Unit I

Maps: basic characteristics of maps; types of maps classified by scale, function and subject matter.
Map scale; Representation of scale on maps; Determining the scale of a map;
Geographical coordinates - latitudes and longitudes; roperties of the graticule
Unit II
Map rojections - conformal, e!ui"alent and a#imuthal projections; erspecti"e projections,
$on-perspecti"e projections, %on"entional projections
%onical projections; %ylindrical rojections; &enithal projections; 'pace map projection
Unit III
'ources of Map data
Ground sur"eys: rinciples of sur"eying; Measurement technology traditional and automated sur"ey systems
Remote sensing: aerial photography and satellite-based imaging;
%ensus: population enumerations, geocoding entity focus and aggregation
'patial sampling: sample si#e, sampling units, dispersion of sampling units, sample distribution
Unit IV
%artographic design: Graphic elements of map design; %ontrast, (igure-ground, colour and balance
)ypography and lettering - type form, type si#e and type colour; Methods of lettering - cerographic techni!ue,
free-hand lettering, stic*-up lettering, mechanical lettering; Guidelines for positioning of letters; lettering as a graphic
symbol
Unit V
Relief representation on maps: ictorial methods hachuring, hill-shading;
+uantitati"e methods spot heights, ,ench Mar*s, contours
'lope representation: Methods of e-pression of slopes degrees, gradient percentage;
finding slopes from contours .ent/orth0s method and 'mith0s method
,loc* diagrams
Digital %artography
Elements of Cartography
)opic 1: %artographic Design
%artographic Design
2
Graphic communication

)he assignment of meaning to symbols

+ualitati"e or !uantitati"e
2
'ymbols must be clearly distinguishable
2
'election and arrangement of map elements
crucial for effecti"e communication
,eginning the Design rocess
2
.hat elements need to be included on a map3
2
4o/ should those elements loo*3
2
4o/ should they be arranged3
.hen ma*ing a map, consider the follo/ing
!uestions:
Design %onsiderations
2
5 map should be:

%larity

'implicity67asy to use8

5ccurate

5esthetically pleasing
'tages in Design rocess
98 roblem :dentification

urpose of map

Map reader

Design criteria

Data specifications;limitations

)echnical limitations

%osts
'tages in Design rocess
<8 Design (ormulation

7-ploring;in"estigating alternati"e designs

2
=ne or a series of maps
2
>ayout of elements
2
=rientation
2
%olour
2
5ncillary info
2
7tc.
'tages in Design rocess
?8 5nalysis

De"elopment of prototypes

:dentification of production problems

7"aluate effecti"eness;interpretability
'tages in Design rocess
18 Decision

Refinement and finali#ation

'tages in Design rocess
@8 :mplementation
7ssential Map 7lements
2
.hat goes on a map3

General rules of thumb

7-ceptions are possible

5 chec*list to reference
)itle and;or 'ubtitle
2
5 primary map element
2
Distinguished based on:

(ont type

'i#e

%olour

and;or position
2
'ubtitle secondary
2
=n a cadastral or road map, it is most li*ely
the name of the county or area.
2
=n a thematic map, such as house "alues, it
should include the name of the area and the
main subject of the map.
7-: 7agle Ridge 'ubdi"ision
<AA? arcel >and Balues
Mapped 5rea
2
osition and orientation important
considerations
2
:ncludes:

base map features

thematic o"erlay6s8
2
)ypically arranged according to some
hierarchical scheme
>egend

7-plains the symbols used on the map.

%lear and easily readable.

'ymbols should try and be the same si#e as

they are on the map.
7-amples:

5 mapCs scale is a ratio that relates a unit of measure

on a map to some number of the same units of
measure on the earthCs surface.

