T h e Ch anging

W o r l d
o f T h ink
T ank s
~T h e
Ch anging W o r l d
~o f T h ink T ank s
R. Ke nt W e ave r
T h e
Br o o k ings Ins titutio n W
th at th e U.S. e co no my wil l incr e as ingl y be R.
KENT W EAVER
d o minate d by s e r vice ind us tr ie s . At l e as t
o ne s e r vice ind us tr y in th e Unite d State s
d o e s appe ar to be gr o wand ting and
th r iving, d e s pite
s o me ve r y ad ve r s e e co no mic cir cum-
s tance s . T h at ind us tr y is th e no n-pr o f it publ ic po l icy r e s e ar ch ind us tr y, mo r e co mmo nl y
k no wn as "th ink tank s ." T h e th ink tank unive r s e h as be co me much mo r e d ive r s e o ve r th e
pas t d e cad e , r e f l e cting bo th ne w e ntr ants into th e mar k e tpl ace o f id e as and
ch ange s in
th e s e o r ganizatio ns ' e nvir o nme nt. T h e r e ar e , mo r e o ve r , inh e r e nt te ns io ns in
any o f th e
th r e e main mo d e l s
("unive r s ity with o ut s tud e nts ," co ntr act
r e s e ar ch e r , and
ad vo cacy
tank ) th at th ink tank s may pur s ue .
Atte mpting to mix th e mo d e l s can be d if f icul t to o .
T h e s e te ns io ns and e nvir o nme ntal ch ange s h ave cr e ate d tr e me nd o us unce r tainty, but
al s o s o me e ntr e pr e ne ur ial
o ppo r tunitie s , f o r th ink tank manage r s . Incr e as ingl y, th e s e
manage r s mus t be
co nce r ne d with f ind ing a viabl e nich e in
a
cr o wd e d , f r agme nte d
mar k e t. And th e y mus t d o s o wh il e d e al ing with s taf f s wh o may b e r e s is tant no t o nl y to
s pe cif ic co ur s e s o f ch ange , but al s o to e xte r nal d ir e ctio n o f any s o r t.
An Ove r vie w
T h e r e is no accur ate co unt o f
th ink
tank s in th e Unite d State s ,
o r
e ve n an acce pte d
d e f initio n o f wh at a th ink tank is . T h is pape r wil l d e al o nl y with no n-pr o f it o r ganizatio ns
h aving s ubs tantial o r ganizatio nal ind e pe nd e nce .
T h e
bo und ar y l ine be twe e n th e s e o r gani-
zatio ns and o th e r s is no t cl e ar -cut. Fo r e xampl e th e r e ar e s o me unive r s ity-bas e d r e s e ar ch
ce nte r s (e .g., th e Unive r s ity o f W is co ns in's Ins titute f o r Re s e ar ch o n Po ve r ty) th at d o
wo r k th at is id e ntical to th at at th e ind e pe nd e nt
th ink tank s .
And s o me th ink tank s (e .g.,
th e Ho o ve r Ins titutio n o n W ar , Re vo l utio n and Pe ace ) h ave quite cl o s e , al th o ugh o f te n
th e Ho o ve r Ins titutio n o n W ar , Re vo l utio n and
Pe ace )
h ave
quite cl o s e ,
al th o ugh
o f te n
Se pte mbe r
1989
563
T h e
Ch anging
W o r l d o f T h ink T ank s
une as y, r e l atio ns h ips
with
s pe cif ic
unive r s itie s .' T h ink tank s ar e al s o
unus ual l y th o ugh t
o f as
no n-pr o f it,
but th e r e s e ar ch d o ne at s o me th ink tank s with a
h e avy
r e l iance o n
go ve r n-
me nt co ntr acts
(e .g.,
th e Rand
Co r po r atio n)
is o f te n
ind is tinguis h abl e
f r o m th at d o ne
by
f o r -pr o f it co mpanie s (e .g.,
th e Ar th ur D. Littl e
Co mpany).
T h e r e is al s o no
acce pte d
d e f initio n o f wh at th ink tank s d o o r s h o ul d d o . One r e ce nt
pr e s s r e po r t s ugge s te d
th at a th ink tank
migh t
be d e f ine d as "an
ar r ange me nt by
wh ich
mil l io ns o f d o l l ar s ar e r e mo ve d f r o m th e acco unts o f
wil l ing co r po r atio ns ,
th e
go ve r n-
me nt,
and th e e cce ntr ic
we al th y
and
give n
to r e s e ar ch e r s wh o
s pe nd
much o f th e ir time
co mpe ting
to
ge t
th e ir name s in
pr int" (Ke l l e y, 1988).
T h is acco unt is
und o ubte d l y cynical .
But it d o e s
po int
to a ce r tain co nf us io n abo ut th e f unctio ns
pe r f o r me d by
th ink tank s -a
co nf us io n s o me time s s h ar e d
by
th e
manage r s ,
tr us te e s ,
and r e s e ar ch e r s at th e s e ins titu-
tio ns .
Mis und e r s tand ings
abo ut th e r o l e o f th ink tank s al s o r e f l e ct an
incr e as ing d ive r s ity
in
th ink tank activitie s
pr o mpte d
in
par t by
ne w e ntr ants into th e f ie l d . In
par ticul ar ,
th e
bo und ar y
be twe e n
o bje ctive po l icy
e val uatio n and
po l icy ad vo cacy
h as be co me bl ur r e d
by o r ganizatio ns
s uch as th e
He r itage
Fo und atio n and
Ral ph
Nad e r 's
r e s e ar ch /ad vo cacy
gr o ups .
T h e r e
cl e ar l y
h as be e n an
e xpl o s io n
in th e numbe r o f th ink tank s in r e ce nt
ye ar s
T h e
s pr ing
1988 e d itio n o f th e
W as h ingto n d ir e cto r y
Capital So ur ce l is ts 69
o r ganizatio ns
und e r
th e
h e ad ing
"T h ink T ank s ."
Mo r e o ve r ,
a numbe r o f
pr o mine nt
th ink tank s ar e bas e d
"o uts id e th e
Be l tway,"
s uch as th e Hud s o n Ins titute
(Ind ianapo l is ),
th e Ho o ve r Ins titutio n
(Pal o Al to )
and th e Rand
Co r po r atio n (Santa Mo nica).2
Ind e e d , much o f th e r e ce nt
gr o wth
in th ink tank
activity
h as o ccur r e d o uts id e
W as h ingto n,
at ins titutio ns
s pe cial izing
in s tate
and l o cal is s ue s
(Mo o r e , 1988). De s pite
th e ir s ubnatio nal f o cus , th e s e ins titutio ns s o me -
time s mak e a natio nal
s pl as h :
it was th e Ne w Yo r k
City's
Manh attan Ins titute f o r
Po l icy
Re s e ar ch , f o r
e xampl e ,
th at f inance d Ch ar l e s
Mur r ay's Lo s ing Gr o und , pe r h aps
th e mo s t
inf l ue ntial bo o k
publ is h e d
o n s o cial
po l icy
in th is d e cad e .3 So me o f th e ne we r th ink tank s
ar e
e xtr e me l y
s mal l -o ne to te n
pe r s o ns -and
ar e
r e al l y
th e
pe r s o nal
ve h icl e s o f ind ivid ual
e ntr e pr e ne ur s . Many
o f th e s e s mal l
o r ganizatio ns
wo ul d no t e xis t
f o r mal l y
at al l we r e it
no t f o r th e
pr e f e r e nce
o f f o und atio ns to f und
no n-pr o f it o r ganizatio ns
r ath e r th an ind ivid -
ual r e s e ar ch e r s .
T h e
gr o wth
in th e r ank s o f th ink tank s h as co me , ir o nical l y,
at a time o f d e cl ine in f e d e r al
f und ing
f o r s o cial s cie nce r e s e ar ch und e r th e
Re agan
ad minis tr atio n. At th e
Br o o k ings
Ins ti-
tutio n,
f o r
e xampl e , go ve r nme nt
co ntr acts f e l l f r o m 22
pe r ce nt
o f r e ve nue s in 1982 to 3
pe r ce nt
in 1987
(Br o o k ings 1987).
T h e
r e s ul ting
f is cal cr unch f o r ce d
many
th ink tank s to
"d o wns ize " and e co no mize . T h e Ur ban Ins titute , f o r
e xampl e ,
cut its s taf f in h al f in
1981-82. It al s o s e t o f f a s e r io us s cr ambl e to
r e pl ace
l o s t
go ve r nme nt f und ing
with o th e r
s o ur ce s o f r e ve nue .4
Unive r s ity
with o ut Stud e nts
Fo r
many ye ar s ,
th e th ink tank s ce ne was d o minate d
by
a f e w ins titutio ns , wh ich co ul d
be
cate go r ize d r o ugh l y
into two
type s :
"unive r s itie s with o ut s tud e nts " and
no n-pr o f it
go ve r nme nt
r e s e ar ch co ntr acto r s . T h e s tud e ntl e s s unive r s itie s te nd to be ch ar acte r ize d
by h e avy
r e l iance o n acad e mics as r e s e ar ch e r s , by f und ing pr imar il y
f r o m th e
pr ivate
s e c-
to r
(with var ying
mixtur e s o f f o und atio n, co r po r ate
and ind ivid ual
f und ing),
and
by
bo o k -
l e ngth
s tud ie s as th e
pr imar y
r e s e ar ch
pr o d uct. Al th o ugh
th e s e
o r ganizatio ns
o f te n ad -
d r e s s
s pe cif ic l e gis l ative pr o po s al s ,
th e ir h o r izo ns h ave
tr ad itio nal l y
be e n
l o ng-te r m,
f o cus e d o n
ch anging
th e cl imate o f e l ite
o pinio n
PS: Po l itical Scie nce & Po l itics 564
T h e
Ch anging
W o r l d o f T h ink T ank s
T abl e I. T h ink T ank s Rank e d
by
Size
(Data
ar e
o pe r ating
r e ve nue s f o r 1987 f is cal
ye ar
unl e s s o th e r wis e
no te d )
(T h o us and s
o f
Do l l ar s )
Rand
Co r po r atio n
77,693
Br o o k ings
Ins titutio n 14,940
He r itage
Fo und atio n 14,300
Ho o ve r Ins titutio n 13,900a
Ur ban Ins titute I 1,728
Ame r ican
Ente r pr is e
Ins titute 9,087
Ce nte r f o r
Str ate gic
and Inte r natio nal Stud ie s 8,576b
Hud s o n Ins titute 4,943c
Re s o ur ce s f o r th e Futur e 4,485d
Cato Ins titute 2,161
b
Ins titute f o r
Po l icy
Stud ie s 2,100
aEs timate d
bud ge t
f o r 1987-88.
bOpe r ating bud ge t.
CExcl ud ing
th e Ce nte r f o r Naval
Anal ys e s .
d l ncl ud e s r e s e r ve f und inve s tme nt inco me
T h e
Br o o k ings
Ins titutio n is
us ual l y r e gar d e d
as th e
pr o ge nito r
o f th e f ir s t
type
o f th ink
tank . It d ate s back to 1927, wh e n it was f o r me d
by me r ging
th r e e o th e r ins titutio ns . Fr o m
th e
o uts e t,
Br o o k ings ' manage me nt
s tr e s s e d th e
impo r tance
o f
r igo r o us
acad e mic s tan-
d ar d s o f
o bje ctivity
and
no n-par tis ans h ip
in r e s e ar ch . Ins titutio ns te nd to tak e o n th e cas t
o f th e ir
l e ad e r s , h o we ve r ,
and
Br o o k ings acquir e d
a
r e putatio n
f ir s t as a co ns e r vative f o e
o f th e Ne w
De al ,
l ate r as a l ibe r al
pr o po ne nt
o f th e Gr e at
So cie ty,
and mo s t
r e ce ntl y
as
an ins titutio n th at s tr ive s f o r th e ce nte r .5
Al th o ugh Br o o k ings
h as at time s d o ne s ubs tantial
wo r k o n co ntr act with th e f e d e r al
go ve r nme nt,
it h as
s pe cial ize d
in
bo o k -l e ngth
s tud ie s
d o ne
by
an in-h o us e s taf f . W h il e mo s t o f th e r e s e ar ch s taf f ar e Ph .D.
po l itical
s cie ntis ts and
e co no mis ts , s o me ar e f o r me r
jo ur nal is ts
and
go ve r nme nt
o f f icial s -and s o me s taf f e r s h ave
a mixe d
back gr o und .
