Week 3 Notes

1/15
Gausss law
Physics 202.
June 29, 2014
Physics 202. Gausss law
2/15
No such thing as coincidences
S
3
S
2
S
1
Suppose that it is legitimate to
think of a charge q as being capa-
ble of producing an exact num-
ber of eld-lines, 4kq eld lines.
This may not be an integer, just
humor me. Notice that every one
of the surfaces S
1
, S
2
, S
3
inter-
cepts all of the eld lines ema-
nating from q. Let these surfaces
have radii r
1
, r
2
, r
3
. It is not coin-
cidental that on S
i
|E(r
i
)| =
4k|q|
4r
2
i
=
k|q|
r
2
i
3/15
No such thing as coincidences
S
3
S
2
S
1
In other words, the strength of the
electric eld on a closed surface is
given (in this case) by the density
of eld lines, the number of eld
lines per unit area, that cross it.
Not a coincidence, this is an alter-
native way of stating Coulombs
law, and is called Gausss law.
4/15
Flux
dA
n
A measure of ow of a eld
through an area is called ux.
The denition of ux dF of eld
E through area dA with unit nor-
mal vector n is
Flux
dF = E ndA (1)
The ux of a particular eld line is
positive if En > 0, and is negative
if E n < 0
The ux through A is the (signed) number of eld lines that pass
through A.
5/15
Gausss law
Gausss law, an alternative formulation of Coulombs law, says this;
let S be a closed surface (no holes or boundary),
Gausss law
F
S
=
S
dF =
S
E ndA = 4kq
inS
(2)
n is the outward (points out of the volume enclosed by S) normal
for S by convention.
In other words, the total number of eld lines owing through
S is all that are created by the net charge within S. The shape
of S is not important, all that matters is that S has no holes in it.
6/15
Gausss law
S
1
S
2
S
3
Negative charge q
1
(red),
positive q
2
(black) have E-
lines from positive to neg-
ative. F
S
1
= 0 since any
exiting line also enters S
1
.
F
S
2
= 4kq
2
> 0 since
eld lines only exit.
F
S
3
= 0 since eld lines
exit and enter or miss al-
together.
7/15
Using Gausss law
Gausss law is a nifty identity, but it can be used to actually
compute |E(r )| under certain conditions;
you must know the direction of E at r,
r must be a point on a closed surface S so that you can
do the integral, and
compute the charge within S
It turns out that all of these things are pretty easy if S is an
equipotential, hence the emphasis on equipotentials.
8/15
Using Gausss law
If r S and S is an equipotential, then you know that
E(r ) = |E(r )| n since elds are to equipotentials;
E(r ) n = |E(r )| n n = |E(r )|
You can do the integral if S has a lot of symmetry, so that
|E(r )| is that same for all (or most) r S.
S
|E(r )| dA = |E(r )|
S
dA = |E(r )| A
S
where A
S
is the area of S through which the eld ows.
You can compute charges within S as L, A, V or just add
up qs.
9/15
Gausss law, reduced
If these things are true; S is an equipotential, r S, and |E| is
constant over S, then
Gausss law
S
dF =
S
E ndA = 4kq
inS
becomes
|E(r )| A
s
= 4kq
inS
(3)
10/15
Example
S
3
S
2
S
1
Let r be on S
3
, a sphere of radius
r . Find |E(r )| for q > 0 at origin.
S
3
is an equipotential from
prior art.
The total charge within S
3
is
q
The area of the part of S
3
through which eld lines
ow is A
S
= 4r
2
|E(r )| =
4k|q|
A
S
=
kq
r
2
, the
known answer.
10/15
Example
S
3
S
2
S
1
Let r be on S
3
S
3
prior art.
3
is
q
3
ow is A
S
= 4r
2
|E(r )| =
4k|q|
A
S
=
kq
r
2
, the
known answer.
10/15
Example
S
3
S
2
S
1
Let r be on S
3
S
3
prior art.
3
is
q
3
ow is A
S
= 4r
2
|E(r )| =
4k|q|
A
S
=
kq
r
2
, the
known answer.
10/15
Example
S
3
S
2
S
1
Let r be on S
3
S
3
prior art.
3
is
q
3
ow is A
S
= 4r
2
|E(r )| =
4k|q|
A
S
=
kq
r
2
, the
known answer.
10/15
Example
S
3
S
2
S
1
Let r be on S
3
S
3
prior art.
3
is
q
3
ow is A
S
= 4r
2
|E(r )| =
4k|q|
A
S
=
kq
r
2
, the
known answer.
11/15
Example
r
1
R
r
2
Let r be on S
1
, a sphere of radius r
1
inside of a solid ball of charged dust
of density in C/m
3
. Find |E(r )|
S
1
is an equipotential.
Equipotentials have the same
basic geometry as the charge
distribution that creates the
eld
1
is
4
3
r
3
1

1
through which eld lines ow
is A
S
= 4r
2
1
|E(r
1
)| =
4kq
A
S
=
4kr
1
3
, a
new result
11/15
Example
r
1
R
r
2
Let r be on S
1
1
of density in C/m
3
. Find |E(r )|
S
1
eld
1
is
4
3
r
3
1

1
is A
S
= 4r
2
1
|E(r
1
)| =
4kq
A
S
=
4kr
1
3
, a
new result
11/15
Example
r
1
R
r
2
Let r be on S
1
1
of density in C/m
3
. Find |E(r )|
S
1
eld
1
is
4
3
r
3
1

1
is A
S
= 4r
2
1
|E(r
1
)| =
4kq
A
S
=
4kr
1
3
, a
new result
11/15
Example
r
1
R
r
2
Let r be on S
1
1
of density in C/m
3
. Find |E(r )|
S
1
eld
1
is
4
3
r
3
1

1
is A
S
= 4r
2
1
|E(r
1
)| =
4kq
A
S
=
4kr
1
3
, a
new result
11/15
Example
r
1
R
r
2
Let r be on S
1
1
of density in C/m
3
. Find |E(r )|
S
1
eld
1
is
4
3
r
3
1