=ne or more of three representations

'cale
$orth 5rro/
2
:ndicates orientation of mapped area

:f omitted reader infers DupE is $orth

,orders and $eat line
2
:ncreases legibility, clarity and continuity

%ompartmentali#es elements of composition

>imits and controls eye mo"ement

)5>D=G'
T - )itle
A - 5uthor
L - >egend
D - Date
O - =rientation
G - Grid
S - 'cale
)his acronym /ill help
you remember /hat to
include on a map.
Graphic 7lements
2
oint, lines, polygons are basic graphic
elements
2
Fsed to represent:

features in mapped area

map symbols
2
Representation is often scale dependent
Point
oints are the simplest type of spatial data. )hey are-#ero
dimensional objects /ith only a position in space but no length.

Line
>ines 6also termed segments or arcs8 are one-dimensional
spatial objects. ,esides ha"ing a position in space, they also
ha"e a length.
Area Data or polygon
5reas 6also termed polygons8 are t/o-dimensional spatial
objects /ith not only a position in space and a length but also a
/idth 6in other /ords they ha"e an area8.
<?
Point
Line
Polygon
Visual Variables
)here are se"eral characteristics of a symbol that can be
manipulated, /hich are often referred to as the "isual
"ariables.
)here are t/o types
9.rimary Bisual Bariables
<.'econdary Bisual Bariables
rimary Bisual Bariables
2
)hese are:

'hape

'i#e

=rientation

7lements of %olour
2
4ue
2
Balue
2
%hroma
2
Manipulated to achie"e distinction b;/:

type 6!ualitati"e8

and;or "alue 6!uantitati"e8

'hape
2
5bstract geometric figures or replicati"e,
pictorial shapes
'i#e
2
Bariations in area, height, /idth, thic*ness
=rientation
2
:ndication of actual direction
2
=r relati"e to adjacent symbols
%olour
2
%olour is one of most e-citing aspects of design
2
%olour perception is a combination of physiological
6sensing in the eye and cogniti"e processing8 and
psychological reactions
2
%olour e"o*e emotions. subjecti"e reaction to colour
'econdary Bisual Bariables
2
Repetition of graphic elements results in
patterns that can be "aried in terms:

5rrangement 6attern 8

)e-ture 6attern 8

=rientation 6attern 8
attern 5rrangement
2
Distribution of component mar*s

systematic or random
attern )e-ture
2
(unction of si#e and spacing of mar*s

fine or course te-tures

attern =rientation
2
Direction produced by arrangement of
mar*s
%lasses of symbols:
9.oint emphasi#ing symbols
<.>ine emphasi#ing symbols
?.5rea emphasi#ing symbols
1.Bolume emphasi#ing symbols
'ymboli#ation
2
shape, si#e, orientation
2
colour hue, colour "alue, colour saturation, pattern
2
and location of course
D7':G$ R:$%:>7'
>egibility
Bisual contrast
(igure ground
4ierarchical structure
%ontrast
2
>ines labels, borders, neatlines, political boundaries,
symbols, etc.
2
>ine character type and color
2
>ine /eight thic*ness
2
)e-ture or pattern
2
%olor
2
Bisual acuity 6measures the si#e threshold at /hich the
eye can distinguish or read8
2
Don0t /ant symbols and te-t too small or too big
)e-t %ontrast
2
Mas*ing te-t and symbols /or*s /ell for gi"ing
DimportanceE and clarity.

$otice the te-t

D.oodbineE and road
names.
%ontrast
2
)he shading for /ater along
the coastline pro"ides nice
contrast to the land.