T h e Ame r ican
Ente r pr is e
Ins titute f o r Publ ic
Po l icy
Re s e ar ch
(AEI)
is no t
quite
as o l d as
Br o o k ings (1943)
and h as h ad a mo r e co ns is te nt
id e ntity
as a co ns e r vative ins titutio n. AEI
h as al s o
tr ad itio nal l y
h ad cl o s e tie s to th e bus ine s s
co mmunity:
in
1987, 63
pe r ce nt
o f its
r e ve nue s came f r o m
co r po r atio ns (Ame r ican Ente r pr is e
Ins titute ,
1987).
Fo r mo s t o f
its
h is to r y,
it h as al s o r e l ie d mo r e
h e avil y
th an
Br o o k ings
o n a no n-r e s id e nt r e s e ar ch s taf f .
But
by
th e
1970s ,
its
s taf f ing
and
many
o f its r e s e ar ch
pr o d ucts
we r e s imil ar to th o s e at
Br o o k ings .
On th e s ame s id e o f th e
po l itical s pe ctr um
as
AEI,
but o n th e
o ppo s ite
co as t, is
th e Ho o ve r Ins titutio n o n
W ar , Re vo l utio n and Pe ace .6 Al l th r e e o f th e s e ins titutio ns ar e
quite l ar ge : Br o o k ings '
1987
bud ge t
was $15.4 mil l io n,
Ho o ve r 's abo ut $12.7 mil l io n, and
AEI's -af te r
majo r
cutback s -abo ut $7.7 mil l io n
(s e e
T abl e
I).
Bo th
Br o o k ings
and Ho o ve r
h ave s taf f s o f abo ut
200,
incl ud ing s uppo r t
s taf f as we l l as r e s e ar ch e r s . Al s o incl ud e d in th is
gr o up
o f "unive r s itie s with o ut s tud e nts " ar e th e l ibe r tar ian Cato Ins titute and th e l e f tis h
Ins titute f o r
Po l icy
Stud ie s
7
Al o ngs id e
th e s e
ins titutio ns ,
wh ich ad d r e s s a br o ad
s pe ctr um
o f is s ue s , h ave
gr o wn up
ano th e r s e t o f
o r ganizatio ns -mo s tl y
ne we r ,
s mal l e r and
W as h ingto n-bas e d -wh ich
f o cus
o n a nar r o we r
r ange
o f
is s ue s ,
but with th e s ame s tr e s s o n
r igo r o us
r e s e ar ch and
(in
mo s t
cas e s )
r e l iance o n acad e mic r e s e ar ch e r s . T h e Ins titute f o r Inte r natio nal Eco no mics
(l IE),
th e
Ce nte r f o r
Str ate gic
and Inte r natio nal Stud ie s
(CSIS)
and th e
Car ne gie
End o wme nt f o r In-
te r natio nal Pe ace al l
car r y
o ut r e s e ar ch in th e
f o r e ign po l icy
ar e a. T h e
Jo int
Ce nte r f o r
Po l itical
Stud ie s ,
co nce ntr ate s o n is s ue s o f
impo r tance
to bl ack Ame r icans .8 Re s o ur ce s f o r
th e Futur e
(RFF)
and th e W o r l d watch Ins titute e xamine e nvir o nme ntal is s ue s
Se pte mbe r
1989 565
T h e
Ch anging
W o r l d o f T h ink T ank s
T h e l abe l "unive r s itie s with o ut s tud e nts '
natur al l y
r ais e s a
que s tio n:
if th e s e
pl ace s
ar e
d o ing
th e s ame
th ing
as
unive r s ity
f acul tie s ,
wh y
s h o ul d
th e y
e xis t at al l ? T h e ans we r is th at
r e s e ar ch f r o m th e two
type s
o f
o r ganizatio ns
is
us ual l y
s o me wh at
d if f e r e nt,
f o r s e ve r al
r e as o ns .
Fir s t,
unive r s ity-bas e d
r e s e ar ch e r s f ace a d if f e r e nt s e t o f ince ntive s : inte r e s t in
s ubs tantive
po l icy
is s ue s and in th e
po l icy pr o ce s s
is
r ar e l y
r e war d e d as much in th e unive r -
s ity
as ar e th e o r e tical co ntr ibutio ns to th e r e s e ar ch e r 's
d is cipl ine .
At th ink
tank s ,
th e s e
pr io r itie s
ar e r e ve r s e d . A s e co nd r e as o n
unive r s ity-bas e d
r e s e ar ch
may
d if f e r f r o m th at at
th ink tank s is th at
unive r s ity-bas e d
r e s e ar ch e r s ar e l e s s
l ik e l y
to h ave co ntact with
po l icy
activis ts and o th e r
po l icy
r e s e ar ch e r s th an th o s e at th ink tank s . Fo r bo th o f th e s e
r e as o ns ,
th e "s tud e ntl e s s unive r s itie s " ar e mo r e
l ik e l y
th an unive r s itie s to
pr o d uce
r e s e ar ch th at is
attune d to cur r e nt
po l icy
d e bate s . T h is r e s e ar ch is al s o
l ik e l y
to tak e a d if f e r e nt
f o r m-mo r e
l ik e l y
bo o k s and
mo no gr aph s
th an ar ticl e s in r e f e r e e d acad e mic
jo ur nal s .
And
it is mo r e
l ik e l y
to incl ud e co ncl us io ns abo ut h o w cur r e nt
po l icy
s h o ul d be
mo d if ie d , e ve n
if th o s e co ncl us io ns ar e
gr ud gingl y
tack e d o n
by
th e r e s e ar ch e r in th e l as t
ch apte r .
;4,
^t~
^
t^h & V#*% k ?U" `4k d t4d "
MjL
T h e
"unive r s ity
with o ut s tud e nts " mo d e l is no t with o ut its inte r nal
te ns io ns , h o we ve r .
Mo s t
impo r tant
is th e te ns io n be twe e n th e
pr o f e s s io nal
no r ms o f acad e mic r e s e ar ch e r s
(no tabl y th o r o ugh ne s s
and
o bje ctivity)
and r e l e vance to
po l icy
d e bate s .
Po l icymak e r s
r ar e l y
h ave th e time o r incl inatio n to r e ad th e
bo o k -l e ngth
s tud ie s th at acad e mics
pr o -
d uce .
Re co gnitio n
o f th is f act is r e f l e cte d in a
l o ng-s tand ing jo k e
at th e
Br o o k ings
Ins titutio n
th at "o ur bo o k s ar e wr itte n f o r
po l icymak e r s
and r e ad
by co l l e ge
s tud e nts ." An
o ptimis -
tic
way
o f
l o o k ing
at th is is th at s uch s tud ie s wil l inf l ue nce no t th e cur r e nt ad minis tr atio n o r
th e ne xt
ad minis tr atio n, but s e ve r al ad minis tr atio ns d o wn th e r o ad . But mo s t th ink tank
manage r s
h ave al s o
atte mpte d
to h ave a
gr e ate r
inf l ue nce o n cur r e nt
po l icy
d e bate s
by
al te r ing
th e ir
"pr o d uct
mix." T h e Ame r ican
Ente r pr is e
Ins titute h as
publ is h e d
a s e r ie s o f
br ie f
anal ys e s
o f cur r e nt
l e gis l atio n,
f o r
e xampl e .
T h e Co ntr act Re s e ar ch
Or ganizatio n
T h e s e co nd
type
o f th ink tank is th e co ntr act r e s e ar ch
o r ganizatio n.
T h e r e s e ar ch
pr o d -
uct o f co ntr act r e s e ar ch e r s mo r e o f te n co ns is ts o f
r e po r ts
f o r
s pe cif ic go ve r nme nt age n-
cie s th an bo o k s o r
mo no gr aph s
f o r an acad e mic aud ie nce .
Ind e e d ,
th e s e s tud ie s
may
no t
be avail abl e to th e
ge ne r al publ ic
at al l unl e s s th e
age ncy
ch o o s e s to r e l e as e th e m. T h e r e -
s e ar ch
age nd a
f o r co ntr act r e s e ar ch e r s is s e t
pr imar il y by
wh at th e
age ncy
is
wil l ing
to
pay
f o r
f f ^itCiti^Mte 0^l ^C^^.. . . .
Many
o f th e s e
o r ganizatio ns
h ave
e s pe cial l y
cl o s e tie s to a
par ticul ar age ncy.
T h e Rand
Co r po r atio n,
f o r
e xampl e ,
is
e s s e ntial l y
a co ntr act r e s e ar ch e r f o r th e
De par tme nt
o f
De f e ns e ,
al th o ugh
it d o e s s o me r e s e ar ch f o r o th e r
go ve r nme nt age ncie s
and f o r f o und a-
tio ns . T h e
s te ad y
d ie t o f d e f e ns e d o l l ar s h as mad e Rand
by
f ar th e
l ar ge s t
o f th e th ink
tank s ,
with f is cal
ye ar
1986/87 r e ve nue s o f al mo s t $77 mil l io n.9 T h e Ur ban
Ins titute ,
o r iginal l y
e s tabl is h e d as an "Ur ban Rand "
d ur ing
th e Jo h ns o n ad minis tr atio n,
al s o r e l ie s
ve r y h e avil y
o n f e d e r al co ntr acts f o r
pr o gr am
e val uatio n,
al th o ugh
it h as tr ie d to br o ad e n
its f is cal bas e in r e ce nt
ye ar s
10
In th e 1980s , th e Ur ban Ins titute is be s t k no wn f o r its mul ti-
PS: Po l itical Scie nce & Po l itics 566
T h e
Ch anging
W o r l d o f T h ink T ank s
vo l ume
s tud y
o f
"Ch anging
Do me s tic Pr io r itie s " in th e
Re agan
ad minis tr atio n,
a r e s e ar ch
pr o d uct ve r y typical
o f th e unive r s itie s with o ut s tud e nts .
W h il e th e r e ar e
impo r tant
d if f e r e nce s be twe e n th e "unive r s itie s with o ut s tud e nts " and
co ntr act
r e s e ar ch e r s ,
th e r e ar e al s o
impo r tant
s imil ar itie s ,
no tabl y h e avy
us e o f Ph .D.s
and an
e mph as is
o n
o bje ctive anal ys is .
But th e e xis te nce o f co ntr act r e s e ar ch e r s r ais e s th e
s ame
que s tio n
as s tud e ntl e s s unive r s itie s :
wh y
can't th e ir wo r k be d o ne
e l s e wh e r e ,
no tabl y by
th e
age ncie s
th e ms e l ve s ? On th e mo s t mund ane
l e ve l ,
co ntr act r e s e ar ch e r s
al l o w
age ncie s
to
ge t
ar o und
pe r s o nne l ce il ings pl ace d
o n th e
age ncy by Co ngr e s s .
