KEYWORDS

Element
a substance that cannot be broken down by chemical means into other
substances
Atom a chemical element in its smallest form
Mass number protons + neutrons
Ion is formed when an atom loses or gains an electron ( cation + anion - )
Isotope an atom of the same element with a different number of
Compound a substance made up or 2 + chemically bonded elements
Molecule
the smallest part of a covalent compound/element that can exist on its
own
RAM
average mass of an element relative to 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12
atom (i.e. mass of 1 atom of an element)


MASS SPECTROMETER
Measures the mass of atoms, molecules, frags of molecules
Used to determine elements RAM, pharmaceutical industires, carbon-14
dating, and drug urine tests

1) Air pumped out of spec & substance injected in gaseous form
2) Gaseous atoms undergo ionisation by electron bombardment
3) Positive particles accelerated by an electric field through a slit and emerging
as a parallel beam
4) Magnetic field deflects ions by their mass. The path it takes is relative to its
mass/charge ratio (lower mass = first)
5) Computer connected records ions
Calculate RAM from Mass Spec
Out of every 100 atoms 90.92 are 20Ne , 0.26 are 21Ne and 8.82 are 22Ne
(90.92% x 20) + (0.26% x 21) + (8.82% x 22) = 20.179 / 100 = 20.18 = Neon RAM
( Divide be 100 if percentage, otherwise by sum of abundance)

Calculate Abundance
E.g. Isotope Cu-63 and C-65, what is the abundance %?
Cu RAM = 63.5 Cu-63 = x Cu-65= 1-x
63x + 65 (1-x) = 63.5 (take out brackets)
63x + 65 - 65x = 63.5 (-65x from both sides)
-2x + 65 = 63.5 (-65 from sum and answer)
-2x = -1.5 2x = 1.5 x = 1.5 / 2 = 0.75% = C-63 and 0.25% = C-65

Carbon-14 dating: C-14 is radioactive and activity halves every 5730 years as it
changes to N-14. When organism dies, contains standard ratio of C-12 : C:14, then
C-14 decreases. The mass spectrometer can measure the decay of C-14.

ORBITALS
Aufbau Principle: Electrons enter the lowest energy orbital available
Orbitals can hold a maximum of 2 electrons provided they have opposite spin
Principal Level +
Number of sub levels

Type of orbitals
Number of
orbitals

Number of electrons
N = 1 1s 1 2
N = 2 2s 1 2
2p 3 6 = 8
N=3 3s 1 2
3p 3 6
3d 5 10 = 18
N=4 4s 1 2
4p 3 6
4d 5 10
4f 7 14 = 32


PERIODICITY
The pattern of regularly repeating physical and chemical properties

Effective Nuclear Charge and Shielding Effect
Electrons are attracted to the nucleus of an atom by electromagnetic force
Effective Nuclear Charge is the net charge an electron experiences in an atom.
The ENC increases the smaller the atom radii as the electrons are closer to the
nucleus
Shielding effect is where inner electrons black outer electrons from the attraction
of the nucleus
Electronic Configuration


Atomic Radii
decrease period due to increase in nuclear charge attracting electrons more
(more protons = electrons pulled closer)
increase group due to more shells, less attraction between protons & electrons
cations: smaller than neutral atom because loses outer electrons
anions: larger than neutral atoms because it gains electrons

Ionisation Energy
The energy needed to remove an electron from an atom (kJ mol-
1
)
Depends on effective nuclear charge/distance of electron from nucleus
Big jumps of energy means it is removing an electron from a full shell
1
st
IE : Na
(g)
> Na
+
(g)
(Neutral Ion+ electron)
2
nd
IE : Na
+
(g)
> Na
2
+
(g)
(Ion+ Ion2+ electron)

Electron Affinity
The energy change when an electron is added to a mole of neutral gaseous
atoms
1
st
EA : Na
(g)
+ e- = Na
-
(g) (Neutral + electron Ion-)


Electronegativity
A measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons
Increases period, decreases period
Non-metals have high electronegativity because smaller atom = electrons closer
(takers)
Metals have low electronegativity because bigger atom = electrons further
(givers)
Noble gases do not have electronegativity because outer orbit is full
Use state symbols when: - gas is produced from liquid, a precipitate is formed,
thermochemical equation, ionic equation