5lso notice that the te-t

label for the /ater is
italicized.
Map Design - Bisual ,alance
2
5ffects aesthetic !uality and interpretation
2
Bisual center just abo"e geometric center
2
5chie"ed through:

5rrangement of map elements

(unction of /eight and direction

2
.eight is a function of location, shape, si#e,
colour, interest, and isolation
2
Direction is a function of location, shape, and
subject matter
Bisual .eight and >ocation
2
=bjects at the edge carry more /eight
2
=bjects closer to the top carry more /eight
2
Right side objects carry more /eight than
left side
Bisual .eight and 'hape
2
Regular shapes appear hea"ier than
irregular shapes
2
%ompact shapes appear hea"ier than
e-tended shapes
Bisual .eight and 'i#e
2
5ll else being e!ual; larger is hea"ier
Bisual .eight and %olour
2
Red is hea"ier than blue
2
.hite is hea"ier than blac*
2
,right colours are hea"ier than dar*
Bisual .eight and :nterest
2
=bjects that attract attention are hea"ier
Bisual .eight and :solation
2
:solated objects appear hea"ier than similar
objects in a group
Bisual Direction and >ocation
2
Relati"e position of neighbouring object
imparts direction
Bisual Direction and 'hape
2
7longated shapes establish direction along
longest a-is
Bisual Direction and 'ubject
2
=bjects possessing intrinsic directional
!ualities establish direction
(igure and Ground =rgani#ation
2
eople tend to organi#e the "isual field into:
2
(igures important objects
2
Grounds things less important
2
Fse contrast distinguish important from unimportant
parts.
(igure Ground =rgani#ation
2
$ormally /ithin mapped area
2
Distinction bet/een foreground and
bac*ground information

7lement of hierarchical and planar organi#ation

(igure Ground =rgani#ation
(-G G erceptual Groupings
2
$atural tendency to organi#e map elements
2
Groups of elements percei"ed as figures
2
More li*ely to occur /hen elements are:

'imilar shape

'imilar si#e

:n close pro-imity
2
%an be ta*en ad"antage of or, in some
cases, should be a"oided
7stablishing (igure - Ground
2
5reas are usually percei"ed as foreground objects
/hen;if:

4omogeneous colours;patterns are used

Dar*er;denser colour patterns are used

7ntire closed forms are depicted

'trong edges are used

:nterpositioning techni!ues 6i.e. o"erlapping elements8

,ase map info establishes familiarity

More detail is pro"ided 6e.g. symbols te-t8

'maller figures are portrayed

>and .ater %ontrast
articularly imp.
Fni!ue ( G
solutions
Bignetting
'hading
>abelling
Fse of graticule
Map Design - Bisual 4ierarchy
2
resentation of elements according to significance
2
urpose is to:

reinforce differences, similarities, and relationships

bet/een map elements

direct map-reader through interpretation process

2
5"oid /hen designing general reference maps
2
lanar organi#ation at hierarchical le"els
)ypical =rgani#ational 'cheme
%olour
2
%olour is one of most e-citing aspects of design
2
%olour perception is a combination of physiological
6sensing in the eye and cogniti"e processing8 and
psychological reactions
2
%olour e"o*e emotions. subjecti"e reaction to colour
'pectral %olor
Dispersion
2
)he amount of refraction depends on the inde- of refraction 5$D the
inde- of refraction depends on the /a"elength
'pectroscope
2
:nstrument that measures the luminosity
emitted at each /a"elength 6or the spectral
po/er distribution8
Retinal cells
2
Rods:

,lac* and /hite "ision

'ensiti"e to lo/ light

9<A million
2
%ones:

>ess sensiti"e

)hree types of cones

/hich form color "ision

H million
%olor sensiti"ity of the eye
%olor perception
2
)he "isual system0s best performance:

%an see about 9AAA le"els of light-dar*

9AA le"els of red-green

9AA le"els of yello/-blue

2
)his means that the total number of colors
/e can see is about 9AAA - 9AA - 9AA I
9A,AAA,AAA 69A million8.
%olor systems
2
'ubtracti"e color: used in situations /here
/a"elengths are absorbed