Since
co ntr act r e s e ar ch e r s ar e no t
age ncy e mpl o ye e s , th e y
d o n't co unt
agains t
th e
ce il ings .
Age ncie s may
al s o val ue co ntr act r e s e ar ch e r s as an e xte r nal vo ice th at can be
h e l pf ul
in
r e s o l ving d is pute s
with in th e
age ncy. Age ncy
l e ad e r s and th e ir
o ve r s igh t age ncie s may
al s o
be l ie ve th at co ntr act r e s e ar ch e r s ar e mo r e f r e e to
s ay th ings
th at ar e cr itical o f th e
age n-
cie s . Of
co ur s e ,
co ntr act r e s e ar ch e r s o f te n f ace
pr e s s ur e s
to f o l l o w th e
age ncy
l ine ,
e s pe -
cial l y
if
th e y
ar e
h igh l y d e pe nd e nt
o n a
s ingl e age ncy.
But th e s e
pr e s s ur e s may
be o f f s e t
s o me wh at
by
th e d e s ir e o f th e
o r ganizatio n
to maintain its
r e putatio n
f o r
o bje ctivity
and
by
th e
pr o f e s s io nal
no r ms o f r e s e ar ch e r s .
Ne ve r th e l e s s ,
th e r e is a
f und ame ntal ,
ine vitabl e
te ns io n with in th e co ntr act r e s e ar ch
o r ganizatio n
mo d e l be twe e n th e no r m o f
o bje ctivity
and th e
o r ganizatio n's
f inancial
d e pe nd e nce
o n o ne o r a f e w
age ncie s .
Ad vo cacy
T ank s
A d is tinctive ne w th ink tank mo d e l h as
d e ve l o pe d
in r e ce nt
ye ar s al o ngs id e
th e o l d e r
th ink tank mo d e l s o f th e s tud e ntl e s s
unive r s ity
and th e co ntr act r e s e ar ch e r . W h il e th e r e
ar e
many
d if f e r e nce s
amo ng
th e s e
o r ganizatio ns , th e y
ar e o f te n
co l l e ctive l y
l abe l e d "ad -
vo cacy
tank s ."
Ad vo cacy
tank s co mbine a
s tr o ng po l icy, par tis an
o r
id e o l o gical
be nt with
aggr e s s ive s al e s mans h ip
and an e f f o r t to inf l ue nce cur r e nt
po l icy
d e bate s .
Ad vo cacy
tank s
s ynth e s ize
and
put
a d is tinctive
"s pin"
o n
e xis ting
r e s e ar ch r ath e r th an
car r ying
o ut
o r iginal
r e s e ar ch . W h at
may
be
l ack ing
in
s ch o l ar s h ip
is mad e
up
f o r in th e ir
acce s s ibil ity
to
po l icymak e r s .
T h e
He r itage
Fo und atio n,
f o r
e xampl e ,
aims to mak e its
po l icy
is s ue
pape r s
br ie f
e no ugh
to r e ad in a l imo us ine r id e f r o m Natio nal
Air po r t
to
Capito l
Hil l
(Be ncive nga
1984).
And it h and d e l ive r s th e m to
co ngr e s s io nal
o f f ice s and o th e r
impo r tant po we
ce nte r s .
4"LXO 4o A.tuie M W 'b*
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?.k .
4
Ad vo cacy
tank s ar e f o und e d f o r s e ve r al r e as o ns .
Many
o f th e m ar e
unabas h e d l y par -
tis an and
id e o l o gical ,
l ik e th e co ns e r vative
He r itage
Fo und atio n. Oth e r s ar e tie d
cl o s e l y
to
par ticul ar
inte r e s ts and
o r ganizatio ns ,
s uch as th e AARP
(Ame r ican
As s o ciatio n o f Re tir e d
Pe r s o ns )
Publ ic
Po l icy
Ins titute ,
and th e Eco no mic
Po l icy
Ins titute ,
wh ich is f und e d
by
a
co al itio n o f l abo r unio ns . " And in th e 1988 e l e ctio n
cycl e ,
s e ve r al
pr e s id e ntial
cand id ate s
f o und th at
e s tabl is h ing
th e ir o wn "th ink tank s " was a co nve nie nt
way
to f inance th e ir
po l icy
ad vice
o pe r atio ns
wh il e
ge tting
ar o und Fe d e r al El e ctio n Co mmis s io n and Inte r nal
Re ve nue Se r vice r ul e s o n
po l itical
co ntr ibutio ns
(Fl y, 1986).
Ad vo cacy
tank s al s o
e xpe r ie nce
d if f icul tie s in th e ir e f f o r ts to inf l ue nce
po l icy
d e bate s .
T h e mo s t
impo r tant d if f icul ty
is
maintaining cl ar ity
o f vis io n with o ut
be ing igno r e d
o r d is -
Se pte mbe r
1989
567
T h e
Ch anging
W o r l d o f T h ink T ank s
co unte d be caus e th e ins titutio n is
pe r ce ive d
as
r igid
and
pr e d ictabl e .
T h is
d ange r
can be
s e e n in th e co mme nt th at th e
o pinio n page
e d ito r o f th e
Ch icago
T r ibune mad e abo ut th e
co ns e r vative ,
Ch icago -bas e d
He ar tl and Ins titute : "T h e ir
o p-e d pie ce s
ar e s o
te r r ibl y
o ne -
s id e d th at af te r
yo u
r e ad o ne o r two
yo u
h ave r e ad th e m al l
(Mo o r e ,
1988:
p. 2456)."
Ro l e s f o r T h ink T ank s
T h ink tank s
pl ay
a
var ie ty
o f r o l e s in th e U.S.
po l icy pr o ce s s . Amo ng
th e tas k s th at th ink
tank s
co mmo nl y pe r f o r m
ar e th e
f o l l o wing:
So ur ce
o f Po l icy
Id e as : One o f th e tas k s
co mmo nl y
as s o ciate d with th ink tank s is th e
e xpl o -
r atio n and
po pul ar izatio n
o f id e as th at
may
no t be
po l itical l y
f e as ibl e in th e s h o r t te r m, but
gr ad ual l y gain acce ptance amo ng po l icymak e r s
and
e ve ntual l y
f ind
e no ugh ch ampio ns
th at
th e y
can be e nacte d .
Pe r h aps
th e cl as s ic
po l icy e xampl e
is th e
d e r e gul atio n
o f th e
d o me s tic
tr ans po r tatio n ind us tr y-an
id e a th at mo s t o f th e
majo r
th ink tank s
(no tabl y
AEI,
Ho o ve r and
Br o o k ings )
cl aim to h ave
d e ve l o pe d
and
ch ampio ne d .
And th e
He r itage
Fo und atio n h as be e n th e ce nte r o f
pr o po s al s
to
"pr ivatize " go ve r nme nt o pe r atio ns by
s e l l ing
th e m o r
h aving
th e m
o pe r ate d by pr ivate
s e cto r co ntr acto r s .
T A i
H
,
4
i,
i,
4t
L
^A;
4?M <4
^w^I e ^w^
N
e
A C
H.
So ur ce
o f
and Eval uato r
o f Po l icy Pr o po s al s :
Much th ink tank r e s e ar ch is co nce r ne d l e s s with
d is s e minatio n o f ne w o ve r al l
appr o ach e s
to
publ ic po l icy
th an with
ad vancing
and e val uat-
ing s pe cif ic po l icy pr o po s al s .
T h is
may
tak e s e ve r al f o r ms . One o f th e be s t k no wn is a co l -
l e ctive e f f o r t
publ is h e d
in bo o k
f o r m,
e ith e r at th e
be ginning
o f a
pr e s id e ntial
ad minis tr a-
tio n o r o n a mo r e
f r e que nt
bas is ,
th at is inte nd e d to
pr o vid e guid ance
o n a br o ad
r ange
o f
po l icy
is s ue s . T wo o f th e be s t k no wn
e xampl e s
ar e
He r itage 's
Mand ate
f o r Le ad e r s h ip
and
Br o o k ings ' Se tting
Natio nal Pr io r itie s and Eco no mic Ch o ice s s e r ie s .
He r itage 's
cl aims abo ut
th e inf l ue nce o f its f ir s t Mand ate
f o r Le ad e r s h ip
vo l ume we r e
e s pe cial l y impo r tant
in
s pawning co mpe tito r s .
No o th e r
gr o up
h as
atte mpte d anyth ing
as
l ar ge
as
Mand ate ,
but
by
th e 1988
pr e s id e ntial
tr ans itio n,
al mo s t
e ve r y W as h ingto n-bas e d
th ink tank was
pr e -
par ing
a vo l ume o f ad vice f o r th e ne w
pr e s id e nt (Victo r , 1988).
T 44 *44
.s ^y
.io
Jw44
4 "o vt44*V4 4
c^Me U
^4 tw^
tM"(4t W 41
"04444 4 MJ
tw
uo t?
.
. .
T h e main
pr o d uct
o f mo s t o f th e s tud e ntl e s s
unive r s itie s , h o we ve r ,
is bo o k s and mo no -
gr aph s
o n
s pe cif ic po l icy to pics (e .g., l o ng-te r m
car e f o r th e
age d , s tr ate gic
ar ms r e d uc-
tio ns o r ind us tr ial
po l icy).
A numbe r o f th e ins titutio ns
(no tabl y "ad vo cacy
tank s " l ik e
He r itage )
al s o
pr e par e
br ie f
anal ys e s
o f
s pe cif ic pie ce s
o f
l e gis l atio n
be f o r e
Co ngr e s s .
T h ink tank r e s e ar ch
may h e l p
to
pr e ve nt po l itical l y po pul ar
id e as f r o m
winning
e nactme nt
as we l l as
po pul ar izing
ne w
pr o po s al s : wr itings by Br o o k ings
Eco no mic Stud ie s Dir e cto r
PS: Po l itical Scie nce & Po l itics
568
T h e
Ch anging
W o r l d o f T h ink T ank s
Ch ar l e s Sch ul tze ar e o f te n cr e d ite d with
k e e ping
th e De mo cr atic
Par ty
f r o m
ad o pting
po s itio ns
in f avo r o f an activis t ind us tr ial
po l icy.
12
Eval uato r
o f
Go ve r nme nt
Pr o gr ams :
Once
go ve r nme nt pr o gr ams
ar e in
pl ace ,
th ink tank s
ar e o f te n us e d to e val uate th o s e
pr o gr ams
to s e e if
th e y
ar e
o pe r ating e f f icie ntl y
and
ach ie ving
th e ir
o bje ctive s .
Much o f th is r e s e ar ch is d o ne o n a co ntr act bas is with th e ad -
minis te r ing age ncie s ,
but s o me is tak e n at th e initiative o f th e th ink tank s th e ms e l ve s
u4444,
t44 4?44
U
^e 4.%4
r d 4^ th ^
1',
4W 44* ?
?c4h nf 4^44
04
?4.?4t4 *%a4e %iM44.
So ur ce
o f
Pe r s o nne l : One o f th e tas k s
l o ng
as s o ciate d with th ink tank s is th at o f a s o ur ce o f
pe r s o nne l
and
e xpe r tis e
f o r
go ve r nme nt.