1
is A
S
= 4r
2
1
|E(r
1
)| =
4kq
A
S
=
4kr
1
3
, a
new result
12/15
Example
r
1
b
r
2
a
Let r be on S
0
r
0
< a (not shown) inside of a hol-
low ball of charged dust of density
. Find |E(r
0
)|
S
0
0
is
0, within r = a there is no
charge
1
is A
S
= 4r
2
0
|E(r
0
)| =
4kq
A
S
= 0, a new
result, and a surprising one
12/15
Example
r
1
b
r
2
a
Let r be on S
0
r
0
. Find |E(r
0
)|
S
0
0
is
charge
1
is A
S
= 4r
2
0
|E(r
0
)| =
4kq
A
S
= 0, a new
12/15
Example
r
1
b
r
2
a
Let r be on S
0
r
0
. Find |E(r
0
)|
S
0
0
is
charge
1
is A
S
= 4r
2
0
|E(r
0
)| =
4kq
A
S
= 0, a new
12/15
Example
r
1
b
r
2
a
Let r be on S
0
r
0
. Find |E(r
0
)|
S
0
0
is
charge
1
is A
S
= 4r
2
0
|E(r
0
)| =
4kq
A
S
= 0, a new
12/15
Example
r
1
b
r
2
a
Let r be on S
0
r
0
. Find |E(r
0
)|
S
0
0
is
charge
1
is A
S
= 4r
2
0
|E(r
0
)| =
4kq
A
S
= 0, a new
13/15
Example
r
1
b
r
2
a
Let r be on S
1
a < r
1
< b inside of a hollow ball
of charged dust of density . Find
|E(r
1
)|
S
1
1
is
4
3
(r
3
1
a
3
)
1
is A
S
= 4r
2
1
|E(r
1
)| =
4k(r
3
1
a
3
)
3r
2
1
, another
new result.
13/15
Example
r
1
b
r
2
a
Let r be on S
1
a < r
1
|E(r
1
)|
S
1
1
is
4
3
(r
3
1
a
3
)
1
is A
S
= 4r
2
1
|E(r
1
)| =
4k(r
3
1
a
3
)
3r
2
1
, another
new result.
13/15
Example
r
1
b
r
2
a
Let r be on S
1
a < r
1
|E(r
1
)|
S
1
1
is
4
3
(r
3
1
a
3
)
1
is A
S
= 4r
2
1
|E(r
1
)| =
4k(r
3
1
a
3
)
3r
2
1
, another
new result.
13/15
Example
r
1
b
r
2
a
Let r be on S
1
a < r
1
|E(r
1
)|
S
1
1
is
4
3
(r
3
1
a
3
)
1
is A
S
= 4r
2
1
|E(r
1
)| =
4k(r
3
1
a
3
)
3r
2
1
, another
new result.
13/15
Example
r
1
b
r
2
a
Let r be on S
1
a < r
1
|E(r
1
)|
S
1
1
is
4
3
(r
3
1
a
3
)
1
is A
S
= 4r
2
1
|E(r
1
)| =
4k(r
3
1
a
3
)
3r
2
1
, another
new result.
14/15
Example
A
E, n
Let r be a distance x from a uni-
formly charged plane
Equipotentials are planes
parallel to . Create a closed
S made out of two disks
parallel to , connected by a
tube with a normal n E.
The ux through the tube is
zero.
The total charge within S is
A
is A
S
= 2A
|E(x)| = 2k||. You knew
that (you smart).
14/15
Example
A
E, n
zero.
A
is A
S
= 2A
that (you smart).
14/15
Example
A
E, n
zero.
A
is A
S
= 2A
that (you smart).
14/15
Example
A
E, n
zero.
A
is A
S
= 2A
that (you smart).
14/15
Example
A
E, n
zero.
A
is A
S
= 2A
that (you smart).
15/15
Example
Let r be a distance r from the axis

of an innite line charge
Equipotentials are cylinder
coaxial with . Select of of
radius r , cut o a length of
it.

is A
S
= 2r
|E(r )| =
4k
2r
=
2k
r
. You
knew that.
15/15
Example

it.

is A
S
= 2r
|E(r )| =
4k
2r
=
2k
r
. You
knew that.
15/15
Example

it.

is A
S
= 2r
|E(r )| =
4k
2r
=
2k
r
. You
knew that.
15/15
Example

it.

is A
S
= 2r
|E(r )| =
4k
2r
=
2k
r
. You
knew that.
15/15
Example

it.

is A
S
= 2r
|E(r )| =
4k
2r
=
2k
r
. You
knew that.
1/21
Gausss law. Slight reprise
Physics 202.
June 29, 2014
Physics 202. Gausss law. Slight reprise
2/21
YAE
R r
L
Find |E(r )| a distance r < R from the
central axis of an innte cylider lled
with charged dust of density .
Equipotentials are cylinders
coaxial with the charge
distribution. Field lines radiate
radially from the central axis. S
is the dotted cylinder.
r
2
L
The area of the part of S through
which eld lines ow is
A
S
= 2rL
|E(r )| = 2k||r . Thats new.
2/21
YAE
R r
L
r
2
L
A
S
= 2rL
2/21
YAE
R r
L
r
2
L
A
S
= 2rL
2/21
YAE
R r
L
r
2
L
A
S
= 2rL
2/21
YAE
R r
L
r
2
L
A
S
= 2rL
3/21
A simple conceptual exercise
q
3
q
1
q
2
q
4
q
0
q
0
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
Any eld line that enters a closed
surface has a negative ux. If it
leaves at some point, its net ux
is zero. Find the total electric eld
ux through each of these sur-
faces.
S
1
; F = 4k(q
0
q
0
) = 0
S
2
; F =
4k(q
0
q
0
+q
1
q
2
q
4
)
S
3
; F = 4k(q
2
q
4
)
S
4
; F = 4k(0) = 0
3/21
q
3
q
1
q
2
q
4
q
0
q
0
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
faces.
S
1
; F = 4k(q
0
q
0
) = 0
S
2
; F =
4k(q
0
q
0
+q
1
q
2
q
4
)
S
3
; F = 4k(q
2
q
4
)
S
4
; F = 4k(0) = 0
3/21
q
3
q
1
q
2
q
4
q
0
q
0
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
faces.
S
1
; F = 4k(q
0
q
0
) = 0
S
2
; F =
4k(q
0
q
0
+q
1
q
2
q
4
)
S
3
; F = 4k(q
2
q
4
)
S
4
; F = 4k(0) = 0
3/21
q
3
q
1
q
2
q
4
q
0
q
0
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
faces.
S
1
; F = 4k(q
0
q
0
) = 0
S
2
; F =
4k(q
0
q
0
+q
1
q
2
q
4
)
S
3
; F = 4k(q
2
q
4
)
S
4
; F = 4k(0) = 0
3/21
q
3
q
1
q
2
q
4
q
0
q
0
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
faces.
S
1
; F = 4k(q
0
q
0
) = 0
S
2
; F =
4k(q
0
q
0
+q
1
q
2
q
4
)
S
3
; F = 4k(q
2
q
4
)
S
4
; F = 4k(0) = 0
4/21
Another conceptual exercise
R
x
y
z
h
A closed cone is placed in a con-
stant electric eld E = E
0
k in
empty space (thats redundant)
What is the ux through the
pointy part?
S = S
disk
S
point
is closed
and contains no charge.
F
S
= F
S
disk
+F
S
point
= 0
F
S
disk
= (E
0
k) (R
2
k)
F
S
point
= E
0
R
2
4/21
R
x
y
z
h
0
k in
pointy part?
S = S
disk
S
point
is closed
F
S
= F
S
disk
+F
S
point
= 0
F
S
disk
= (E
0
k) (R
2
k)
F
S
point
= E
0
R
2
4/21
R
x
y
z
h
0
k in
pointy part?
S = S
disk
S
point
is closed
F
S
= F
S
disk
+F
S
point
= 0
F
S
disk
= (E
0
k) (R
2
k)
F
S
point
= E
0
R
2
4/21
R
x
y
z
h
0
k in
pointy part?
S = S
disk
S
point
is closed
F
S
= F
S
disk
+F
S
point
= 0
F
S
disk
= (E
0
k) (R
2
k)
F
S
point
= E
0
R
2
4/21
R
x
y
z
h
0
k in
pointy part?
S = S
disk
S
point
is closed
F
S
= F
S
disk
+F
S
point
= 0
F
S
disk
= (E
0
k) (R
2
k)
F
S
point
= E
0
R
2
5/21
A point charge q is placed at the
center of a cubis box S of side .
top square?
S is closed and contains
total charge q.
q is at the center, so all six
faces intercept equal
numbers of eld lines.
q is the source of 4kq eld
lines, each leaving S through
one of the faces.
F
Stop
=
4kq
6
5/21
top square?
total charge q.
one of the faces.
F
Stop
=
4kq
6
5/21
top square?
total charge q.
one of the faces.
F
Stop
=
4kq
6
5/21
top square?
total charge q.
one of the faces.
F
Stop
=
4kq
6
5/21
top square?
total charge q.
one of the faces.
F
Stop
=
4kq
6
6/21
Conductors
Conductors are a class of materials with unique electrical properties
What makes a conductor?
Conductors are materials that charge can ow through freely.
The properties fall into two categories;
Static properties; behavior when there are no charges moving
on/in the conductor
Dynamic properties; behavior when there are steadily moving
charges (current) on/in the conductor.
We will start with static properties. Static equilibrium means any
excess q is stationary; v = a = 0.
7/21
Conductors in static equilibrium
S
S
n
Excess charges on surface
Any excess charge on a conductor in
static equilibrium resides on a
surface.
Put excess q within the conductor.
Since a = qE/m, we must have E =
0 in the conductor since q = 0. Draw
S
just under the surface;