paint

printing
2
5dditi"e color: used in situations /here
/a"elengths are emitted

lighting design

computer monitors
'ubtracti"e %olor
2
.hen mi-ing colors using paint, or through the
printing process, the subtracti"e color method is used.
2
'ubtracti"e color mi-ing means beginning /ith /hite
and ending /ith blac*.
2
5s one adds color, the result gets dar*er and tends to
blac*.
)ransmission and Reflection of
%olored >ight
2
)he subtracti"e primaries combine to form
blac*.
4alftone printing
%olor halftoning /ith %MJK
separations
(our color printing
2
C!"
2
#yan, magenta, yello/, and $ey 6blac*8
2
subtracti"e color model used in color
printing
2
in* is typically applied in the order of the
abbre"iation
5dditi"e %olor
2
.hen /or*ing on a computer, the colors seen on the screen
are created /ith light using the additi"e color method.
2
5dditi"e color mi-ing begins /ith blac* and ends /ith /hite.
2
5s more color is added, the result is lighter and tends to /hite.
5dditi"e color mi-ing
2
5ny three colors of light
that can be mi-ed to
produce /hite light are
called primary #olors%
2
Red, green, and blue are
the most commonly used
primary colors.
(ilters are designed to pic* out
desired /a"elengths of light
$eutral density filter
2
$eutral density filters reduce the transmission
of all /a"elengths e!ually.
'pectral reflectance
'pectral reflectance cur"es sho/ ho/ much of each
/a"elength of light is reflected by a surface.
2
'pectral reflectance cur"es ha"e been used to
identify healthy and stressed populations of
plants.
%olor systems
2
)he "isible spectrum
consists of billions of
colors.
2
5 monitor can display
millions.
2
5 high !uality printer
is only capable of
producing thousands.
P&OPE&TIES O' COLOU&
(% )UE
*% VALUE + I,TE,SIT!
-% C)&OA + SATU&ATIO,
%olour 4ue
2
Refers to the actual colour or colour type

7.g. red, green, blue

(unction of /a"elength
%olour Balue;:ntensity
2
Determines lightness or dar*ness 6tone8
2
4igher "alue or intensity I lighter tone
50 90 20
%olour %hroma;'aturation
2
Determines intensity as compared to a gray
tone of the same "alue
50 10 100
hue - basic colour /e
percei"e, eg 9< step
.heel
value - lightness or
dar*ness. %an be hard
to percei"e "ariations
in "alue
saturation - intensity or
purity compared to a
neutral gray
Shade. 5 hue produced by
the addition of blac*.
Tint-5 hue produced by the
addition of /hite
%olor /heel
rimary colors
2
%olors at their basic
essence.
2
)hose colors that cannot be
created by mi-ing others.
SECO,DA&! COLOU&S
'econdary colours are green, orange and purple.
'econdary colours are the colours formed by mi-ing the
primary colours.
Jello/L red Iorange
TE&TIA&! COLOU&S /
,y mi-ing each colour /ith its neighbour, /e get si- more
colours, called the tertiary colours.
)ertiary colours are:
yello/-orange
red-orange
red-purple,
blue-purple,
blue-green and yello/-green.
)hese are the colours formed by mi-ing one primary and one
secondary colour.
%omplementary colors
2
)hose colors located opposite
each other on a color /heel.
5nalogous %olors
2
)hose colors located close
together on a color /heel.
0arm Colors: %olors such as red, yello/, and
orange. )hese colors e"o*e /armth because they
remind us of things li*e the sun or fire.
Cool Colors: %olors li*e blue, green, and purple
6"iolet8. )hese colors e"o*e a cool feeling because
they remind us of things li*e /ater or grass.
,eutral Colors: Gray, ,ro/n. )hese arenCt on most
color /heels, but theyCre considered neutral because
they donCt contrast /ith much of anything. )heyCre
dull and une"entful.
Munsell color system
2
)en basic hues
2
(or each hue, there are ten
gradations
2
7ach color has a number
specifying its chroma and
"alue

)he shade b;/ any < hues can be further di"ided into 9Asteps
)o ma*e 9AA hues is further di"ided into "ertically and
hori#ontally .)he "ertical di"ision are called "alue.

7ach hue ha"e 9A shades of "alues ranging from /hite at the

top and bac* at the bottom.