T h e
h igh
tur no ve r in th e
to p
r ank s o f th e e x-
e cutive br anch o f
go ve r nme nt
to o o f te n me ans th at
pr o gr am
o f f icial s co me into
go ve r n-
me nt with l imite d
k no wl e d ge
o f th e
pr o gr ams th e y
ar e to ad minis te r . T h ink tank s
pr o vid e
pe r s o nne l
wh o o f te n h ave a l o t o f s ubs tantive
e xpe r tis e
but al s o ar e l e s s
l ik e l y
to be
cap-
tive s o f
pr o gr am
inte r e s ts th an
d e par tme nt
o f f icial s . T h ink tank s
may
al s o
pr o vid e
a
"go v-
e r nme nt in e xil e " wh e r e o f f icial s o f th e
par ty
wh o s e
pr e s id e ntial
cand id ate h as be e n
d e f e ate d can s e e k
gainf ul e mpl o yme nt
wh il e
th e y
l ick th e ir
wo und s ,
wait f o r th e ir
par ty
to
co me back to
po we r
and
(h o pe f ul l y)
co me
up
with ne w id e as . T h e Ce nte r f o r
Str ate gic
and Inte r natio nal
Stud ie s ,
f o r
e xampl e ,
h as s o
many to p e x-go ve r nme nt
o f f icial s th at it h as
gaine d
th e nick name "Natio nal
Se cur ity
Ad vis o r s Stud Far m
(Saf ir e , 1986)."
T r ad itio nal l y,
th is
pr o ce s s
h as be e n an ad h o c o ne . But th at is
be ginning
to
ch ange .
T h e
He r itage
Fo und atio n h as o nce
again
be e n th e l e ad e r in th is
pr o ce s s . He r itage
id e ntif ie s
o pe n po s itio ns
in th e e xe cutive and
l e gis l ative
br anch and maintains a d ata bank o f its
e mpl o ye e s
and o th e r s wh o s h ar e th e Fo und atio n's vie ws .
He r itage
s e e k s to
pl ace
its can-
d id ate s in th o s e
po s itio ns , cr e ating
a ne two r k o f co ns e r vative activis ts with
e xpe r ie nce
in
go ve r nme nt (Ro s e nth al , 1985).
T ^
Xh O4^ r ?
F^^ ^?0f 4 >h
^e (^t^ ^y
^
Pund itr y:
T h ink tank r e s e ar ch e r s ar e o f te n cal l e d
upo n by
ne ws
o r ganizatio ns
to s e r ve as
"auth o r itative " s o ur ce s o f inf o r matio n and
o pinio n
f o r th e l atte r 's s to r ie s . In o ne twe l ve -
mo nth
pe r io d
in
1986-87,
f o r
e xampl e ,
th e Ce nte r f o r
Str ate gic
and Inte r natio nal Stud ie s
l o gge d
4,500 citatio ns o f its s taf f in
pr int
and br o ad cas t me d ia
(Ce nte r
f o r
Str ate gic
Stud ie s ,
1988). Us ual l y,
th e
pr e s s
is l e s s inte r e s te d in d e tail e d r e s e ar ch r e s ul ts th an in br ie f -
ings
o r
co mme ntar y
o n cur r e nt ne ws s to r ie s
(W h ittl e , 1983).
In r e ce nt
ye ar s ,
s e ve r al
f o r ce s h ave incr e as e d
pr e s s
d e mand s f o r acce s s to th ink tank s ch o l ar s . Mo r e l o cal ne ws -
pape r s
and br o ad cas t o utl e ts no w h ave
W as h ingto n
bur e aus .
Impr o ve d
s ate l l ite te ch no l -
o gy
and W AT S l ine s h ave al s o
impr o ve d
acce s s f o r "o uts id e th e
Be l tway"
me d ia. And
cabl e te l e vis io n h as cr e ate d a numbe r o f ne w ne ws o utl e ts ,
s uch as th e Cabl e Ne ws Ne t-
wo r k and Ch r is tian
Br o ad cas ting
Ne two r k . Me d ia d e mand s f o r r e s e ar ch e r s ' time h ave
al s o be e n
e nco ur age d by
th ink tank
manage r s ,
wh o be l ie ve th at a
h igh e r publ ic pr o f il e
is
h e l pf ul
in
r ais ing
f und s in th e ne w
co mpe titive
e nvir o nme nt. Se ve r al
W as h ingto n
th ink
tank s
pr e par e
d ir e cto r ie s o f th e ir s ch o l ar s f o r th e me d ia,
l is ting
ar e as o f
e xpe r tis e .
Se pte mbe r
1989 569
T h e
Ch anging
W o r l d o f T h ink T ank s
Al th o ugh
th e r e is no h ar d d ata o n th is
s ubje ct,
ane cd o tal e vid e nce
s ugge s ts
th at s o me
th ink tank s ch o l ar s
s pe nd
a
l ar ge
s h ar e o f th e ir time
d e al ing
with th e
pr e s s .13
T h e s e
pr e s s
d e mand s ar e no t co s tl e s s f o r th e th ink tank .
Re po r te r s
o f te n
r e que s t
inf o r -
matio n o n
to pics
f ar r e mo ve d f r o m a s taf f me mbe r 's cur r e nt ar e a o f r e s e ar ch . If a r e -
s e ar ch e r is to co mme nt
inte l l ige ntl y,
h e o r s h e h as to
s pe nd
a l o t o f time
k e e ping up
with
cur r e nt e ve nts -time th at co ul d o th e r wis e be
s pe nt co mpl e ting
r e s e ar ch
pr o je cts .
So ur ce s o f T h ink T ank Inf l ue nce
T h ink tank s ar e mo r e nume r o us and
pr o babl y pl ay
a mo r e inf l ue ntial r o l e in th e Unite d
State s th an in mo s t o th e r we s te r n d e mo cr acie s .
T h e y
ar e abl e to d o s o be caus e o f a num-
be r o f unus ual f e atur e s o f th e Ame r ican
po l itical s ys te m, no tabl y
th e d ivis io n o f
po we r s
be twe e n th e
pr e s id e nt
and
Co ngr e s s ,
we ak and
r e l ative l y no n-id e o l o gical par tie s ,
and
pe r me abil ity
o f ad minis tr ative e l ite s .
T 44
Divis io n o f
po we r
be twe e n th e e xe cutive and
l e gis l atur e
and l ack o f
par ty d is cipl ine
with in
Co ngr e s s
me an th at th e e xe cutive 's
pr o po s al s
ar e no t
auto matical l y ad o pte d by
th e
l e gis l atur e . Po l icy e ntr e pr e ne ur s
with in
Co ngr e s s , par ticul ar l y
th o s e o n th e
s pe cial is t
co mmitte e s ,
h ave r e al
o ppo r tunitie s
to s ubs titute th e ir o wn initiative s f o r th o s e o f th e
Pr e s id e nt. T h is me ans th at th e r e is a
r e ad y-mad e
aud ie nce bo th f o r
cr itique s
o f th e e x-
e cutive 's
pr o po s al s
and f o r al te r native
pr o po s al s .
W e ak and
r e l ative l y no n-id e o l o gical par tie s
h ave e nh ance d th ink tank s ' r o l e in s e ve r al
ways .
T h e mo s t
impo r tant
e f f e ct o f th e U.S.
par ty s ys te m
is th at
par tie s
h ave no t th e m-
s e l ve s tak e n a
majo r
r o l e in
po l icy d e ve l o pme nt by e s tabl is h ing
s ize abl e
po l icy
r e s e ar ch
ar ms o f th e ir o wn. T h ink tank s h ave
h e l pe d
f il l th is vo id .
Mo r e o ve r ,
we ak
par tis ans h ip
in
th e Unite d State s mak e s it e as ie r bo th f o r th e
publ ic
and
po l icy
e l ite s to vie w
po l icy
r e -
s e ar ch as
po te ntial l y no n-par tis an
and f o r
po l icy
r e s e ar ch e r s to co nd uct and o btain f inanc-
ing
f o r s uch r e s e ar ch .
Sus picio n
o f r e s e ar ch e r s ' mo tive s is
l ik e l y
to be much
s tr o nge r
in a
s ys te m
wh e r e
par tis an
and
id e o l o gical
d ivis io ns ar e mo r e
pe r vas ive
and inte ns e . It r e mains
to be s e e n wh e th e r th e
image
o f th ink tank r e s e ar ch in th e U.S. as
o bje ctive
can s ur vive
th e
gr o wth
o f
o pe nl y par tis an
and
id e o l o gical ad vo cacy
tank s .
7$?
/?e / c 4E4?4
ai 4
o " k 4,1" A4 4
4..t
T 4 itq
l 4
4e . 4C#4 44 o to
.
.4 .
T ^C
^h ^^e My
f ^tif ^
^h ^ Uc^ ^w^J
T h ink tank s ' r o l e as a
s uppl ie r
o f
pe r s o nne l
to
go ve r nme nt
is in
l ar ge
me as ur e a r e s ul t o f
th e
pe r me abil ity
o f ad minis tr ative e l ite s . Unl ik e in mo s t
par l iame ntar y s ys te ms ,
cabine t
minis te r s in th e Unite d State s ar e no t d r awn
e xcl us ive l y
f r o m
par l iame ntar y
caucus e s ,
and
PS: Po l itical Scie nce & Po l itics
570
T h e
Ch anging
W o r l d o f T h ink T ank s
s e nio r
d e par tme nt
o f f icial s ar e no t d r awn
pr imar il y
f r o m th e
publ ic
s e r vice . T h e r e ar e
mul tipl e path s
to s uch
go ve r nme nt po s ts ,
a l o t o f
po s ts
to be f il l e d wh e ne ve r an ad -
minis tr atio n
ch ange s ,
and a l o t o f
e x-go ve r nme nt
o f f icial s wh o
cycl e
o ut o f
go ve r nme nt
s e r vice but want to r e main invo l ve d in
po l icy
f o r matio n. T h ink tank s f it
natur al l y
into th is
s ys te m
in th e Unite d State s .
44
4444Ap
vs iA
Ir e
,
e M^?^4C
4 ^ MW ^C^
f 1
One o th e r e l e me nt o f th e Ame r ican
s ys te m
h as be e n cr itical to th e
gr o wth
and s ur -
vival o f th ink tank s : a tr ad itio n o f
co r po r ate ,
f o und atio n,
and ind ivid ual
ph il anth r o py
to
s uppo r t no n-par tis an
s o cial s cie nce r e s e ar ch . W ith o ut
f und ing
f r o m th e s e
s o ur ce s ,
th ink
tank s wo ul d be f ar mo r e
d e pe nd e nt upo n
a
s ingl e
s o ur ce o f
f und ing-go ve r nme nt-and
h ave f ar l e s s
auto no my
in
d e te r mining
th e ir r e s e ar ch
age nd a
and co ncl us io ns .
Is s ue s in T h ink T ank
Manage me nt
T h e
pr o l if e r atio n
o f th ink tank s and th e
d r ying up
o f
go ve r nme nt f und ing
s o ur ce s h as
me ant th at th e r e is
incr e as ing co mpe titio n amo ng
th e m bo th f o r
f und ing
and f o r atte ntio n
f r o m
po l icymak e r s
and th e me d ia. T h e
f o l l o wing
ar e s o me o f th e
impo r tant
is s ue s th at
th ink tank
manage r s
mus t tak e into acco unt if th e ir ins titutio ns ar e to th r ive in
to d ay's
co mpe titive
e nvir o nme nt.