F
S
=
E ndA = 0 = 4kq
inS
since E = 0. So q
inS
= 0. The
charge is not under the surface, so it
must be on it.
8/21
No E in conductor
There is no electric eld within a conductor in static equilibrium
We saw that any excess charge is on a surface, so no equipotential
S
within the conductor contains any charge
E ndA =
|E|dA = 4kq = 0
The integral is a sum of non-negative things, it it adds up to zero,
each |E| in the integrand must be zero.
9/21
Equipotential
A conductor in static equilibrium is everywhere at a constant
voltage (it is an equipotential)
V(r
2
) V(r
1
) =
r
2
r
1
E dr = 0
for any r
1
, r
2
on/in the conductor since we can integrate from one
to the other through the conductor, and E = 0 in the conductor.
Reciprocity
A very useful model of a conductor is simply an equipotential
10/21
S
a
b
Faraday cage eect
A charge-free cavity in a conductor
contains no E
Integrate in a closed loop, along an al-
leged eld line in the cavity
0 =
b
a
E
cav
dr
a
b
E
cond
dr
But E
cond
= 0, and along a eld line
E
cav
dr = |E
cav
||dr|
0 =
b
a
|E
cav
||dr| = |E
cav
| = 0
11/21
Surface charge density
The electric eld to a conductors surface S determines its
surface charge density at any point r
(r ) =
1
4k
E
S
(r ) n (1)
which could be positive, negative or zero. Charge tends to
accumulate at corners and edges, and is in general not uniformly
distributed
12/21
Conductor surface charge density
dA
n
x
Here is part of a conductor up close; draw
a Gaussian surface S, a cylinder that pen-
etrates into the surface. The only charge
it contains is the
cond
dA that lies on
the disk. Field lines from the surface ux
through the the cap of S only if x is
small. As x 0, the cap of S becomes
the disk on the surface
lim
x0
EndA = E
cond
ndA = 4k(
cond
dA)
E
cond
n = 4k
cond
13/21
Parallel plate capacitor
y
z

V
0
Consider two conducting parallel
plates held at xed voltages by a
ground and a battery. We know that
V
0
= 4k||L
The battery pumped charge onto the
left plate, it is a conductor, so charge
can move through it. How much
charge? We found it was
Q = A =
AV
0
4kL
14/21
Capacitors
An arrangement of conductors used to store charge is called a
capacitor. The conductors also store the work that it took to
charge them.
We will assume that thin wires used to connect conductors to one
another, the ground, and to batteries are perfect conductors; they
are equipotentials and charge can ow freely through them.
The earth is a huge conductor, whose voltage is by convention
zero. Connecting any conductor the the earth (grounding it)
makes its voltage zero.
15/21
The earth
The earth
The earth is a vast conductor whose voltage is zero by convention,
and acts like a large reservoir of charge.
Induction
You can charge a conductor by induction by connecting it to the
earth, and contriving electric eld lines to intersect it () by
bringing charges nearby.
16/21
Charging by induction
S
3
S
2
S
1
A neutral hollow metal (conducting)
sphere of inner radius a and outer ra-
dius b has a charge q in its central
cavity. What charges are induced on
its surfaces.
Draw equipot. S
1
with radius
r < a, q is inside of it, there is
a eld in the cavity;
|E(r )| =
4k|q|
4r
2
for r S
1
.
Draw equipot. S
2
with radius
a < r < b, it is within a
conductor so for r S
2
,
|E(r )| = 0 =
4k|q+qa|
4r
2
where q
a
is the charge induced on the
inner wall at radius a. We nd
q
a
= q
16/21
S
3
S
2
S
1
its surfaces.
Draw equipot. S
1
with radius
|E(r )| =
4k|q|
4r
2
for r S
1
.
Draw equipot. S
2
with radius
2
,
|E(r )| = 0 =
4k|q+qa|
4r
2
where q
a
q
a
= q
16/21
S
3
S
2
S
1
its surfaces.
Draw equipot. S
1
with radius
|E(r )| =
4k|q|
4r
2
for r S
1
.
Draw equipot. S
2
with radius
2
,
|E(r )| = 0 =
4k|q+qa|
4r
2
where q
a
q
a
= q
17/21
S
3
S
2
S
1
The charge q
a
= q induced
on the inner surface must be
there to terminate the eld
lines of q at the center, since
they cant extend into the con-
ductor. The conductor is neu-
tral so there must be charge
q
b
= +q on the outer surface
of radius b. Note that
a
=
q/4a
2
and
b
= +q/4b
2
are dierent.
18/21
y
z

V
0
The battery will force some charge q
onto the left plate, whatever is needed
to make its voltage V
0
. This charge
makes a eld E = E j between the
plates; integrate from left to right plate
0 V
0
=
L
0
E j jdy = EL
Use Gausss law to get the charge on
the left plate;
=
q
A
=
E n
4k
=
(V
0
/L)j j
4k
=
V
0
4kL
19/21
Reminder. Surface integrals
x
S
A
n=i n=i
n=j
n is the outward normal
vector to S. It varies
from point to point.
Lets interpret surface integrals such as
S
F ndA
for simple vector elds F typically with one component, which
depends on one variable such as
F = F
x
(x)i
(here the vector has only an x component but increases with x).
20/21
Surface integrals
The meaning of the integral is that it
Surface integral
computes the change in F
x
between x = b and x = a
Let S be the cylinder shown, cross-section A, from x = a to x = b.
For F = F
x
(x) i note that the eld F is to the normal vectors n
for the curved wall, only the end-disks contribute
S
F ndA =
left A
F
x
(a)i (i) dA +
right A
F
x
(b)i i dA
= F
x
(a)
left A
i (i) dA + F
x
(b)
right A
i i dA
= AF
x
(b) AF
x
(a)
= A
F
x
(b) F
x
(a)