%olors maintain their original

4ue, "alue and chrorma only
.hen sho/n :ndi"idually
4ues of the Munsell system
2
7ach basic hue has the number @
&G1 Color: )his is color based upon light. Jour computer
monitor and tele"ision use RG,. )he name MRG,M stands for Red,
Green, ,lue, /hich are the ? primaries 6/ith green replacing
yello/8. ,y combining these ? colors, any other color can be
produced. Remember, this color method is only used /ith light
sources; it does not apply to printing.
C!" Color: )his is the color method based upon pigments.
M%MJKM stands for %yan, Magenta, Jello/, and ,lac* 6its /hat the K
stands for8. Fsing these 1 colors, most other colors can be achie"ed.
Fnfortunately, %MJK cannot reproduce the same amount of colors as
RG, can, /hich is /hy yello/-greens sometimes loo* a bit muddy
/hen printed.
)his is the method used by printers the /orld o"er, and is also a cle"er
/ay of mi-ing paints.
,lac*-%ultural 6man-made8 features such as buildings and roads,
sur"eyed spot ele"ations, and all labels.
Red-,ro/n -)he colors red and bro/n are combined to identify cultural
features, all relief features, non-sur"eyed spot ele"ations, and ele"ation,
such as contour lines on red-light readable maps.
,lue-.ater features such as la*es, s/amps, ri"ers, and drainage.
Green-Begetation of some significance, such as /oods, orchards, and
"ineyards.
,ro/n-Relief features and ele"ation, such as contours on older edition
maps, and culti"ated land on red-light readable maps.
Red-%ultural features, such as populated areas, main roads, and
boundaries, on older maps.
=ther-=ther colors may be used to sho/ special information. )hese are
indicated in the marginal information as a rule
)ypography and lettering
.hat is )ypography3
2
)he art and techni!ue of selecting and arranging type styles, point
si#es, line lengths, line leading, character spacing, and /ord spacing
for typeset applications. )hese applications can be physical or
digital.
2
)ypography refers to the style and arrangement or appearance of
te-t.
2
)he process of selecting a typeface design, preparing the names, and
placing them in position is collecti"ely called Dlettering the map E.
Map >ettering
2
%onsiderations:

'election of typeface
)ype style
)ype form
'i#e
%olour

lacement of labels
ositioning
'pacing

'uitability for reproduction

2
>egibility is first consideration
2
5esthetics secondary
)ypeface
2
A typefa#e is the basic design of a character.
2
7ach typeface has a design for each letter of the
alphabet, numbers, punctuation symbols and may
contain other symbols.
2
7-ample:

5rial 5,%D7(G4:NK>M$=+R')FB.OJ&
abcdefghij*lmnop!rstu"/-y#
9<?1@PHQRA
STUVWXGY68ZL-I3,.:E0;
)ype 5natomy
2
,aseline
2
Descender
2
--height
2
%aps height
2
5scender
99A
999
99<
Definitions
2
1aseline[5n imaginary hori#ontal line along /hich the
base of a letter sets
2
Des#en2er[)he part of any character 6g, j, p, !, y, and
sometimes N8 that falls belo/ the baseline.
2
3.height[)he height of lo/ercase letters, specifically the
lo/ercase -, not including ascenders and descenders
2
Caps )eight[)he height of capital letters from the
baseline to the top of caps, most accurately measured on a
character /ith a flat bottom 67, 4, :, etc.8
2
As#en2er[)he part of a lo/ercase character 6b, d, f, h, *,
l, t8 that e-tends abo"e the -[height.
2
'erif: stro*e at the ends of a letter
2
'ans 'erif: /ithout serifs
Type Style
Bariations in the thic*ness and stro*e, such as light , bold,
italic, that lend fle-ibility and emphasis in the appearance of
characters constituting a typeface.
)here are mainly ? types of style
9.%lassical
<. Modern
?.'anserif
General Guidelines
2
(ont type:

'tic* to one font type

Bary style 6regular, bold, italic, underlined8

'i#e

Maybe colour

Avoid script type fonts

Avoid fonts that dont reduce well

Avoid fonts that dont reduce well. Use fonts with even line width.
General Guidelines
2
(ont style:
2
F7R %5'7 (=R ):)>7'
2
F7R %5'7 (=R R:M5RJ 5R75'
2
)itle %ase (or 'ubtitles
2
Italics for physiographic features
2
1ol2 to establish 4isual layers
Type 'orm
)he term typographic form refers to /hether type is uppercase or
lo/ercase, /hether its stance is upright or slanted, /hether it is
roman or italic, and combinations of these and similar elements.
:ndi"idual alphabets of any one style consist of t/o !uite different
letter forms, capitals and lo/ercase letters.
)hese t/o forms are used together in a systematic fashion in
/riting, but con"entions as to their use are not /ell established in
cartography.
ast practice has been to put more important names and titles in
capitals and less important names and places in capitals and lo/er
case
Type Si5e
.hen /e are concerned /ith legibility, the subject of type si#e is !uite
comple-, because different type styles at one si#e may actually appear
to be different si#es.

)he light, medium, bold, and e-tra bold "ariations of each type style
further complicate the matter.
5ppreciate /hy the apparent si#e of type can "ary so greatly re!uires a
brief description of ho/ the letters of our alphabet are formed.
)he si#e of letters is designed by points .
9point I 9;9<
th
of an inch or A.?@mm
>ettering that is 9;1
th
of an inch high I9Qpoints
2
,ody te-t si#e should range from R to 9< point. 'tart
/ith 9A and ma*e adjustments.
2
4eading si#e should be appro-imately < points
greater than the body te-t si#e 6or bigger8[remember
contrast is important.
Type Color
:n typography, DcolorE of type refers to the relati"e o"erall tone of pages
set /ith different faces.
4ere it is restricted to the actual hue of the letters and the relation
bet/een the hue and "alue of the type and that of the bac*ground on
/hich it appears.
%ommonly, lettering of e!ual intrinsic importance does not appear e!ual
in "isual /eight from one part of the map to another because of
bac*ground differences.
,y being a/are of these possible effects, you may be able to correct or at
least alle"iate a graphically ine!uitable situation.
%olor 'ymbolism
2
Fse color to con"ey meaning:

,lac*: po/er, stylish, timeless

.hite: purity, neutral, summer

Red: action, confidence, courage, "itality,

lo"e, intensity

Green: life, nature, fertility, calming

,lue: >oyalty, truth, peace, depressing

ositioning
General Guidelines
2
>abel placement for point features:

Fse preferred locations but a"oid:

2
="erlapping labels
2
%ro/ding labels;features
Label (1) Label (2)
Label (3)
Label (4)
Label (5) Label ()
Label (!)
Label (")
Best Placement Alternates
General Guidelines
2
>abel placement for line features:

5bo"e line and in nearly hori#ontal position

%an be repeated for long linear features

:ncrease spacing b;/ /ords;letters

>ine may be interrupted

%ur"ed lettering effecti"e

5"oid lettering upside do/n

>etter from bottom up

General Guidelines
2
>abel placement for areal features:

:ncrease /ord;letter spacing to span area

5djust lettering to shape of feature

lacement can con"ey location;e-tent

2
no border necessary
)ypeface 'pacing
2
Monospace
2
roportional
2
>eading: "ertical space bet/een baselines
2
Kerning: hori#ontal space bet/een letters
2
)rac*ing :spacing b;/ more than < letters
Monospaced )ypefaces
2
7ach letter ta*es up the same amount of
space regardless of the letter si#e.
2
5d"antages

7asier to see thin punctuation mar*s.

'imilar characters loo* more different.

