Requirements for Hash
Functions
can be applied to any sized message M
produces fixed-length output h
is easy to compute h=H(M) for any message M
given h is infeasible to find x s.t. H(x)=h
one-way property
given x is infeasible to find y s.t. H(y)=H(x)
weak collision resistance
is infeasible to find any x,y s.t. H(y)=H(x)
strong collision resistance
Various Hashing Algorithms
MD2
MD4
MD5
SHA
SHA-1
SHA-2 family: SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA-512
HAVAL
Tiger
Attacks Against One-Way Hash
Functions
If the algorithm does produce the same value for two distinctly different
messages, this is called a collision
An attacker can attempt to force a collision, which is referred to as a
birthday attack
How many people must be in the same room for the chance to be
greater than even that another person has the same birthday as you?
Answer: 253
How many people must be in the same room for the chance to be
greater than even that at least two people share the same birthday?
Answer: 23
Message Authentication Code
(MAC)
generated by an algorithm that creates a small fixed-sized block
depending on both message and some key
like encryption though need not be reversible
appended to message as a signature
receiver performs same computation on message and checks it
matches the MAC
provides assurance that message is unaltered and comes from sender
HMAC
CBC-MAC
Cryptosystems
A cryptosystem is made up of at least the following:
Software
Protocols
Algorithms
Keys
Services of Cryptosystems
Confidentiality Renders the information unintelligible except by
authorized
entities.
Integrity Data has not been altered in an unauthorized manner since it
was created, transmitted, or stored.
Authentication Verifies the identity of the user or system that created
information.
Nonrepudiation Ensures that the sender cannot deny sending the
message.
Digital signature for a message
Link Encryption vs. End-to-End
Encryption
Link encryption encrypts all the data (except data link control messaging
information) along a specific communication path, as in a satellite link,
T3 line, or telephone circuit
end-to-end encryption happens within the applications
SSL encryption takes place at the transport layer.
HTTP Secure
HTTP Secure (HTTPS) is HTTP running over SSL (developed by Netscape)
SSL :
it is not an open-community protocol
works at the transport layer
uses public key encryption
provides data encryption, server authentication, message integrity, and
optional client authentication
The open-community version of SSL is Transport Layer Security (TLS)
Pretty Good Privacy
Freeware e-mail security program and was released in 1991
PGP is a complete cryptosystem that uses cryptographic protection to
protect e-mail and files.
It can use RSA public key encryption for key management and use
IDEA symmetric cipher for bulk encryption of data
PGP uses web of trust in its key management approach
Secure Shell
SSH is a program and a set of protocols that work together to provide a
secure tunnel between two computers.
The two computers go through a handshaking process and exchange
(via Diffie-Hellman) a session key that will be used during the session to
encrypt and protect the data sent
SSH should be used instead of Telnet, FTP, rlogin, rexec, or rsh
Internet Protocol Security
(IPSec)
IPSec uses two basic security protocols: Authentication Header (AH)
and Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP).
AH is the authenticating protocol
ESP is an authenticating and encrypting protocol that uses
cryptographic mechanisms to provide source authentication,
confidentiality, and message integrity
IPSec can work in one of two modes:
transport mode, in which the payload of the message is protected
tunnel mode, in which the payload and the routing and header information
are protected
Attacks
Cipher-Only Attacks
Known-Plaintext Attacks
Chosen-Plaintext Attacks
Chosen-Ciphertext Attacks
Differential Cryptanalysis
Side-Channel Attacks
Replay Attacks
Steganography
an alternative to encryption
hides existence of message
using only a subset of letters/words in a longer message marked in
some way
using invisible ink
hiding in graphic image or sound file
has drawbacks
high overhead to hide relatively few info bits
91
Example
92
Removing all but the last 2 bits of each color component produces an almost
completely black image. Making that image 85 times brighter produces the image
on the right hand-side
.
93
Jane S., a chief sub editor and editor, can always be found
hard at work in her cubicle. Jane works independently, without
wasting company time talking to colleagues. She never
thinks twice about assisting fellow employees, and she always
finishes given assignments on time. Often Jane takes extended
measures to complete her work, sometimes skipping
coffee breaks. She is a dedicated individual who has absolutely no
vanity in spite of her high accomplishments and profound
knowledge in her field. I firmly believe that Jane can be
classed as a high-caliber employee, the type which cannot be
dispensed with. Consequently, I duly recommend that Jane be
promoted to executive management, and a proposal will be
sent away as soon as possible.
Project Leader
Example 2: Letter of Recommendation
Jane S., a chief sub editor and editor, can always be found
hard at work in her cubicle. Jane works independently, without
wasting company time talking to colleagues. She never
thinks twice about assisting fellow employees, and she always
finishes given assignments on time. Often Jane takes extended
measures to complete her work, sometimes skipping
coffee breaks. She is a dedicated individual who has absolutely no
vanity in spite of her high accomplishments and profound
knowledge in her field. I firmly believe that Jane can be
classed as a high-caliber employee, the type which cannot be
dispensed with. Consequently, I duly recommend that Jane be
promoted to executive management, and a proposal will be
sent away as soon as possible.
Project Leader
(copied from http://gadgetopia.com/post/2278)