Image :
T r ad itio nal l y,
th ink tank s h ave cul tivate d th e
image
o f
impar tial , no n-par tis an
r e -
s e ar ch
o r ganizatio ns
th at
inve s tigate pr o bl e ms
and th e n ar r ive at
co ncl us io ns ,
r ath e r th an
pr o vid ing
jus tif icatio ns
f o r co ncl us io ns th at h ave
al r e ad y
be e n s e t
by
r e s e ar ch e r s o r
f und e r s . T h is was
ne ce s s ar y,
th e s e
o r ganizatio ns
f e l t, in o r d e r to maintain th e
r e s pe ct
o f
th e
po l icymak e r s
wh o co ns ume d th e ir r e s e ar ch and to r e tain a s taf f o f
h igh qual ity
r e -
s e ar ch e r s ,
o f te n d r awn f r o m
unive r s itie s ,
wh o wante d to maintain th e ir
s ch o l ar l y
cr e d e n-
tial s ,
and wh o o f te n mo ve d back and f o r th be twe e n th e
unive r s ity
and th e th ink tank
T h ink tank r e s e ar ch was s o me time s co ntr as te d with th at o f th e s o -cal l e d
"Be l tway
Ban-
d its "-f o r -pr o f it
ins titutio ns cl us te r e d ar o und th e
h igh way
th at cir cl e s
W as h ingto n-
wh o s e r e s e ar ch was vie we d as
s l o ppy
o r tainte d
by
th e
o bje ctive s
o f th o s e
paying
f o r th e
r e s e ar ch .
T h is d o e s no t me an th at th ink tank s d o no t h ave -o f te n with s o me
jus tif icatio n-id e o -
l o gical
l abe l s attach e d to th e m.
Br o o k ings ,
f o r
e xampl e ,
h as o f te n be e n l abe l e d a
l ibe r al ,
De mo cr atic th ink
tank ,
wh il e AEI h as be e n s e e n
(and
o f te n
po r tr aye d
its e l f )
as th e co n-
s e r vative ,
Re publ ican
al te r native to
Br o o k ings .
T h e s e
image s
we r e
al ways o ve r s impl if ica-
tio ns ; ind e e d ,
th e r e h as be e n a l o t o f s taf f mo ve me nt be twe e n th e two ins titutio ns . And
th e s e
image s
we r e o f te n s e e n as mixe d
bl e s s ings
at be s t
by
th ink tank
manage r s
and s taf f .
T h e cur r e nt
pr e s id e nt
o f
Br o o k ings ,
f o r
e xampl e ,
h as tr ie d to
ch ange Br o o k ings '
mo d e r -
ate l y
l ibe r al
image
to a
f ir ml y
ce ntr is t o ne ,
ar guing
th at th e l atte r
image
is mo r e accur ate
(Land e r s ,
1984; Kid d e r ,
1984).
A ce ntr is t
image
al s o f acil itate s
f und r ais ing
in th e
pr ivate
s e cto r .
T h e d e s ir e to
pr e s e nt
o ne 's ins titutio n as
impar tial
and
o bje ctive
is
ce r tainl y
no t
d e ad ,
but th e val ue o f
impar tial ity
h as be e n cal l e d into
que s tio n by
s o me o f th e
impo r tant
d e ve l o pme nts
o n th e th ink tank s ce ne . One h as be e n th e
s pe ctacul ar gr o wth
o f th e un-
abas h e d l y par tis an
and
id e o l o gical "ad vo cacy
tank s ." T h e be s t k no wn o f th e s e
o r ganiza-
Se pte mbe r
1989 571
T h e
Ch anging
W o r l d o f T h ink T ank s
tio ns is th e co ns e r vative
He r itage
Fo und atio n,
wh ich no w r ival s th e
Br o o k ings
Ins titutio n
as th e
l ar ge s t
o f th e
W as h ingto n-bas e d
th ink tank s . At th e s ame
time , th e Ame r ican
Ente r pr is e
Ins titute , an ins titutio n th at h ad
l o ng
be e n s e e n as th e "co ns e r vative al te r native
to
Br o o k ings ",
f e l l o n h ar d e co no mic time s in th e 1980s , in
par t
d ue to
po o r manage me nt
but al s o be caus e it was s e e n
by
s o me d o no r s as to o ce ntr is t in its o r ie ntatio n
(Bl ume nth al ,
1986).
AEI h as
r e ce ntl y
acte d to bo l s te r its co ns e r vative
image by br inging
abo ar d
h igh -
pr o f il e
co ns e r vative h e r o e s l ik e f o r me r State
De par tme nt
o f f icial Rich ar d Pe r l e and r e -
je cte d
Supr e me
Co ur t no mine e Ro be r t Bo r k .
4. k . .
V 44 i. i .
__4
De mand s
by
th e me d ia al s o und e r mine to s o me e xte nt e f f o r ts to maintain a ne utr al im-
age . Ir o nical l y,
th is is in
many ways
a
co ns e que nce
o f me d ia
atte mpts
to s h o w th at
th e y
th e ms e l ve s ar e unbias e d : o f te n
th e y atte mpt
to d o s o
by pair ing
r ival
e xpe r ts
with "co n-
s e r vative " and "l ibe r al "
l e anings .
T h is is
e s pe cial l y l ik e l y
to
h appe n
o n
te l e vis io n,
wh e r e a
l ive l y
d is cus s io n is ne e d e d to r e l ie ve th e vis ual te d ium o f
"tal k ing
h e ad s ." T h e
pl e th o r a
o f
e xpe r ts
in
W as h ingto n
and th e l ack o f
e xpe r tis e
and s h o r t d e ad l ine s o f mo s t
r e po r te r s
cr e ate ad d itio nal ince ntive s f o r th e
pr e s s
to s e e k o ut r e l iabl e d e f e nd e r s o f o ne o r ano th e r
po int
o f vie w. Give n th e incr e as e d
co mpe titio n
f o r and
s e ns itivity
o f th ink tank s to me d ia
atte ntio n,
a cl e ar
id e o l o gical image may
be th e e as ie s t
way
f o r a th ink tank to incr e as e its
vis ibil ity
in th e me d ia.
Pr o d uct Line s : T h ink tank s can o f f e r a
var ie ty
o f r e s e ar ch
pr o d ucts .
T h e "unive r s itie s with -
o ut s tud e nts " h ave
tr ad itio nal l y
co nce ntr ate d o n
bo o k -l e ngth
s tud ie s . T h e
majo r pr o d uct
o f co ntr act r e s e ar ch e r s l ik e Rand and th e Ur ban
Ins titute ,
o n th e o th e r
h and ,
is
r e po r ts
f o r
par ticul ar age ncie s , al th o ugh th e y publ is h
s o me bo o k s as we l l .
T h ink tank
manage r s h o pe
th at th e id e as in th e ir s tud ie s wil l be r e ad and acte d
upo n.
Co nce r n th at
po l icymak e r s
wil l no t r e ad
bo o k -l e ngth
s tud ie s h as
pr o mpte d many
th ink
tank s to
d e ve l o p
ne w
pr o d uct
l ine s . So me th ink tank s ,
no tabl y
th e
"ad vo cacy
tank s " l ik e
th e
He r itage
Fo und atio n and Ce nte r f o r
Bud ge t
and
Po l icy
Pr io r itie s
publ is h
a numbe r o f
br ie f
anal ys e s
o f
pe nd ing l e gis l atio n
wh ich ar e inte nd e d to inf l ue nce
l e gis l ato r s '
d e cis io ns in
th e s h o r t-te r m. In
ad d itio n,
ne ar l y
al l o f th e
l ar ge
th ink tank s h ave s o me s o r t o f
jo ur nal ,
and s o me
(no tabl y
th e Ame r ican
Ente r pr is e Ins titute )
h ave s e ve r al . T h e s e
jo ur nal s
var y
wid e l y
in
s tyl e .
So me ,
l ik e th e
Br o o k ings
Re vie w,
He r itage 's Po l icy
Re vie w and AEI's Publ ic
Opinio n
and
Re gul atio n
ar e s imil ar in
s tyl e
and s ize to
f o r -pr o f it o pinio n magazine s
s uch as
Har pe r 's ,
Atl antic
Mo nth l y,
and T h e Ne w
Re publ ic. T h e y
o f f e r br ie f , no n-te ch nical ar ticl e s
th at th ink tank
manage r s h o pe
wil l inf l ue nce
bus y po l icymak e r s
wh o d o no t h ave th e time
o r incl inatio n to r e ad f ul l s cal e s tud ie s . Oth e r th ink tank
jo ur nal s ,
s uch as th e
Rand jo ur nal
o f
Eco no mics and th e Co to
jo ur nal ,
ar e cl o s e r in
s tyl e
and co nte nt to acad e mic
jo ur nal s .
Jo ur nal s
o f bo th
type s
s e r ve as th e
e quival e nt
o f
me r ch and is ing
"l o s s -l e ad e r s ,"
pr o d ucing
a d e f icit f o r th e
o r ganizatio n,
but
giving
th e th ink tank
gr e ate r vis ibil ity
and /o r acad e mic
r e s pe ctabil ity.
In ad d itio n to th e ir o wn
jo ur nal s ,
al mo s t al l th ink -tank s
e nco ur age
th e ir r e s e ar ch e r s to
wr ite br ie f
o pinio n pie ce s
f o r th e e d ito r ial
page s
o f th e
l ar ge -cir cul atio n d ail y ne ws pape r s .
T h e l atte r ar e s e e n as
e as y ways
to r ais e th e
vis ibil ity
o f th e ir
o r ganizatio ns .
T h e
He r itage
Fo und atio n e ve n
o pe r ate s
a
s ynd icate d ne ws pape r
f e atur e s
s e r vice ,
wh il e th e Cato In-
s titute h as a
d ail y
r ad io
pr o gr am.
In
ch o o s ing
to
d e ve l o p
a ne w
pr o d uct
l ine o r
mo d if y e xis ting
o ne s , th ink tank
manage r s
ne e d to co ns id e r a
var ie ty
o f f acto r s .
Staf f ing
is a
majo r
co ns tr aint. Ph .D.s
may
s e e
wr iting
br ie f
po s itio n pape r s
as inco ns is te nt with th e ir o wn car e e r
o bje ctive s .
T h e e f f e ct o f th e
pr o d uct
o n th e
o r ganizatio n's
f inance s is ano th e r o bvio us co ns id e r atio n. T h e
paucity
o f
go ve r nme nt f und ing
h as f o r ce d mo s t th ink tank s to
o pe r ate
o n a mo r e bus ine s s -l ik e
bas is ,
PS: Po l itical Scie nce & Po l itics
572
T h e
Ch anging
W o r l d o f T h ink T ank s
and to
be gin th ink ing
abo ut
d e ve l o ping pr o f itabl e o pe r atio ns
th at can be us e d to cr o s s -
s ubs id ize
unpr o f itabl e
o ne s . T h e
Br o o k ings
Ins titutio n,
f o r
e xampl e ,
h as
e xpand e d
its
o pe r atio n
o f
f e e -pr o d ucing
co nf e r e nce s f o r
go ve r nme nt
and bus ine s s e xe cutive s . T h e s e
o pe r atio ns h e l p Br o o k ings
to d e r ive
by
f ar th e
l ar ge s t pe r ce ntage
o f its r e ve nue s f r o m f e e s
and s al e s
(e xcl ud ing
co ntr act
r e s e ar ch )
o f
any
o f th e
majo r
th ink tank s
(s e e
T abl e
2).
Staf f ing:
Fo ur
s taf f ing
is s ue s co nf r o nt th ink tank
manage r s .
Fir s t,
th e y
mus t d e cid e wh e th e r
to buil d a r e s id e nt s taf f o r co ntr act o ut th e r e s e ar ch f unctio n to o uts id e r s . In th e no n-
r e s id e nt mo d e l , th e th ink tank s taf f is f r e e d to
pl an, publ is h ,
and
publ icize
th e r e s ul ts o f th e
r e s e ar ch . T h is
appr o ach
can al l o w a th ink tank to co ve r a br o ad e r
r ange
o f
is s ue s ,
o r to
co ve r th e m in mo r e
d e pth ,
th an it co ul d
po s s ibl y
d o with its o wn s taf f . Bo th th e Cato and
Manh attan Ins titute s
r e l y
al mo s t
e xcl us ive l y
o n no n-r e s id e nt r e s e ar ch e r s . But e ve n ins titu-
tio ns with a r e s id e nt s taf f d r aw o n o uts id e r s to
pr o vid e
ad d itio nal
e xpe r tis e .