21/21
Constant electric elds
x x+dx
E
x
(x) E
x
(x+dx)
A constant electric eld
can only exist in empty
space;
Consider a cylinder S with cross-section A, length dx, normals
n = i. Suppose the eld entering at x is dierent from that
leaving at x + dx. Gauss says
E
x
(x)i (iA) + E
x
(x + dx)i (iA) = 4kq
inS
= 4k( Adx)
so if E has only one component, it is constant only if = 0;
dE
x
dx
= 4k (2)
1/31
Capacitors
Physics 202.
June 29, 2014
Physics 202. Capacitors
2/31
Conductors used to store charge
Your parallel plate capacitor (plate area A, separation L) connected
to a battery V
0
was found to have a charge
q =
V
0
A
4kL
V
0
C
on it. C =
A
4kL
is the capacitance of this device; a measure of its
ability to store charge. C has units of farads= C/V. One farad is
a lot of capacitance.
3/31
Capacitance
In general a capacitor is one or more (usually two) conductors used
to store charge. One conductor may be charged by a battery, the
other will be charged by induction to an equal but opposite charge
by grounding it. If V is the dierence in voltage between the
conductors and q is the charge from the battery
Capacitance
C =
q
V
(1)
4/31
Computing C
There is a simple procedure to compute C for a pair of conductors
c
1
, c
2
Connect one (c
1
) to a battery V
0
, the other (c
2
) to ground.
Charge q ows from the battery onto the connected
conductor. You can get this from Gausss law.
Use Gauss or superposition to get E between the conductors
Integrate from one conductor to the other to relate q to V
0
V
c
2
V
c
1
= 0 V
0
=
c
2
c
1
E dr
Extract C = q/V
0
5/31
Measuring C
The laboratory measurement version of this is to connect c
2
to
ground and c
1
to a battery V
0
through an ammeter, a device that
measures charge ow. While charge ows, measure the amount q
that ows through the ammeter, and calculate C = q/V
0
. A
practical means of doing this is to use a bridge, which we will
describe later.
Each time you are introduced to a new quantity, you should ask
yourself How can I measure that?
6/31
y
z

V
0
The battery will force some charge q
onto the left plate, whatever is needed
to make its voltage V
0
. This charge
makes a eld E = E j between the
plates; integrate from left to right plate
0 V
0
=
L
0
E j jdy = EL
Use Gausss law to get the charge on
the left plate;
=
q
A
=
E n
4k
=
(V
0
/L)j j
4k
=
V
0
4kL
7/31
Concentric sphere capacitor
a
b
Imagine connecting the in-
ner sphere to a battery V
0
through a hole in the outer
sphere. Charge q (un-
known) ows onto the in-
ner sphere.
Draw equipotential S, a sphere
a < r < b, then q
inS
= q,
A
S
= 4r
2
, so |E(r )| =
4k|q|
4r
2
for
a < r < b. This points radially
outwards.
Integrate this radially from inner to
outer conductor
0 V
0
=
b
a
k|q|
r
2
dr =
k|q|
b

k|q|
a
Do the math, isolate C
C = |q|/V
0
=
ab
k(ba)
7/31
a
b
0
ner sphere.
a < r < b, then q
inS
= q,
A
S
= 4r
2
, so |E(r )| =
4k|q|
4r
2
for
outwards.
outer conductor
0 V
0
=
b
a
k|q|
r
2
dr =
k|q|
b

k|q|
a
C = |q|/V
0
=
ab
k(ba)
7/31
a
b
0
ner sphere.
a < r < b, then q
inS
= q,
A
S
= 4r
2
, so |E(r )| =
4k|q|
4r
2
for
outwards.
outer conductor
0 V
0
=
b
a
k|q|
r
2
dr =
k|q|
b

k|q|
a
C = |q|/V
0
=
ab
k(ba)
8/31
Isolated sphere capacitor
a
b
If you now let b , you get the capac-
itance of an isolated spherical conductor
of radius a
C
iso
= lim
b
ab
k(b a)
=
a
k
Compute this for the earth, using a =
6371km
C
earth
= 0.71mF = 7.0 10
4
F
which gives you an idea as to how much
a farad is.
9/31
Commodity grade capacitors
9
1
0
J
+
+
Actual capacitors look like these;
on the left is a polystyrene cap;
two foil plates connected to wire
leads, rolled into a cylinder, en-
cased in plastic.
The others are electrolytic; foil
plates separated by a chemical
paste, rolled up. These are di-
rectional; you must connect the
(+)-labeled side to a higher volt-
age than the (), or you damage
them.
10/31
Potential energy of a capacitor
Imagine charging a capacitor C by taking charges dq from far away
(where V = 0) and one by one putting them onto the capacitor.
When C has charge q, it is at voltage
q
C
.
The potential energy of C is raised when you add to dq to the
capacitor by
dU = dq
q
C
0
and if you add charge q

