BRITISH SOCIETY IN 1815:

Dominated by monarchy (was Supreme Governor) + landowning class (esp. aristocracy) + Established Church
(had special privileges and were given financial grants by gov).
England + Ireland + Wales = Established Church, Scotland = Presbyterian Church.
Established Church formed ruling elite; dominated H.o.L + government + education (e.g. Cambridge + Eton).
19
th
Century political system:
a) Electorate small; 1/24 over age of 21 allowed to vote
b) Elections held every 7 years
c) Open ballot, allowing bribery + corruption + intimidation.
d) Parties were factions of upper class.
e) Towns disenfranchised (In a pocket borough one aristocrat owned so much land in his
borough that he effectively controlled it- the landowner could check if his tenants voted the
way he wished and kick anyone who did not off his land)
f) Monarch possesses political power.
Society that was undergoing change as a result of the Industrial Revolution (occurred as a result of the growing
population demands to feed and clothe catalysed transformation from domestic work to a larger site in an
urban area).
Urbanisation of society led to growth of major industrial cities e.g. Manchester + Leeds which all experienced
pop growth that required change in working patterns and living conditions.
Growth in population meant:
1. Need for more mouths to feed so greater pressure on land (farming system of 19
th
C i.e. tenant
farmers, arable and pastoral farming couldnt cope with increased demand).
2. Greater strain in poor relief system especially Speenhamland (extra given to needy from parish
funds depending on recipients family size and price of bread system. Employers paid less assuming
that recipient was idle and claiming relief.
Predominately rural society (was a major feature of 18
th
C) was changing at a rapid rate but the agricultural
changes that has been a major feature of the Agri Rev helped feed a growing pop.
Eventual victory in 1815 against Napoleon by Duke Wellington should have led to celebration but aftermath of
war caused problems e.g. 400,000 demobilised soldiers entered an already depressed labour market. War
affected Britain in that:
Increased prices of food due breakdown of trade between nations in Europe (to profit home).
Increased demand for industrial goods worsened living conditions inn urban cities
Gave boost to Enclosure movement in countryside as pressure on land grew to feed pop.
Governments debt rose to 902 million.
Expensive timber/bricks/glass = inferior housing = further deteriorated living conditions.
End of war meant that
Countryside: wheat prices would usually fall due to good harvests + influx of good corn but farmers has
borrowed heavily to cultivate on land during war boom, meaning they had to repay interest on their
loans at a time of falling prices. They were saved by the Corn Laws to an extent and also reduced wages
(made matters worse for the already poor).
Industry: Corn Law + abolition of income tax were used as examples of class legislation (laws that were
passed to help landowning class) new changes by gov needed to be implemented after demand for
war productions reduced.
Resentment and sense of not belonging led to radical movements that threatened to undermine the society
and increase demands for a republic that enfranchised all men.

Reasons for discontent and the governments repression of it:
Factors causing discontent:
a) Unresponsiveness of government through policies:
i. Corn Laws, 1815 Despite Liverpool believing in laissez-faire, but still introduced a law that went against it:
price of wheat fell quickly when Continental System collapsed and would fall even more if foreign cheap wheat
was imported governments intention was to guarantee landowner profits at a level to which they had
become accustomed to during the war CLs restricted amount of foreign wheat imported to Britain; no foreign
imports of wheat until British wheat reached 60 shillings a quarter passed easily because landowners
controlled Parliament.

ii. Income Tax Repeal, 1816 income tax based on how much you earned which meant it would fall heavier on
aristocracy means of financing the war but it was always regarded as temporary due to its unpopularity with
Tory MPs aristocratically dominated Parliament needed no excuse to abolish it; voted by a majority of 37 to
repeal income tax gov faced with problem of filling up gap in revenue left by the repeal conclusion was to
increase indirect taxation on items e.g. beer sugar etc. harm done to common people as a result of this would
be greater than CLs alone b/c they used these items on a regular basis.

iii. Game Laws, 1816 toughened up in 1816 made poaching against a landowner punishable by up to 7 years
imprisonment/transportation to Australia poaching was a pastime in a rural society that was a way of
supplementing income and feeding families meant that these laws were unpopular.

iv. Six Acts, December 1819 response to Peterloo Massacre were an attempt on possible attacks against state
ranged from restricting Radical press activities/speeding up judicial process/defining rights of assembly,
which restricted radical activity by outlawing large-scale protests some say they were example of harshest
reaction whilst others claim they were common-sense reaction.

v. Suspension of Habeus Corpus, March 1817 reaction by gov to Spa Fields meetings in 1816 gov could hold
someone suspected of radical behaviour w/o trial for an indefinite period critics of gov say it was denial of
basic human rights but others say it was for the interests of the states security.