Ind e e d ,
th e
e d ite d vo l ume with s o me s taf f and s o me no n-s taf f
par ticipatio n
h as be co me a
s tapl e pr o d -
uct o f
many
th ink tank s .
T h e no n-r e s id e nt mo d e l al s o h as th e o bvio us
ad vantage
o f
r e d ucing
co s ts . In
par ticul ar ,
s al ar y
co s ts ar e
us ual l y
bo r ne
by
th e unive r s itie s o r o th e r
o r ganizatio ns
wh o r e main th e
T abl e 2. So ur ce s o f T h ink T ank
Ope r ating
Re ve nue , FY 1987
End o wme nt Fs
Pr ivate Gr ants and Gif ts
End o wme nt Fe e s
Go ve r nme nt and and Fo und a-
Co r po r a-
Co ntr acts Simil ar Sal e s T o tal tio ns tio ns Ind ivid ual s Oth e r
Ame r ican Ente r -
pr is e
Ins titute - -
9 91 22 63 6
-
Br o o k ings
Ins titutio n 3 23 31 43 23 15 4
Cato Ins titute
-
2 9 89 n.a. n.a. n.a.
Ce nte r f o r
Str ate gic
and
Inte r natio nal
Stud ie s b 6.5 5 3.5 85 40 34 II
He r itage
Fo und atio n
-
16 2 82 32 14 36
Ho o ve r
Ins titutio n' 4 28 3 38 n.a. n.a. n.a. 27d
Hud s o n Ins titute e 60
-
2 38f n.a. n.a. n.a.
Rand
Co r po r atio n
84 1
-
158 n.a. n.a. n.a.
Re s o ur ce s f o r th e
Futur e 23 28
-
49 34 15
Ur ban Ins titute 55h 2 1 42' n.a. n.a. n.a.
n.a.
=
no t avail abl e
al ncl ud e s o th e r
b1986.
CEs timate s
d Unive r s ity
f und s
e Excl ud e s Ce nte r f o r Naval
Anal ys e s
f l ncl ud e s
al l no n-U.S.
go ve r nme nt pr o je ct gr ants
and co ntr act r e s e ar ch
(19%)
and unr e s tr icte d
gr ants ,
d o natio ns and
gif ts (19%).
gincl ud e s al l no n-U.S.
go ve r nme nt
gr ants
and co ntr acts
h l ncl ud e s al l f e d e r al
co ntr acts , s ubco ntr acts ,
gr ants
and co ntr act f e e s .
'
Incl ud e s al l no n-f e d e r al
pr o gr am
and
pr o je ct gr ants ,
as we l l as unr e s tr icte d
gr ants
and co ntr ibutio ns .
So ur ce Annual
r e po r ts , unpubl is h e d
d ata.
Se pte mbe r
1989 573
T h e
Ch anging
W o r l d o f T h ink T ank s
e mpl o ye r s
o f th e r e s e ar ch e r s . Ove r h e ad co s ts ar e l o we r as we l l . A no n-r e s id e nt r e s e ar ch
s taf f al s o
give s
th e
o r ganizatio n
incr e as e d
f l e xibil ity:
if
f und ing
s o ur ce s
d r y up,
no t
r e ne wing
e xis ting gr ants
and
f ail ing
to mak e ne w
gr ants
to r e s e ar ch e r s s catte r e d ar o und th e
co untr y
cr e ate s l e s s
o r ganizatio nal
s tr e s s th an
l aying
o f f
e xis ting
s taf f . Us e o f no n-r e s id e nt r e s e ar ch -
e r s
co ntr acting
f o r
s pe cif ic
r e s e ar ch
pr o je cts
al s o mak e s it e as ie r f o r a th ink tank to
ch ange
its bas e o f
e xpe r tis e
as its r e s e ar ch
age nd a ch ange s .
Us ing
a no n-r e s id e nt r e s e ar ch s taf f al s o h as co s ts , h o we ve r . It is much h ar d e r to buil d an
inte l l e ctual
co mmunity
d e vo te d to
po l icy
r e s e ar ch wh e n th o s e r e s e ar ch e r s h ave
o nl y
o c-
cas io nal d ir e ct co ntact with o ne ano th e r . It is al s o mo r e d if f icul t to e s tabl is h a
s tr o ng publ ic
pr o f il e
wh e n th e r e s e ar ch s taf f is no t
ph ys ical l y pr e s e nt
to h ave co ntact with th e me d ia
and
po l icymak e r s
and wh e n r e s e ar ch e r s h ave
o th e r , d o minant af f il iatio ns th at
th e y may
s tr e s s wh e n
th e y
d o mak e s uch co ntacts .
t4
4t.l c^t4 k
Cf 4d
IPU,
t4
e e c^v4tic 4tc?4,
^
Pe r h aps th e gr e ate s t d r awback o f o t h aving a r e s id e nt r e s e ar ch s taf f is r e d uce d capac-
Pe r h aps
th e
gr e ate s t
d r awback o f
r io t
h aving
a r e s id e nt r e s e ar ch s taf f is r -e d uce d
capac-
ity
to mo nito r r e s e ar ch e r s ' wo r k and
pr o d
th e m to
co mpl e te
it in a
time l y
f as h io n. Unive r -
s ity-bas e d
r e s e ar ch e r s h ave
many co mpe ting pr io r itie s ,
and
pl e d ge s
to
co mpl e te
a
pr o je ct
ar e
l ik e l y
to f al l
by
th e
ways id e .
W h il e f o und atio ns
may
be to l e r ant o f mis s e d d e ad l ine s ,
age ncie s s po ns o r ing
co ntr act r e s e ar ch ar e l e s s
l ik e l y
to be s o . T h us th ink tank s th at
r e l y
h e avil y
o n co ntr act r e s e ar ch al mo s t
ine vitabl y
h ave a r e s id e nt
s taf f , as d o
th o s e ,
l ik e th e
He r itage
Fo und atio n,
wh ich
pl ace
a
h e avy e mph as is
o n
inf l ue ncing
cur r e nt
l e gis l atio n.
Fo r
th e s e
tas k s , time l ine s s is
l ik e l y
to be cr ucial .
If a th ink tank 's
manage r s
d o d e cid e to h ave a r e s id e nt r e s e ar ch s taf f -and
ne ar l y
al l o f
th e m h ave at l e as t a s mal l
o ne -th e y
f ace two mo r e
s taf f ing
d e cis io ns : wh e th e r to
r e l y
pr imar il y
o n a
pe r mane nt
s taf f o r a
r o tating
s taf f d r awn f r o m o th e r
o r ganizatio ns ,
and
wh e th e r to d r aw th e ir s taf f
pr imar il y
f r o m
unive r s ity-bas e d
Ph .D.s o r f r o m no n-
acad e mics . T h e
ad vantage
o f a
r o tating
s taf f is s imil ar to th at o f a no n-r e s id e nt o ne : s ince
r e s e ar ch e r s o f te n
be gin
and
co mpl e te
th e ir r e s e ar ch d o ne f o r th e th ink tank at ano th e r
o r ganizatio n,
it al l o ws co s ts to be l o we r e d . But th e s ame
pr o bl e ms
o f time l ine s s ar e
l ik e l y
to ar is e . Mo s t o f th e r e s e ar ch ce nte r s th at
r e l y
al mo s t
e xcl us ive l y
o n a
r o tating
s taf f
(no tabl y
th e Ce nte r f o r th e Ad vance d
Stud y
o f th e Be h avio r al Scie nce s in Cal if o r nia and
th e W il s o n Ce nte r in
W as h ingto n, D.C.)
ar e
r e al l y
no t th ink tank s at
al l , but r ath e r ce nte r s
wh e r e
unive r s ity f acul ty
can
s pe nd
a s abbatical
pe r io d .
T h e s e ins titutio ns d o no t s tr e s s in-
h o us e
publ is h ing
and d o no t h ave a
s tr o ng po l icy
f o cus o r
atte mpt
to inf l ue nce s h o r t-te r m
po l icy
d e bate s .
T h e
type
o f r e s e ar ch e r s th at a th ink tank s h o ul d
e mpl o y d e pe nd s h e avil y
o n th e k ind s o f
th ings
th at it d o e s . Fo r bo th th e s tud e ntl e s s unive r s itie s and
go ve r nme nt
co ntr act r e -
s e ar ch e r s ,
s taf f ing
wil l al mo s t
ine vitabl y
d r aw
h e avil y
o n acad e mics .
De s pite
th e ir o f te n
l e ad e n
pr o s e ,
acad e mics h ave th e
pape r
cr e d e ntial s th at f o und atio ns and
go ve r nme nt
age ncie s
l o o k f o r to r e as s ur e th e ms e l ve s th at a co mmis s io ne d
s tud y
wil l be
me th o d o l o gi-
cal l y
s o und . But a s taf f o f acad e mics is al mo s t
ce r tainl y inappr o pr iate
f o r an
"ad vo cacy
tank " l ik e
He r itage .
Mo s t acad e mics wo ul d r e s is t
s pe nd ing
th e bul k o f th e ir time
wr iting
br ie f ,
l e gis l atio n-o r ie nte d pape r s ,
s ince
th e y
te nd to s h ar e th e
pr o f e s s io nal
no r ms o f th e ir
acad e mic
s pe cial ty.
Mo r e o ve r ,
l e gis l ative anal ys e s
wo ul d no t win th e m
any pr o f e s s io nal
cr e d it if
th e y
wis h e d to mo ve back to th e
unive r s ity.
If
manage r s
d o ch o o s e to d r aw th e ir s taf f
pr imar il y
f r o m
unive r s itie s ,
th e y
s h o ul d be
PS: Po l itical Scie nce & Po l itics 574
T h e
Ch anging
W o r l d o f T h ink T ank s
awar e th at a s ucce s s f ul
unive r s ity
s ch o l ar wil l no t
ne ce s s ar il y
be an id e al th ink tank r e -
s e ar ch e r . T h e l atte r
r e quir e s
an
abil ity
to wr ite in
l anguage
acce s s ibl e to th e
ge ne r al publ ic
r ath e r th an th e
jar go n
o f a
par ticul ar d is cipl ine .
It al s o
r e quir e s
an inte r e s t in th e s ubs tance
o f
s pe cif ic po l icy
ar e as o r th e
po l icy pr o ce s s .
And it
r e quir e s
a
wil l ingne s s
to d r aw co ncl u-
s io ns abo ut wh at s h o ul d be d o ne as we l l as
wh y
e ve nts h ave tur ne d o ut as
th e y
h ave .
T h e s e ar e no t
qual itie s
th at acad e mics
ine vitabl y acquir e
in th e ir f o r mal
tr aining:
o f te n th e
o ppo s ite
o ccur s .
A f inal
s taf f ing
is s ue f o r th ink tank
manage r s
is wh e th e r to s tr ive f o r
id e o l o gical
and
me th o d o l o gical
co h e r e nce o r to s e e k
d ive r s ity.
At th e
o l d e r ,
mo r e e s tabl is h e d th ink
tank s ,
id e o l o gy
h as
ge ne r al l y pl aye d
a
r e l ative l y
we ak r o l e in s e l e ctio n o f s taf f
e xce pt
at th e
s upe r s tar
l e ve l
(e .g.,
AEI's Pe r l e and
Bo r k ). Id e o l o gy
in th e s e ins titutio ns h as
ge ne r al l y
in-
vo l ve d e xcl us io n o f e xtr e me s
(e .g.,
no
Mar xis ts ),
s e l f -s e l e ctio n and ad
h o ce r y
r ath e r th an a
co ns cio us e f f o r t to e s tabl is h
unif o r mity.