f
bit by bit to an uncharged cap, its nal
voltage will be V
f
=
q
f
C
and nal potential energy will be
U =
q
f
0
q dq
C
=
q
2
f
2C
=
1
2
CV
2
f
(2)
11/31
Networks of capacitors
V0
S
C
The circuit symbol for a capacitor looks like
two parallel plates seen edge-on. A network
or circuit is a system of perfectly conducting
wires connecting components such as capac-
itors and batteries together. The wires form
pathways to move charges, and being per-
fect conductors are equipotentials.
Break the pathway (open a switch S) and
no charge can ow onto C.
Close S; a charge q = C(V
0
0) = CV
0
ows onto the top plate, q by induction
onto the bottom plate to terminate E-lines
from charges on the top plate.
12/31
Parallel networks of capacitors
v0 C1 C2
Q1
Q1
Q2
Q2
These capacitors are in parallel. Each has
voltage V
0
0 across them (plate to plate),
so the charges on the top (battery con-
nected) plates are Q
1
= C
1
V
0
and Q
2
=
C
2
V
0
. The total charge that the battery
provided is Q
T
= Q
1
+Q
2
. These two store
the same charge as on equivalent capacitor
Q
1
+ Q
2
= C
eq
V
0
;
Parallel equivalent
C
eq
= C
1
+ C
2
(3)
13/31
Series networks of capacitors
v
0
C
1
C
2
Q
1
Q
1
Q
2
Q
2
These capacitors are in series. We dont
know the voltage of the neutral cond. in
the box, call it V
?
, but
Q
1
C
1
= V
0
V
?
,
Q
2
C
2
= V
?
0
and the middle cond. must stay neutral, so
Q
1
= Q
2
. Only Q
1
came out of the battery,
so Q
1
= C
eq
V
0
;
Series equivalent
1
C
eq
=
1
C
1
+
1
C
2
(4)
14/31
Bridge networks of capacitors
v
0
C
1
C
2
C
3
C
4
C
5
Q
1
Q
1
Q
2
Q
2
Q
5
Q
5
Q
3
Q
3
Q
4
Q
4
This is a bridge network, the
capacitors are not in series or
parallel with one another, the
analysis of this circuit will require
that you solve a set of linear
equations for the charges.
The rst step is to label the
charges on the plates. You cant
know in advance which are posi-
tive, so guess.
15/31
v0 C
1
C
2
C
3
C
4
C5
Q1
Q1
Q2
Q2
Q5 Q5
Q3
Q3
Q4
Q4
V1 V2
Now label the two unknown
junction voltages V
1
, V
2
. In
applications you know C
1
, C
2
, ...
and the voltage V
0
only.
Write down the voltage-drop
across each cap;
V
0
V
1
=
Q
1
C
1
V
0
V
2
=
Q
2
C
2
V
1
V
2
=
Q
5
C
5
V
1
0 =
Q
3
C
3
V
2
0 =
Q
4
C
4
16/31
v0 C
1
C
2
C
3
C
4
C5
Q1
Q1
Q2
Q2
Q5 Q5
Q3
Q3
Q4
Q4
V1 V2
Eliminate the unknown voltages
from these equations to obtain
loop equations
V
0
=
Q
1
C
1
Q
3
C
3
V
0
=
Q
2
C
2
Q
4
C
4
0 =
Q
1
C
1
+
Q
5
C
5
Q
2
C
2
(5)
You now have 3 equations in 5 un-
knowns Q
1
, , Q
5
17/31
v0 C
1
C
2
C
3
C
4
C5
Q1
Q1
Q2
Q2
Q5 Q5
Q3
Q3
Q4
Q4
V1 V2
To get the last two equations, look
for junction rules; nd isolated
regions of the circuit thathave
no pathways to the battery or
ground, they must stay neutral.
0 = Q
1
+ Q
5
Q
3
0 = Q
2
Q
5
Q
4
(6)
18/31
Now we solve these 5 equations. Lets make the computer do it
using REDUCE a free (as in beer) CAS.
;; here is the input
eq1:=V0-Q1/C1+Q3/C3;
eq2:=V0-Q2/C2+Q4/C4;
eq3:=Q1/C1+Q5/C5-Q2/C2;
eq4:=-Q1+Q5-Q3;
eq5:=Q2+Q5+Q4;
solve({eq1,eq2,eq3,eq4,eq5},{Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4,Q5});
;; Here is the output
c1*v0*(c2*c3 + c3*c4 + c3*c5 + c4*c5)
{{q1=---------------------------------------------------------------,
c1*c2 + c1*c4 + c1*c5 + c2*c3 + c2*c5 + c3*c4 + c3*c5 + c4*c5
c2*v0*(c1*c4 + c3*c4 + c3*c5 + c4*c5)
q2=---------------------------------------------------------------,
- c3*v0*(c1*c2 + c1*c4 + c1*c5 + c2*c5)
q3=---------------------------------------------------------------,
- c4*v0*(c1*c2 + c1*c5 + c2*c3 + c2*c5)
q4=---------------------------------------------------------------,
c5*v0*(c1*c4 - c2*c3)
q5=---------------------------------------------------------------}}
19/31
You can see that Q
3
, Q
4
came out negative; we labeled the plates
with the wrong sign, and the math corrected our mistakes.
Typical commodity grade capacitors are pico-farad
(pico = 10
12
) devices. Let
V
0
= 10 V, C
1
= 1000pF, C
2
= 2000pF
C
3
= 3000pF, C
4
= 4000pF, C
5
= 5000pF
then
Q
1
= 7162pC, Q
2
= 13783pC, Q
3
= 8514pC
Q
4
= 12432pC, Q
5
= 1351 pC
20/31
Bridges are useful
v0 C
1
C
2
C
3
C
4
V
Q1
Q1
Q2
Q2
Q3
Q3
Q4
Q4
V1 V2
Of all of these circuits, the bridge
is actually useful. Replace C
5
with
a voltmeter, which reads V
1
V
2
,
and lets no charge ow through
it. and let C
4
be adjustable. Sup-
pose that you know C
1
, C
2
and
wish to measure C
3
.
Adjust C
4
until the bridge is bal-
anced; V
1
V
2
= 0. The loop
equations are
V
0
=
Q
1
C
1
Q
3
C
3
V
0
=
Q
2
C
2
Q
4
C
4
0 =
Q
1
C
1
Q
2
C
2
(7)
21/31
Bridges let you measure C
v0 C
1
C
2
C
3
C
4
V
Q1
Q1
Q2
Q2
Q3
Q3
Q4
Q4
V1 V2
Because the voltmeter will let no
charge ow through it,
0 = Q
1
Q
3
, 0 = Q
2
Q
4
Eliminate Q
1
, Q
2
, Q
3
, Q
4
from
these equations
Q
1
C
1
=
Q
2
C
2
,
Q
3
C
3
=
Q
4
C
4
Q
1
C
1
Q
3
C
3
=
Q
2
C
2
Q
4
C
4
,
C
3
C
1
=
C
4
C
2
balanced bridge condition, C
3
=
C
4
C
1
C
2
22/31
Charge redistribution
v
0
S
1
S
2
C
1
C
2
Close S
1
. Charge
Q
1
= C
1
(V
0
0) ows onto
C
1
only.
Open S
1
. That charge is
now trapped, there is no
way to get it o of C
1
With S
1
open, close S
2
.
Charge can only ow around
the completed loop, some
(Q
1
) will stay on C
1
, some
(Q
2
) will ow to C
2
, but
Q
1
= Q
1
+ Q
2
22/31
v
0
S
1
S
2
C
1
C
2
Close S
1
. Charge
Q
1
= C
1
(V
0
0) ows onto
C
1
only.
Open S
1
. That charge is
1
With S
1
open, close S
2
.
(Q
1
) will stay on C
1
, some
(Q
2
) will ow to C
2
, but
Q
1
= Q
1
+ Q
2
22/31
v
0
S
1
S
2
C
1
C
2
Close S
1
. Charge
Q
1
= C
1
(V
0
0) ows onto
C
1
only.
Open S
1
. That charge is
1
With S
1
open, close S
2
.
(Q
1
) will stay on C
1
, some
(Q
2
) will ow to C
2
, but
Q
1
= Q
1
+ Q
2
23/31
v
0
S
1
S
2
C
1
C
2
The top plates of both capacitors
are at the same voltage (they are
conductors connected with a con-
ducting wire), and so are the bot-
tom plates, so
V =
Q
1
C
1
=
Q
2
C
2
, Q
1
+Q
2
= Q
1
solving, the capacitors split the
charge unequally
Q
1
=
C
1
Q
1
C
1
+ C
2
, Q
2
=
C
2
Q
1
C
1
+ C
2
24/31
But why didnt the charge just stay on C
1
, why should they share
it just because they can?
The potential energy stored in the system with all of the charge on
C
1
would be
U =
Q
2
1
2C
1
after the split
U
=
(Q
1
)
2
2C
1
+
(Q
2
)
2
2C
2
=
Q
2
1
2(C
1
+ C
2
)
< U
so the split minimized potential energy, but what happened to the
rest of the energy?
25/31
Charge distribution on conductors
x
(a,0,z)
y
V0
d
d
L
L
Several lectures back
we discussed nding
equipotentials and eld
lines for the potential
V(x, y) =
2V
0
tan
1
(
y
x
).
Here are two of its equipo-
tentials;
The plane y = 0, x, z arbitrary
is everywhere at zero voltage. A
good model of a conductor is
an equipotential, so the xz-plane
can be though of as a grounded
conductor.
The plane x = 0, y, z arbitrary
is everywhere at voltage V
0
. The
yz-plane can be though of as a
conductor pinned at V
0
with a
battery.
26/31
x
y
z
dy
r
V
0
We found E
x
=
2V
0
y
x
2
+y
2
.
Note n = i for the vertical
plate.
Use our Gausss law corollaries to nd
on the vertical conductor a distance
y above the z-axis;
(y) =
E
S
(y) n
4k
=
V
0
2
2
k
y
0
2
+ y
2
=
V
0
2
2
ky
This is large for small y; there is a
lot of charge density near the corner
where the plates are close together.
27/31
x
y
z
dy
r
V
0
(y) =
V
0
2
2
ky
on the ver-
tical plate, a non-uniform
density. Plates are .
We would need a gap between the
plates and z axis to prevent short-
ing our battery (connecting it to the
ground through the plates). The
charge on the strip shown is
dq = (y) dy
the charge on the plate (which is q =
CV
0
) is
q =
d+
d
V
0
2
2
ky
dy =
V
0
2
2
k
ln(
d +
d
)
28/31
A classic problem
v0
This network goes on forever. The
idea here is to replace the entire net-
work with a single equivalent ca-
pacitor, one device that stores the
same charge as the entire network.
Call it C
eq
. Can you see why
1
C
eq
=
2
C
+
1
C + C
eq
C
eq
=
3 1
2
C = 0.36603C
29/31
Another way to look at potential energy
The potential energy of a charged capacitor is
U =
Q
2
2C
Apply this to a parallel-plate capacitor, plate area A, separation ,
assuming that E = 0 only between the plates. We know
|E| = 4k = 4k
Q
A
, C =
A
4k
eliminate Q from the potential energy;
U =
1
8k
|E|
2
A =