:f limited to a certain number of characters per

line, each line /ill loo* ali*e.
2
Fsed often in computer programming and
biology
Courier is monospaced
roportional )ypefaces
2
roportional

)he amount of space each character ta*es up is

adjusted to the /idth of that character.

)herefore, an i is not as /ide as an m and

recei"es less space.
2
5d"antages

Does not ta*e up as much space as monospaced

typefaces.

7asier to read.
2
Fsed in most documents and publications.
)imes $e/ Roman is proportional
>eading
2
)he "ertical spacing bet/een lines of te-t.
2
:n most soft/are programs, it is referred to as line
spacing.
2
:f there /ere no space bet/een the lines of te-t, the
letters /ould touch the lines abo"e and belo/ them
and /ould be e-tremely difficult to read.
2
Fsed to:

'lightly increase or decrease the length of a

column of te-t so that it is e"en /ith an adjacent
column.

)o ma*e a bloc* of te-t fit in a space that is larger

or smaller than the te-t bloc*.
Kerning
2
4ori#ontal spacing bet/een pairs of letters
2
Fsed to add or subtract space bet/een pairs
of letters to create a more "isually appealing
and readable te-t.
2
,==K before *erning.
after *erning the =0s.
)rac*ing
2
4ori#ontal spacing bet/een all of characters
in a large bloc* of te-t.
2
Ma*es a bloc* of te-t seem more open or
more dense.
2
7-amples
)rac*ing %ontinued
2
Ma*es a bloc* of te-t more open and airy or more
dense.
2
Fsed to e-pand or contract a bloc* of te-t for the
purpose of aligning t/o columns.
(orming the >etters

.e no/ turn from the design aspects of type to methods of creating

the characters. )he technology of lettering has al/ays influenced the
use of type on maps.
,it-Mapped )ype

:n the raster approach to typography, /e define a character by a

special arrangement of pi-els.
=utline )ype

)he alternati"e to bit-mapped type is to treat characters as graphic

objects.

)he object outline is then defined mathematically and procedurally,

and consists of "erte-es.

)his outline description permits a master character to be scaled to a

range of si#es /ith no loss of graphic !uality.
Methods of lettering
%erographic techni!ue:
)he art of ma*ing characters or designs in, or /ith, /a-.
5 method of ma*ing stereotype plates from inscribed sheets of /a-.
(ree-hand lettering:
/ithout mechanical aids using
the basics stro*es for each letter
/ith encils, pens, mar*ers, or brushes.
)ere are some gui2elines/

$ames should be either entirely on land or on /ater

>ettering should be oriented to match the orientation structure of the

map. =n large-scale maps, this means that type should be parallel /ith
the upper and lo/er edges of the map;

in small-scale maps, type should be parallel /ith the parallels.

)ype should not be cur"ed 6that is, different from rule < abo"e8unless it
is necessary to do so.

Disoriented lettering 6rule < abo"e8 should ne"er be set in a straight line
but should al/ays ha"e a slight cur"e.

$ames should be letter spaced as little as possible. )hat is, there should
not be /ide spaces bet/een letters in the name.

.here the continuity of names and other map data, such as lines and
tones, conflicts /ith the lettering, the data not the names, should be
interrupted.

>ettering should ne"er be upside do/n.

%ommunication in Maps
Reality\.
)he geographic
en"ironment
%ompile
%artographer
G:';%5D specialist
Map
Map
Recogni#e
'elect
%lassify
'implify
Read
'ymboli#e
5naly#e
:nterpret
Map Fser
:mage
Mental
image
of reality
Map
'un#tions of Lettering
>i*e all other mar*s on a map, the type is a symbol, but its function is
more complicated than most symbols.
>iteral symbol-names of the features sho/n on the map.
>ocati"e symbol- helps to indicate the location of points 6such as
cities8.
$ominal symbol- to sho/ nominal classes to /hich features belong
li*e ri"er.
=rdinal symbol- sho/ing hierarchy among geographical phenomena
/ith respect to si#e, importance, and so on