Once
again,
th e ne we r
ad vo cacy
tank s h ave cal l e d th e val ue o f th is
pr o ce s s (o r
no n-
pr o ce s s )
into
que s tio n. Id e o l o gical unif o r mity
can h ave s e ve r al
ad vantage s , no tabl y
e ns ur -
ing
a r e l ative
co ns is te ncy
o f r e s e ar ch
pr o d ucts .
But it
may
al s o l e ad to an
o r ganizatio n's
r e -
s e ar ch
be ing igno r e d
be caus e it is s e e n as to o
pr e d ictabl e .
Financing: Financing
is no t an ir r e l e vant is s ue f o r
no n-pr o f it o r ganizatio ns .
Ind e e d ,
th e initial
d e cis io n to be a
no n-pr o f it
r ath e r th an a
pr o f it-mak ing e nte r pr is e
was f o r s o me th ink -tank
f o und e r s a bus ine s s d e cis io n:
many
o f th e
ph il anth r o pic
f o und atio ns th at th ink tank s d r aw
upo n
f o r r e ve nue s ar e f o r bid d e n
by
th e ir ch ar te r s f r o m
giving mo ne y
to
pr o f it-mak ing
e nte r pr is e s . Es tabl is h ing
a th ink tank o n a
no n-pr o f it
bas is was
ne ce s s ar y
to
gain
acce s s to
th e s e
f und ing
s o ur ce s .
Financing
in
many
th ink tank s is
quite
d if f e r e nt f r o m mo s t
pr o f it-mak ing e nte r pr is e s ,
h o we ve r . In th e l atte r cas e , th e co ns ume r s wh o
pay
f o r th e
co mpany's pr o d uct
and th o s e
wh o
actual l y
us e th e m ar e
cl o s e l y
r e l ate d ,
if no t id e ntical . W ith a th ink tank , th is is o f te n
no t th e cas e . W o r k d o ne o n co ntr act with a
go ve r nme nt age ncy
f its th e
pr ivate e nte r pr is e
f air l y cl o s e l y,
but th ink tank r e s e ar ch th at is f und e d
by
f o und atio ns but
tar ge te d
at
go ve r n-
me nt
po l icymak e r s
d o e s no t. Eve n wh e r e f o und e r s and co ns ume r s o f r e s e ar ch ar e
s e par -
ate , h o we ve r ,
f und e r s ar e
us ual l y buying
an ins titutio n's
image
and
r e putatio n.
It h as be co me
ve r y
cl e ar in r e ce nt
ye ar s
th at
f und ing
is avail abl e f o r a wid e
var ie ty
o f
pur po s e s be yo nd
th e tr ad itio nal o ne s o f
pr o gr am
e val uatio n and
ge ne r al
r e s e ar ch . As
W il l iam Saf ir e
put
it, "ins te ad o f r e s e ar ch and
d e ve l o pme nt
in
e ngine d e s ign,
tax
e xe mpt
mo ne y
is no w d ir e cte d into active back -s e at
d r iving (Saf ir e , 1986).
T h e
He r itage
Fo und a-
tio n h as
pr o ve n par ticul ar l y ad e pt
at
tapping
co ns e r vative
f o und atio ns ,
co r po r atio ns ,
and
ind ivid ual s f o r its
ad vo cacy-o r ie nte d
activitie s .
It h as al s o be co me cl e ar th at s o und f inancial
manage me nt
and atte ntio n to
f und r ais ing
ar e cr itical . T h e f ate o f th e Ame r ican
Ente r pr is e
Ins titute ,
wh ich und e r we nt mas s ive
l ayo f f s
and a
bud ge t
cut f r o m $12.7 mil l io n in 1985 to $7.7 mil l io n in
1987,
ar e a
go o d
l e s s o n abo ut wh at can
h appe n
wh e n th e "bo tto m l ine " is
igno r e d
f o r to o
l o ng. Many
th ink
tank s ar e no w
atte mpting
to
d e ve l o p s te ad y
s o ur ce s o f r e ve nue th at ar e no t
l ik e l y
to d is -
appe ar
with
ch ange s
in
po l icy
f ad s o r th e
par ty
in
po we r .
An e nd o wme nt is th e mo s t o b-
vio us
s o ur ce ,
and
many
Ame r ican th ink tank s ar e
incr e as ingl y appr o ach ing
f o und atio ns to
as k f o r
ge ne r al
e nd o wme nt
s uppo r t
and e nd o we d ch air s as we l l as d o natio ns f o r
s pe cif ic
pie ce s
o f r e s e ar ch . But f o und atio ns ar e o f te n r e s is tant to th e s e
r e que s ts . T h e y us ual l y
want to s e e s o me co ncr e te r e s ul ts f o r th e ir f inancial
inputs .
Se tting
A Re s e ar ch
Age nd a: Cl o s e l y
r e l ate d to th e is s ue s o f
s taf f ing
and
f und ing
r e s e ar ch is
th e
que s tio n
o f h o w th e
o r ganizatio n's
r e s e ar ch
age nd a
is to be s e t. One
impo r tant
is s ue
is wh e th e r th e
o r ganizatio n
s h o ul d
s pe cial ize
in o ne o r a f e w
po l icy
ar e as o r
tr y
to co ve r a
br o ad
s pe ctr um
o f is s ue s . T h e
ad vantage
o f a nar r o w
s pe cial izatio n
is th at it is e as ie r to
buil d a
r e putatio n
f o r
e xpe r tis e quick l y,
and to be co me th e "natur al " s o ur ce o f ad vice o r
gr ante e
f o r co ntr act r e s e ar ch . T h is
pr o ce s s
h as al l o we d a
ve r y
s mal l
o r ganizatio n
l ik e th e
Ce nte r f o r
Bud ge t
and
Po l icy
Pr io r itie s
(a ge o gr aph ic,
but no t
id e o l o gical , ne igh bo r
o f th e
Se pte mbe r
1989 575
T h e
Ch anging
W o r l d o f T h ink T ank s
He r itage Fo und atio n)
to be co me a
majo r pl aye r
in th e f o r mul atio n o f nutr itio n and we l f ar e
po l icie s .
Mo s t o f th e Ce nte r 's
e xpe r tis e
is in th e s e
f ie l d s ,
and it h as buil t
up
a
s tr o ng
ne t-
wo r k o f nutr itio n ad vo cate s at th e s tate l e ve l wh o l o o k to th e Ce nte r f o r
e xpe r tis e
and in-
f o r matio n o n cur r e nt
po l icy
initiative s . T h e
d is ad vantage
o f
s pe cial izatio n
is th at it can l e ad
to
o r ganizatio nal cal amity
if inte r e s t in and
f und ing
f o r a
par ticul ar po l icy
f ie l d
(e .g., e ne r gy,
ur ban
h o us ing) s ud d e nl y
wane s .
Ano th e r
impo r tant age nd a-s e tting
is s ue is wh e th e r r e s e ar ch
pr o po s al s
s h o ul d co me
pr i-
mar il y
f r o m ind ivid ual r e s e ar ch e r s in th e
o r ganizatio n,
with
to p
o f f icial s
(e .g.,
d ir e cto r s o f
ind ivid ual r e s e ar ch
pr o gr ams ) pr imar il y e xe r cis ing
a ve to
r o l e ,
o r wh e th e r
to p
o f f icial s
s h o ul d s e t th e
age nd a, al l o cating
r e s e ar ch tas k s
amo ng
th e s taf f . W h il e mo s t th ink tank s
h ave a mix o f th e s e two
appr o ach e s ,
th e o ne
th e y
s tr e s s is
l ik e l y
to r e f l e ct th e
f inancing
and
s taf f ing
o f th e
o r ganizatio n.
Fo r an
o r ganizatio n
wh ich h as l ittl e e nd o wme nt and is
h e avil y d e pe nd e nt
o n
go ve r nme nt
co ntr acts ,
a
to p-d o wn
mo d e l is
l ik e l y
to
pr o ve
ne ce s s ar y.
On th e o th e r h and , an
o r ganizatio n
wh ich h as a
gr e ate r ind e pe nd e nt
inco me is
l ik e l y to
car r y
mo r e
pr o je cts
in
h o pe s
th at
th e y
can
ge t
o uts id e
f und ing,
as we l l as s o me
pr o je cts
wh ich it k no ws ar e
unl ik e l y
to s e cur e
f und ing.
And an
o r ganizatio n
th at is mad e
up pr imar il y
o f Ph .D r e s e ar ch e r s wh o ar e us e d to and val ue
unive r s ity
tr ad itio ns o f inte l -
l e ctual
inquir y may
f ind th at it s tar ts
l o s ing
s taf f if it s tar ts to d ictate th e ir r e s e ar ch
age nd a.
Mar k e ting:
Eve n th e be s t s e t o f r e s e ar ch
pr o d ucts
is o f l ittl e val ue it it d o e s no t r e ach its
tar ge t
aud ie nce . T h ink tank s ar e
incr e as ingl y
awar e th at
mar k e ting
th e ir
pr o d ucts
is an im-
po r tant par t
o f th e ir
o pe r atio ns .
T h e
ack no wl e d ge d
l e ad e r in th ink tank
mar k e ting
is th e
He r itage
Fo und atio n,
wh ich h and d e l ive r s
many
o f its s tud ie s to
Capito l
Hil l ,
th e e xe cutive
br anch ,
and inte r e s t
gr o ups .
Ef f e ctive
mar k e ting
d o e s no t co me
ch e apl y,
h o we ve r : in
1987,
th e
He r itage
Fo und atio n
s pe nt
37% o f its
bud ge t
o n
mar k e ting
and ano th e r 13% o n
f und r ais ing-a
co mbine d to tal o f mo r e th an th e 43% it
s pe nt
o n r e s e ar ch
(He r itage
Fo un-
d atio n,
1987).
Co ntr acting
Out: Re s e ar ch is no t th e
o nl y
f unctio n th at can be co ntr acte d o ut
by
a th ink
tank . Ano th e r
l ik e l y
cand id ate is bo o k
publ is h ing o pe r atio ns . Publ is h ing ar r ange me nts
amo ng
th ink tank s
var y wid e l y.
T h e
Br o o k ings
Ins titutio n,
f o r
e xampl e ,
h as a
f air l y
co m-
pl e te
inte r nal
publ is h ing o pe r atio n, d o ing
mo s t o f its
e d iting, mar k e ting,
and d is tr ibutio n
in-h o us e . Re s o ur ce s f o r th e Futur e d o e s its bo o k
e d iting
in-h o us e ,
but
pr o d uctio n
and d is -
tr ibutio n
o pe r atio ns
ar e h and l e d
by Jo h ns Ho pk ins Unive r s ity
Pr e s s . T h e Ame r ican Ente r -
pr is e
Ins titute and th e Ur ban Ins titute h ave a s imil ar
ar r ange me nt
with
Unive r s ity
Pr e s s e s
o f Ame r ica. Oth e r
o r ganizatio ns ,
s uch as th e Manh attan
Ins titute ,
wo r k
e xcl us ive l y
with
co mme r cial
publ is h e r s
in
publ is h ing bo o k -l e ngth
s tud ie s .