0
2
|E|
2
A
We write this as a density; if a volume dV contains electric eld E,
then
dU =

0
2
|E|
2
dV
is the potential energy of the eld in the volume.
30/31
Another way to look at potential energy
This gives you another way to compute C;
U =
Q
2
2C
=
0
2
|E|
2
dV
but you must know |E(r)| at each r V in order to use this. This
formula has more important applications, and for most C
calculations it is not the best starting point, but there are a few
capacitance applications that are almost made trivial by this
formula.
31/31
YAC calculation
Find the capacitance of a coaxial cylinder conductor of length
, inner radius a, outer b.
Ill get you started; with inner conductor charged to Q and
outer at Q there is a eld |E(r )| =
2kQ/
r
only for a r b
Divide the volume into coaxial shells of volume
dV = (r + dr )
2
r
2
2r dr . Can you take over?
Q
2
2C
=
b
a
1
8k
2kQ/
r
2
2r dr
Turn the math crank...C =

2k ln(b/a)
.
31/31
YAC calculation
Find the capacitance of a coaxial cylinder conductor of length
, inner radius a, outer b.
Ill get you started; with inner conductor charged to Q and
outer at Q there is a eld |E(r )| =
2kQ/
r
only for a r b
Divide the volume into coaxial shells of volume
dV = (r + dr )
2
r
2
2r dr . Can you take over?
Q
2
2C
=
b
a
1
8k
2kQ/
r
2
2r dr
Turn the math crank...C =

2k ln(b/a)
.
1/33
Dielectric materials
Physics 202.
June 29, 2014
Physics 202. Dielectric materials
2/33
negative end
(lone pair)
positive end
(electron depleted)
An H
2
O molecule is electrically neutral,
but its overall charge density is not uni-
form. The oxygen is electrophilic and
steals the electrons away from the hy-
drogens, and a lone-pair of electrons
make the opposite end of the molecule
net negative. A neutral object with
separated equal/opposite charged re-
gions is called a dipole
3/33
Field of a dipole
q
q
F
q
F
q
E
Dene the dipole moment
p = qr
q
+ (q)r
q
which points from q to +q. Notice
that an external uniform electric eld
exerts no net force on the dipole F =
(q)E + (q)E = 0, but applies a torque
Torque on dipole
N = r
q
(qE) + r
q
(qE) = p E
which tries to align p with E.
A nonuniform electric eld does exert a force on the dipole
Details?
4/33
Field of a dipole
q
q
d
d
r
x
y
Far away from a dipole
(compared to the
distance 2d of charge
separation) the electric
eld that it produces
is weak, and points
opposite to its dipole
moment p = 2dqj,
a vector that points
from its negative to its
positive charge.
5/33
Field of a dipole
q
q
d
d
r
x
y
then for r >> d, at point
r = xi + yj + zk
E
kq
r
2
(
xi + (y d)j + zk
r
)
kq
r
2
(
xi + (y + d)j + zk
r
)