b) Unemployment: The end of the French Wars meant that soldiers demobilised and war-related industries such as
armaments, uniforms etc decreased.

c) Industrialisation: The industrial revolution resulted in a change from the domestic system to the factory system
new machines replaced the formerly well-paid work of skilled craftsmen; now made redundant the first
protest movements were noticeably attacks on new machines e.g. the Luddites working and living conditions
in the new industrial towns were awful 17 hour working days, child labour, no regulation and very poor
housing.

d) Effects of French War: Britain had been at war on and off with France since the 1790s war brought hardship
and misery to the working class as the cost of living rose dramatically bread prices rose by around 100%
between 1790 and 1815 as supplies could not be brought in from Europe and British farms themselves suffered
a series of bad harvests as food prices rose dramatically wages could not keep up war also caused a rise in
income taxes which hurt the poorest the most driving many into complete poverty.

e) Disenfranchisement: Both government and parliament were dominated by rich landowning aristocrats over
half all land was owned by a few thousand rich and titled families the aristocracy dominated positions in
government and the church only male wealthy landowners had the vote caused discontent amongst both
the poor and the new factory owning middle class brought about by the industrial revolution government was
solely in the hands of and in the interests one class of people two political parties, the Whigs and the Tories
(later to become Liberals and Conservatives) which had developed out of the conflict between king and
parliament during the English Civil War both parties were dominated by landed aristocrats.

f) Taxation: During the wars the National Debt (deficit or what the government owed) had more than tripled from
247,000,000 in 1792 to 902,000,000 in 1816 instead of reducing this deficit by taxing the wealthy the
government decided to abolish income tax and replace it with heavy duties on everyday items such as tea, sugar,
tobacco, beer, soap and candles things that everyone needed. This hit the poor hardest.

Those opposing gov needed effective platform to voice their opinion most persistent and conspicuous
opponents came outside of Parliament these Radicals were grown out of a reaction to American + French
revolutions (new ideas e.g liberty, equality, brotherhood developed).
Demands included a more representative parliament (wishes + opinions of nation better served than narrow
interest of aristocrats), annual elections (MPs would act in interests of their constituents) and use of secret
ballot in elections (avoid intimidation and bribery).


Radical message was spread in a number of ways:
a) Major Cartwrights political clubs: MJCW was prominent in development of Rad movement in 18
th
C
established 100+ debating societies (Hampden Clubs) H.Cs held national convention London in 1817 and
presented their grievances in the form of a petition to Parliament.
b) Development of radical press: Cobbett was leading Rad journalist; spent formative years studying American
system of gov hoped to make British system more democratic like USAs Political Register released
from 1802-1835 important in development of working-class political education Woolers Black Dwarf
continued in Registers footsteps Dinwiddy: press did much to give coherence and unity of purpose to
reform movement.
c) Open-air meetings: Henry Orator Hunt most prominent spokesperson of W-C radicalism in post-war years
claim to fame was by stirring up protest + feelings among masses at open-air meetings.

Effectiveness of Radical threat, 1811-1817:
1) Luddism, 1811-1816: Luddites expressed their hostility towards increasing use of machines in textile
industry by breaking machines in North and East Midlands because the resultant unemployment of
handloom weavers/shearers/croppers difficulties made worse by bad harvests between 1809-12
rising prices/no apprenticeship/cheap labour/refusal of employers to set minimum wage = rise to Luddism.

2) Spa Fields Riots, December 1816: emphasis on open-air meetings as form of protest was illustrated as very
serious threat government in series of 3 meetings at Spa Fields @ London organised by Spenceans (e.g.
Thistlewood + Watson Doctors) 2
nd
meeting, breakaway group attacked gunsmith + made plans to take
over Bank of England/other leading institutions but those were influenced by strong ale and prospect of
loot rather than strong words and prospect of liberty.

3) Pentrich Rising, 8-9 June 1817: 8
th
of June = disturbance @ Huddersfield easily supressed by local yeomanry
(wealthy working farmers below gentlemen) 9
th
of June = 500 disaffected workers @ East Midlands set
out from villages e.g. Pentrich with intention of attacking Nottingham Castle (prelude to a wider national
rising towards London) rising was disgrace and gov easily suppressed it b/c of government spies i.e.
discharged debt collector Oliver the spy (W.J. Richards) response of gov was severe and went far beyong
perceived thread (execution of leader named Beandreth).