2kqdj
r
3
=
kp
r
3
(1)
The important thing is that
E is opposite p. This is
E for a dipolar, neutral
molecule.
6/33
Normal circumstances, random dipole orientations
Under normal circumstances with
molecules tumbling around, at
any given instant each molecule
has a randomly-oriented p, and
so the sum of all of the molec-
ular (dipolar) electric elds is zero,
there is no net eld in the mate-
rial.
7/33
Apply a eld, orient the molecules
Eexternal
All of this changes if you run an
external eld (made by something
other than the molecules) through
the matter.
The eld pushes the (+)-ends
downeld, and pulls the ()-
ends upeld, making each p
line up with the external eld E
ext
.
Now there is a net molecular eld
in addition to the external eld.
The dielectric is polarized by the
external eld.
8/33
Total eld
Because E
ext
orients and possibly stretches the molecules,
increasing p we nd that there is a linear relationship between the
total electric dipole moment per unit volume and the external eld
P
i
p
i
V
=
e
E
ext
(2)
in which
e
is called the electrical susceptibility of the molecules,
and V is the volume occupied by the molecules.
The total electric eld within the matter is the sum of external and
molecular elds, and since E
mol
points opposite to E
ext
, we have
Dielectric constant
|E
total
| = |E
ext
+ E
mol
|
|E
ext
|
< |E
ext
| (3)
with > 1 the dielectric constant or relative permittivity
9/33
Dielectric constants
Material
Vacuum 1
Air (STP) 1.00059
Polystyrene 2.4-2.7
Paper 3.85
Glass 4.7
Graphite 10-15
Titanium dioxide 86-173
Lead zirconium titanate 500-6000
This shows the range of dielectric values for materials that are
commonly used to enhance capacitors.
10/33
Dielectric increase C
V0
Eexternal
Emolecular
S1
S2
Put a dielectric in a capacitor.
We call free charge charge that
is free to move, charge from
batteries and ground wires. A
free charge q
free
ows onto the
plates, creating an external eld
that polarizes the dielectric.
External elds are made exclu-
sively by free charges, but
0V
0
=
L
0
E
total
dr = |E
total
|L
11/33
Dielectric increase C
V0
Eexternal
Emolecular
S1
S2
Compute the external eld (let
right be +x direction)
E
ext
= |E
total
|i =
V
0
L
i
Use Gauss to compute the free
charge (from battery) on the
left plate n = i;
q
free
A
=
E
ext
n
4k
=
V
0
4kL
C with dielectric
C =
q
free
V
0
=
A
4kL
12/33
Free charge versus bound charge
V0
Eexternal
Emolecular
S1
S2
In a uniform dielectric, there is
no net charge of any kind within
the matter, only on bounding
surfaces.
Examine the two Gaussian sur-
faces S
1
and S
2
. S
1
is against
a conductor, there are negative
charges bound to dipoles on
the left side of S
1
that are
not paired with positive dipole
charges on molecules to their
left.
In S
2
there is no net charge at
all; every (+)-end of a dipole is
paired with a (1)-end of an ad-
jacent dipole.
13/33
V0
Eexternal
Emolecular,1 Emolecular,2
In a non-uniform dielectric,
there is bound charge on sur-
faces to E.
This dielectric is non-uniform,
on the dotted junction between
the two dielectrics, the positive
ends q
1
of molecules of type 1
are not cancelled by the negative
ends q
2
of molecules of type 2,
so there is a net charge on the
boundary.
This means that the electric eld
left of the boundary is not the
same as that to the right (by
Gausss law).
14/33
We refer to charges as free if they come from a battery or ground.
These are charges that gure in computation of capacitance.
Bound or polarization charges are the charges permanently
associated with the parts of polarized molecules. The total charge
on a surface is the sum of the two. We can see that the negative
ends of the polarized dielectric molecules pack against the plate of
the capacitor that gets positive free charge from the battery.
free
=
E
ext
n
4k
bound
=
E
mol
n
4k
= (
1
1)
E
ext
n
4k
= (
1
1)
free
(4)
15/33
Computing C with dielectrics
Computing C with dielectrics requires simple modications to our
procedure;
Connect one (c
1
) to a battery V
0
, the other (c
2
) to ground.
Free charge q
free
ows from the battery c
1
.
Use Gauss or superposition to get E
ext
between the
conductors, counting only free charges with Gausss law.
Integrate from one conductor to the other to relate q to V
0
V
c
2
V
c
1
=
c
2
c
1
E
total
dr
Extract C = q
free
/V
0
16/33
V
0
k
1
a
b
Coaxial cylinders, length L
seen in cross-section.
Connections made, check. q
free
on inner sphere
Let S be a Gaussian equipot.
cylinder, radius r , a < r < b
|E
ext
| =
4kq
inS
As
=
4k|q
free
|
2rL
0 V
0
=
b
a
4k|q
free
|
2rL
dr
V
0
=
2k|q
free
| ln(b/a)
L
Extract C =
q
free
V
0
from this;
C =
L
2k ln(b/a)
16/33
V
0
k
1
a
b
free
on inner sphere
|E
ext
| =
4kq
inS
As
=
4k|q
free
|
2rL
0 V
0
=
b
a
4k|q
free
|
2rL
dr
V
0
=
2k|q
free
| ln(b/a)
L
Extract C =
q
free
V
0
from this;
C =
L
2k ln(b/a)
16/33
V
0
k
1
a
b
free
on inner sphere
|E
ext
| =
4kq
inS
As
=
4k|q
free
|
2rL
0 V
0
=
b
a
4k|q
free
|
2rL
dr
V
0
=
2k|q
free
| ln(b/a)
L
Extract C =
q
free
V
0
from this;
C =
L
2k ln(b/a)
16/33
V
0
k
1
a
b
free
on inner sphere
|E
ext
| =
4kq
inS
As
=
4k|q
free
|
2rL
0 V
0
=
b
a
4k|q
free
|
2rL
dr
V
0
=
2k|q
free
| ln(b/a)
L
Extract C =
q
free
V
0
from this;
C =
L
2k ln(b/a)
17/33
V0 d/2
d/2 k1
k2
This one is subtle. There will be a
net charge (bound, not free) on the
divider between the dielectrics. The
external eld made by free charges
on the conducting plates must be the
same in both layers (it does not care
about bound charges), but
E
total ,1
= E
ext
/
1
E
total ,2
= E
ext
/
2
E
total ,1
= E
total ,2
18/33
V0 d/2
d/2 k1
k2
Free charge q
free
ows from
battery to top conductor,
induces q
free
on bottom. Let
x axis point down.
0 V
0
=
d/2
0
|E
ext
|i
1
(dxi)
d
d/2
|E
ext
|i
2
(dxi)
V
0
= |E
ext
|
d
2
(
1
1
+
1
2
)
18/33
V0 d/2
d/2 k1
k2
Free charge q
free
ows from
battery to top conductor,
induces q
free
on bottom. Let
x axis point down.
0 V
0
=
d/2
0
|E
ext
|i
1
(dxi)
d
d/2
|E
ext
|i
2
(dxi)
V
0
= |E
ext
|
d
2
(
1
1
+
1
2
)
19/33
V0 d/2
d/2 k1
k2
We have E
ext
=
2V
0
2
d(
1
+
2
)
i
Get the free charge on the top
plate;
q
free
=
free
A = E
ext
iA/4k
q
free
=
2V
0
A
1
2
4kd(
1
+
2
)
Extract C;
C =
q
free
V
0
=
2A
1
2
4kd(
1
+
2
)
which is C for two capacitors (separations d/2) in series.
19/33
V0 d/2
d/2 k1
k2
We have E
ext
=
2V
0
2
d(
1
+
2
)
i
plate;
q
free
=
free
A = E
ext
iA/4k
q
free
=
2V
0
A
1
2
4kd(
1
+
2
)
Extract C;
C =
q
free
V
0
=
2A
1
2
4kd(
1
+
2
)
19/33
V0 d/2
d/2 k1
k2
We have E
ext
=
2V
0
2
d(
1
+
2
)
i
plate;
q
free
=
free
A = E
ext
iA/4k
q
free
=
2V
0
A
1
2
4kd(
1
+
2
)
Extract C;
C =
q
free
V
0
=
2A
1
2
4kd(
1
+
2
)
20/33
V
0
k
1
k
2
In this case the total eld in each di-
electric must be the same
E
total ,1
= E
total ,2
because
0 V
0
=
d
0
E
total ,2
dr
and
0 V
0
=
d
0
E
total ,1
dr
in other words E
total
= (V
0
/d)i on
both sides.
21/33
V
0
k
1
k
2
But
E
total ,1
= E
ext
/
1
E
total ,2
= E
ext
/
2
The only resolution is that E
ext
is
not the same in both sides, be-
cause more free charge accumulates
on the conductor plates bounding the
stronger dielectric.
E
ext,1
= E
ext,2
so
E
ext,1
=
1
E
total
, E
ext,2
=
2
E
total
22/33
V
0
k
1
k
2
Get
free,1
free,1
=
E
ext,1
i
4k
=
(
1
V
0
/d)ii
4k
=
1
V
0
4kd
Get
free,2
free,2
=
E
ext,2
i
4k
=
(
2
V
0
/d)ii
4k
=
2
V
0
4kd
Add up the total free charge
q
free
= (
free,1
+
free,2
)
A
2
;
q
free
=
A
2
V
0
4kd
(
1
+
2
) = CV
0
which is C for two capacitors (of area A/2) in parallel (shared
plates).
22/33
V
0
k
1
k
2
Get
free,1
free,1
=
E
ext,1
i
4k
=
(
1
V
0
/d)ii
4k
=
1
V
0
4kd
Get
free,2
free,2
=
E
ext,2
i
4k
=
(
2
V
0
/d)ii
4k
=
2
V
0
4kd
q
free
= (
free,1
+
free,2
)
A
2
;
q
free
=
A
2
V
0
4kd
(
1
+
2
) = CV
0
plates).
22/33
V
0
k
1
k
2
Get
free,1
free,1
=
E
ext,1
i
4k
=
(
1
V
0
/d)ii
4k
=
1
V
0
4kd
Get
free,2
free,2
=
E
ext,2
i
4k
=
(
2
V
0
/d)ii
4k
=
2
V
0
4kd
q
free
= (
free,1
+
free,2
)
A
2
;
q
free
=
A
2
V
0
4kd
(
1
+
2
) = CV
0
plates).
23/33
V
0
x
Apply what we just learned
here; a dielectric slab is almost
entirely between the plates,
will it be pulled in, or must
you force it in?
With it entirely inserted, the
potential energy is (let A =
L
2
)
U =
1
2
V
2
0
C =
1
2
V
2
0
L
2
4kd
24/33
V
0
x
With it partially inserted, the
potential energy is (let A =
L
2
)
U
=
1
2
V
2
0
C
=
1
2
V
2
0
Lx
4kd
+
L(L x)
4kd
= U +
1
2
V
2
0
Lx
4kd
(1 ) < U (5)
25/33
The potential energy dropped,