Did it intensify between 1818-1821?
1818 = quiet year (return of more prosperous conditions + better harvest) TP increased majority in Parliament
as a result of General Election whatever threat existed had declined but
a) Peterloo Massacre, 1819: crowd of circa 60,000 gathered @ St Peters Field in Manchester to support cause
of parliamentary reform supporters came to hear Henry Hunts launch into a determined attack on
corrupt parliamentary system Manchester authorities were alarmed at idea of invasion of undesirables
at a time where they lacked ability to administer peaceful/effective law + order Lord Sidmouth (Home
Sec) urged authorities to let protest go ahead b/c he feared consequences of it not going ahead govs
reaction to peaceful protest thought to be over the top when authorities unleashed local yeomanry,
resulting in 11 deaths and 400+ injured nations response was in support of W-C martyrs by rioting.

b) Cato Street Conspiracy, 1820: plan to assassinate entire Tory Cabinet exposed Thistlewood (leading
Spencean) was thought to be motive force behind attempt but gov aware of attempt thanks to W.J.
Richards (spy) the fact that a small but dedicated band of Radicals dred the ultimate act of terror =
evidence of hatred gov was held by in 1820 Thistlewood + 4 others were tried and executed.

c) March of the Blanketeers, 1817: As a result of the Seditious Meetings Act (one of the Six Acts) a small
disorganised group of cotton workers planned to march from Manchester to London. It was peaceful and
legal but failed as member was brutally killed by the authority needlessly

Government survived because:
Radical movement was divided between violent (Spenceans) and passive Radicals (Hunt, Cartwrright, Cobbett)
division was apparent in regional differences weakened development of a united W-C response/lack of
weaponry/outbreaks of unrest amounted to local expression of grievances carried out by hopeful protestors and
not hard-headed revolutionaries e.g. Luddism was expression of dissatisfaction against new machines rather
than part of serious political threat Pentrich Uprising + March of Blanketeers had comedic element Spa
Field + Peterloo were legal and peaceful and taken over a tiny extremist minority.
Government acted firmly and decisively:
1) Gov relied on local yeomanry and armed forced to uphold law in area where threat was greatest
23,000 troops posted to areas in North and East Midlands in effective show of strength.
2) Use of spies not to exacerbate threat to justify reactionary reaction but to find out information, as it had
no examples to follow in terms of the events that took place and how they would be controlled.
3) Legislation not really that harsh; Six Acts 1819 was common-sense reaction by the gov. due to fears of
French Revolution spilling unto Britain Seditious Meetings Act + Habeas Corpus suspension were
temporary measures and were used sparingly and removed once conditions were suitable.
4) Not as reactionary and out of touch as painted to be by radicals e.g. Byron the poet Sidmouth the
Home Sec urged Manchester authorities to allow meeting to go ahead before Peterloo Massacres.

Liberal Torys economic and social reforms 1821-27:

Liberal refers to a) freedom of religion (ability to worship w/o govs interference), b) political rights
(committed to more representative government and giving vote to wider spectrum and extending ability to
participate in political progress), c) right of free expression (individuals have right to express opinion w/o fear),
d) free-trade (no government interference in economy)
Cabinet changed between 1822-23 change of Livs government new younger and middle-class men:
1. Canning replaced Viscount Castlereagh as Foreign Sec between 1822-27.
2. Peel replaced Lord Sidmouth as Home Sec between 1822-27.
3. Robinson replaced Vansittart as Chancellor of the Exchequer between 1823-27.
4. Huskisson became President of Board of Trade between 1823-27.
They were influenced by Jeremy Bentham greatest happiness of greatest number aim of any successful
gov and only worked through improvement of economic development.

ECONOMIC REFORMS:
Main emphasis was to improve trading position of Bri with world based on free-trade philosophy, which Liv
supported.
1. RECIPROCITY OF DUTIES ACT, 1823: an attempt to change the 17
th
C Navigational Laws which prohibited foreign
imports if goods werent carried by British ships but in early 19
th
C, restrictions were unnecessary + harmful
b/c other countries responded by banning British ships from entering their ports Act overcame obstacles by
allowing imports if exports Husks act seen as goodwill and reduced costs of imports to Bri manufacturers.

2. RELAXATION OF TRADE RESTRICTIONS: this allowed colonies to trade with foreign countries for first time but to
retain support, the duties between Britain and colony were lower than with colony and non-Imperial country.

3. CHANCELLORS REPUTATION: Robinsons liberal reputation as C.o.Ex = based n desire to reduce domestic duties
which complemented Husks strategy of promoting free trade Robs main focus was reducing import duties
on raw materials (e.g. wool) and customs and to excise duties to encourage demands and improve econ. stability
additionally = far-sighted Budgets of 1821-27 managed to reduce indirect taxation of many goods.