so you might think the slab
didnt need to be forced out,
but the battery did negative
work since C decreases with
x.
The slab is pulled in by the electric eld, because of fringing.
The electric eld at the edges of a capacitor fringe out into space.
When E crosses a matter boundary, it polarizes it, charging the
boundary with ()-charges where it enters, (+)-charges where it
leaves.
26/33
Fringing of the eld
V
0
Fringing must occur, it is easy
to see why; integrate the electric
eld of the capacitor around this
dotted path C;
C
E dr = 0 = |E
incap
|d + ...
there must be a eld outside of the capacitor, otherwise we could
not get zero, which we must, for this integral. We neglect fringing
in problems, but recognize that it must occur in order to explain
why the solution works.
27/33
V
0
x
Find the force that you must
apply to displace it by x (push
it out by amount x).
We use the work energy theorem; the block (mass m) begins and
ends at rest;
1
2
m0
2
1
2
m0
2
= W
you
+ W
battery
+ W
elds
0 = F
x,you
x + (q
f
V
0
q
i
V
0
) (U
f
U
i
)
F
x,you
x =
(C
f
V
0
)V
0
(C
i
V
0
)V
0
1
2
C
f
V
2
0

1
2
C
i
V
2
0

28/33
V
0
x
We end up here;
F
x,you
x =
1
2
C
f
V
2
0
C
i
V
2
0
=
1
2
V
2
0
Lx
4kd
(1 )
F
x,you
=
1
2
V
2
0
L
4kd
( 1)
The scientist/engineer in you should be wondering if you can use
this idea to measure . Find the mass of the dielectric block,
rotate the apparatus and let gravity supply the force mg to pull it
out until equilibrium is reached. This works quite well, but we will
use interferometry to measure to high precision in a few weeks.
29/33
A -meter
h
Immerse the end of a coaxial cylinder (radii a, b, length ) in a
pool of dielectric uid . Connect a battery V
0
between the
cylinders and uid will be drawn up into the region a r b.
30/33
A -meter
Work done by gravity to lift a mass dm = Ady of uid of density
from x = 0 to y;
dW
g
= (dmg j) (j y) = g Ay dy
Work done by gravity to lift uid column up to y = h;
W
g
=
h
0
g Ay dy =
gAh
2
2
Work done by battery putting charge q
f
into capacitor
W
B
= q
f
V
0
= C
f
V
2
0
Work done by elds
W
f
=
1
2
C
f
V
2
0
31/33
A -meter
The uid is at rest before the battery is connected, it returns to
rest once equilibrium is reached;
0 = W
g
+ W
B
+ W
f
0 =
gAh
2
2
+ C
f
V
2
0

1
2
C
f
V
2
0
gAh
2
2
=
1
2
h
2k ln(b/a)
+
h
2k ln(b/a)
V
2
0
g(b
2
a
2
)h
2
2
=
1
2
h
2k ln(b/a)
+
h
2k ln(b/a)
V
2
0
so we can write h
2
= c
0
+ c
1
where c
0
, c
1
are constants, and
calibrate the divisions in the column to directly read . Not the
best experimental method for since it requires measurement of .
32/33
A one-shot formula for C
You may recall the formula
U =
Q
2
2C
=
V
1
8k
|E|
2
dV
If the volume V contains a dielectric , this becomes
U =
Q
2
2C
=
8k
|E|
2
dV
Find the capacitance of a parallel plate device with plates of
area A at x = 0, x = with dielectric
(x) =
0
+ (
1
0
)x/.
Q
2
2C
=

0
(
0
+ (
1
0
)x/)
8k
4k(Q/A)
0
+ (
1
0
)x/
2
Adx
33/33
Forces on dipole
q
q
F
q
F
q
E
A nonuniform electric eld does ex-
ert a force on the dipole. Let
q be at (a cos , a sin ) and q be
at (a cos , a sin ), then p =
(2qa cos , 2qa sin ). Suppose that E =
E
x
(x)i is a function of x;
F = (qE
x
(a cos ) qE
x
(a cos ))i
Use F(x) F(0) +
dF
dx
0
x;
F =
E
x
(0) + a cos
dE
x
(0)
dx
E
x
(0) a cos
dE
x
(0)
dx
i
= 2qa cos
dE
x
(0)
dx
= p
dE
dx
(6)
so dipoles are good detectors of uniformity of an electric
eld.
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1/15

The area of the part of S

The area of the part of S

The area of the part of S

The area of the part of S

The area of the part of S

Let r be a distance r from the axis

The area of the part of S

Let r be a distance r from the axis

The area of the part of S

Let r be a distance r from the axis

The area of the part of S

Let r be a distance r from the axis

The area of the part of S

Let r be a distance r from the axis

The area of the part of S

just under the surface;

within the conductor contains any charge

Physics 202. Gausss law. Slight reprise

and if you add charge q

The potential energy dropped,

Physics 202. Dielectric materials

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