SOCIAL REFORMS:
Alongside improvements in economy, improvements in living/working conditions and attempts to improve legal
system to call government Enlightened Tories.
Home Sec had responsibility to supervise these improvements Professor Eric Evans suggests that Peel was
suited to the task because of his organisational and administrative skills.
Peels policies can be seen as liberal through:
1. Trade unions:
Were banned since 1799 b/c they were seen as a threat to states stability, especially when unity was needed in
Napoleon wars.
Trade Unions created and protect interests of workers against exploitation.
Members of T.U. paid weekly contributions to safeguard them against injury and illness.
To avoid fines/punishment T.U.s changed their names to friendly society.
Radical MPs Joseph Hume and Sir Francis Burdett campaigned for repeal of Combinations Act of 1799-1800;
argues that there would be improvements in relationship between employer and employee so it was in 1824.
2. Changes to legal system:
The ineffeciances of English legal system were self-evident in the civilised age.
Penal Code was ripe for reform 200+ offences carrier death penalty.
Inter-related to this were prison conditions (filthy and unkempt)
Peel determined to improve system matters of inefficiency and no genuine concern for welfare of criminals
dominated his work (alongside influence by Howard + Fry whom were humanitarian reformers).
The 278 legal reforms passed between 1825-27 changed the practice of Justice.
Penal Code improved and death penalty abolished for 180+ offences.
Juries Regulation Act made jury aware of its responsibility and whole system became more humane.
1823 Gaols Act passed represented an attempt by Peel to streamline foul conditions that inmates endured
and trying to improve system that Gaolers laboured under.
Gaolers were paid and inmates received basic education.
This policy would be conducted on a national basis as all countries/towns had to posses gaol/house of
correction.
3. Metropolitan police:
Established Metrpolican Police during his 2
nd
period as Home Secretary under Wellington in 1829.
The creation of police force was to patrol capital and this was a unique experiment (later applied nationally).
Bobbies/Peelers attempted to stem alarming increase in crime that capital suffered from.
Met Police Act created 3000 paid officers to be financed by ratepayers of the city whose livelihoods/interests
they were trying to protect.
Despite of misgivings that police were an attack on liberties, they received gradual respect and reduce crime
rates, which confirms that they were a necessity.

To what extent did the Cabinet changes of 1821-23 bring about a change in government policy?
Men not new because they had all occupied ministerial office during reactionary phase pre-1821:
Canning had long history of ministerial service originating from Pitt the Youngers premiership served as
President of Board of Trade before his resignation in 1820 at acme of Queen Caroline affair.
Robinson known as close follower of reactionary Castlereagh and follow Cannings footsteps at Board of Trade
between 1818-1823.
Huskisson served as Commissioner for Forests since 1814 and was regarded as important economic adviser.
Peel held office in Ireland since 1812 as Chief Sec was aware of difficult situation reactionary government
dealt with between 1812-1821.
Enlightened Tories were merely completing work of reactionary gov:
Robinson took credit for economic prosperity in 1820s that shouldve been given to Vansittart (he took Britain
back to Gold Standard of 1819) Robinson inherited a budget surplus by 1823.
Huskisson and Robinson owed a great debt to Thomas Wallace (Vice President of Board of Trade during
reactionary period) who recommended changes e.g. relaxation of Navigation Laws.
Previous gov. not as reactionary as thought to be:
Their response to series of unprecedented circumstances represented a common-sense reaction that tried to
survive the post-Napoleonic difficulties.
Abolition of Income Tax (seen as reactionary) was opposed by Liverpool but was forced to accept it under
pressure form influential backbench opinion.
Passed Enlightened laws e.g. Factory Act 1819, preventing children under 9 from working in mills and
regulated working hours of children up to 16/Truck Act 1820 attempted to control employers from paying wages
in goods than in money and to safeguard rights of workers.
No. of committees set up to investigate known problems such as the legal system.
The reason these policies didnt come in sooner it that they werent suitable for reform and that Queen Caroline
Affair distracted them.
Enlightened Tory legislation not as liberal as first appeared:
Social policy of Peel e.g. repeal of Combination Acts was seen to herald new relationship between gov and
trade union but a number of disputes followed the repeal as workers demanded for higher wages, leading the
gov to pass the Amending Act 1825 which allowed trade unions to exist for purpose of discussing wages.
Legal reforms not carried from a humanitarian perspective but from desire to improve efficiency of justice
administration motivation behind Gaols Act was considered by Sidmouth before Peel took office.

Roman Catholic Emancipation:
Tories avoided issue of electoral reform/extension of those able to vote because they felt threatened by
prospect of those regarded as inferior to determine their own future.
Didnt attempt to change unfair system divide between Ultras Wellington and Peel and liberals like Canning.
Lord Liveprool wanted to avoid this issue at all costs to keep different factions within gov together (regarded as
commonsense reaction).