W o r k ing
with co mme r cial
publ is h e r s
o r
unive r s ity pr e s s e s
can h ave s e ve r al
ad vantage s
It is
l ik e l y
to l o we r
co s ts , be caus e th e
l ar ge r pr e s s e s
can tak e
ad vantage
o f e co no mie s o f
s cal e . And co mme r cial
publ is h e r s ,
in
par ticul ar , us ual l y
h ave
gr e ate r mar k e ting e xpe r tis e ,
a
bigge r mar k e ting bud ge t,
and be tte r
r e l atio ns h ips
with no n-acad e mic
bo o k s to r e s .
Ed ito r s at co mme r cial
publ is h e r s
ar e al s o
l ik e l y
to
e nco ur age
auth o r s to mak e
ch ange s
th at
wil l incr e as e
l e ad e r s h ip
and
s al e s , s ince
th e y
ar e co nce r ne d with
mak ing
a
pr o f it.
Co ntr acting
o ut
publ icatio n
o f bo o k s h as d r awback s as we l l , h o we ve r . It
may l e ngth e n
th e
publ icatio n pr o ce s s co ns id e r abl y,
wh ich co ul d mak e a
s tud y
l e s s
time l y. Pe r h aps
mo s t
impo r tant, co ntr acting
o ut l e s s e ns th e
vis ibil ity
o f th e th ink tank as a
s te ad y
s o ur ce o f
po l -
icy
id e as ,
s ince its r o l e in
s po ns o r ing
th e r e s e ar ch is
l ik e l y
to be o bs cur e d .
Le s s o ns
T h is r e vie w o f
no n-pr o f it
th ink tank s in th e Unite d State s o f f e r s s e ve r al l e s s o ns f o r man-
age r s
o f s uch
o r ganizatio ns
in th is
co untr y
and e l s e wh e r e .
A f ir s t l e s s o n is th at th e r e is no
s ingl e
mo d e l f o r wh at a th ink tank d o e s o r h o w it
o pe r -
ate s and is f inance d . T h e r e ar e s e ve r al mo d e l s to ch o o s e
f r o m,
no tabl y
th e
"unive r s ity
PS: Po l itical Scie nce & Po l itics 576
T h e
Ch anging
W o r l d o f T h ink T ank s
with o ut s tud e nts "
(e .g., Br o o k ings ,
AEI,
Ho o ve r ),
th e
"ad vo cacy
tank "
(e .g., He r itage ,
th e Ce nte r o n
Bud ge t
and
Po l icy Pr io r itie s ),
and th e
go ve r nme nt
co ntr act
o r ganizatio n
(e .g., Rand ).
T h ink tank
manage r s
can,
to a l imite d
d e gr e e , ch ange
th e ir
pr o d uct
l ine s and
s taf f ing ar r ange me nts
to ad h e r e mo r e
cl o s e l y
to o ne o r ano th e r mo d e l .
A s e co nd
l e s s o n, h o we ve r ,
is th at th e var io us mo d e l s
may
co me into co nf l ict with o ne
ano th e r . T h ink tank
manage r s
mus t be ce r tain th at th e
f inancing, image , s taf f ing
and
pr td -
uct l ine d e cis io ns th at
th e y
mak e ar e co ns is te nt with o ne ano th e r . Fo cus o n
br ie f ,
cur r e nt
l e gis l atio n-o r ie nte d
s taf f
pape r s
is
l ik e l y
to be inco ns is te nt with th e car e e r
o bje ctive s
o f a
Ph .D-d o minate d s taf f wh ich wants to h ave th e
o ptio n
o f
l e aving
th e th ink tank f o r a uni-
ve r s ity
car e e r . And a
s tr o ng po l icy ad vo cacy po int
o f vie w
may
s car e o f f
go ve r nme nt
f und ing
and s o me f o und atio ns . T h us it r e mains to be s e e n wh e th e r th e Ame r ican Ente r -
pr is e
Ins titute ,
f o r
e xampl e ,
can
s imul tane o us l y
bo l s te r its
image amo ng
co ns e r vative s and
be s e e n as a
pl ace
wh e r e
o bje ctive
r e s e ar ch is
po s s ibl e .
A th ir d l e s s o n is th at th e incr e as e in th e numbe r o f th ink tank s in r e ce nt
ye ar s
d o e s no t
ne ce s s ar il y
me an th at th e inf l ue nce o f th ink tank s h as incr e as e d .
Ind e e d ,
pr e cis e l y
th e
o p-
po s ite may
h ave o ccur r e d . W h e n th e r e we r e
jus t
a f e w th ink tank s o n th e
s ce ne ,
with
s tr o ng r e putatio ns
f o r
o bje ctivity
in
r e s e ar ch ,
th e ir vie ws car r ie d a
h igh d e gr e e
o f auth o r -
ity.
No w th e r e ar e
many
vo ice s
cl amo r ing
to be h e ar d . Mo r e o ve r , th e s e
o r ganizatio ns
var y wid e l y
in th e ir s tand ar d s , and
cl aims ,
abo ut
o bje ctivity.
In th is ne w
e nvir o nme nt,
it is
d if f icul t f o r e ith e r th e
publ ic
o r
po l icymak e r s
to k no w th e d if f e r e nce be twe e n s o und ,
r e l iabl e r e s e ar ch and
pr o pagand izing.
And it is e as ie r f o r
po l icymak e r s
to f ind s o me th ink
tank
s tud y
to
s uppo r t
th e ir cur r e nt
vie ws ,
no matte r wh at
th e y may
be .
A f inal l e s s o n is th at th e U.S.
e xpe r ie nce
with th ink tank s
may
no t be
r e ad il y
tr ans f e r -
abl e to o th e r
s e ttings .
T h ink tank inf l ue nce
d e pe nd s quite h e avil y
o n
unique
attr ibute s o f
th e Ame r ican
po l itical s ys te m (e .g.,
we ak
par tie s ,
d ivis io n o f
po we r s ,
and
pe r me abl e
ad -
minis tr ative
e l ite s )
and s o cial
s ys te m (no tabl y
a tr ad itio n o f
ph il anth r o py)
th at ar e no t to
be f o und in
many
o th e r co untr ie s . In th e abs e nce o f th e s e
co nd itio ns ,
th e r o l e
pl aye d by
th ink tank s wil l
ine vitabl y
be
d if f e r e nt,
and th e ir
abil ity
to inf l ue nce
po l icy
wil l
pr o babl y
be
l o we r .
Abo ut th e Auth o r
R. Ke nt W e ave r is a s e nio r f e l l o w in th e Go ve r nme ntal Stud ie s
Pr o gr am
at th e
Br o o k ings
Ins titu-
tio n. He is th e auth o r o f Auto matic Go ve r nme nt: T h e Po l itics
o f
Ind e xatio n
(1988)
and T h e Po l itics o f
Ind us tr ial
Ch ange : Rail way Po l icy
in No r th Ame r ica
(1985),
bo th
publ is h e d by Br o o k ings .
His cur r e nt
r e s e ar ch
pr o je cts
incl ud e a
s tud y
o f cuts in e ntitl e me nt
pr o gr ams
und e r Pr e s id e nts Car te r and
Re agan,
a cr o s s -natio nal
s tud y
o f we l f ar e s tate cutback s in f o ur ind us tr ial ize d co untr ie s , and a co m-
par is o n
o f th e ins titutio nal
capabil itie s
o f
par l iame ntar y
and ch e ck s -and -bal ance s
po l itical s ys te ms .
Be f o r e
co ming
to
Br o o k ings
h e
taugh t
at Oh io State
Unive r s ity.
No te s
I. Fo r an acco unt o f th e Ho o ve r -Stanf o r d
d is pute ve r y s ympath e tic
to
Ho o ve r ,
s e e T o m
Be th e l l ,
"Libe r al is m, Stanf o r d
Styl e ," Co mme ntar y,
77,
I
(Januar y 1984) pp.
42-47. T h e Ce nte r f o r
Str ate gic
and Inte r natio nal Stud ie s
(CSIS)
al s o h ad a tr o ubl e d
r e l atio ns h ip
with its
unive r s ity par tne r , Ge o r ge -
to wn
Unive r s ity.
T h e
Ge o r ge to wn
bo ar d o f tr us te e s d e cid e d in 1986 to s e ve r th e
unive r s ity's
r e l a-
tio ns h ip
with CSIS. Se e Al is o n Mus catine ,
"Ge o r ge to wn's
Me d ia
Pr o f s ,"
W as h ingto n
Po s t,
May
I
1,
1986,
pp.
D
I-D2,
and
Mar y
Jo r d an,
"GU Se ve r s T ie s with T h ink
T ank ,"
W as h ingto n
Po s t, Or to be r
18, 1986,
p.
BI.
2. Bo th th e Rand
Co r po r atio n
and th e Hud s o n Ins titute h ave
W as h ingto n
br anch e s .
3. On th e Manh attan Ins titute , s e e Mar tin
Go ttl ie b, "Co ns e r vative
Po l icy
Unit T ak e s Aim at Ne w
Yo r k ," T h e Ne w Yo r k T ime s ,
May
5, 1986,
p.
B4, and Ch uck Lane , "T h e Manh attan
Pr o je ct,"
T h e
Ne w
Re publ ic,
Mar ch 25, 1985,
pp.
14-15.
4. Se e
Ral ph
Z. Hal l o w, "Do natio ns Fue l T h ink T ank Battl e to Co ntr o l Fie l d o f
Po l icy
Id e as ,"
W as h ingto n
T ime s , No ve mbe r 26,
1985.
5. On th e
h is to r y
o f th e
Br o o k ings
Ins titutio n,
s e e Do nal d T . Cr itch l o w, T h e
Br o o k ings
Ins titutio n,
Se pte mbe r
1989 577
T h e
Ch anging
W o r l d o f T h ink T ank s
1916-1952,
Expe r tis e
and th e Publ ic Inte r e s t in a De mo cr atic
So cie ty,
De Kal b, IL: No r th e r n Il l ino is Uni-
ve r s ity
Pr e s s ,
1985. Br o o k ings ,
th e Ame r ican
Ente r pr is e
Ins titute ,
and th e
He r itage
Fo und atio n ar e
pr o f il e d
in Ro be r t K. Land e r s ,
"T h ink T ank s : T h e Ne w Par tis ans ?," Ed ito r ial Re s e ar ch
Re po r ts ,
1, 23
(June 20,
1986) pp.
455-472.
6. Pr o f il e s o f
AEI, Ho o ve r , th e Ce nte r f o r
Str ate gic
and Inte r natio nal Stud ie s and th e Cato In-
s titute
appe ar
in
Gr e g
Eas te r br o o k ,
"
'Id e as Mo ve Natio ns ,'
"
T h e Atl antic
Mo nth l y, Januar y
1986.
7. On Cato , s e e Co l l e e n
O'Co nno r ,
"A
Baby
Bo o me r s ' T h ink
T ank ," Ne ws we e k ,
Se pte mbe r
I,
1986. On th e Ins titute f o r
Po l icy
Stud ie s ,
s e e
Sid ne y
Bl ume nth al ,
"T h e Le f t Stuf f : IPS and th e
Lo ng
Ro ad
Back ,"
W as h ingto n
Po s t,
Jul y
30, 1986,
pp.
DI-D3. IPS is no t "s tud e ntl e s s ,"
h o we ve r : it o f f e r s
co ur s e s
th r o ugh
its o wn
W as h ingto n
Sch o o l .
8. On th e
Jo int Ce nte r ,
s e e Ke nne th B.
No bl e ,
"Re s e ar ch Unit Fo cus e s o n
Pr o gr e s s
f o r
Bl ack s ,"
Ne w Yo r k T ime s ,
Se pte mbe r
I
I, 1986,
p.
B 14.
9. Rand al s o
o pe r ate s
its o wn
gr ad uate
s ch o o l ,
o f f e r ing
a Ph .D in
publ ic po l icy anal ys is ,
and
(in
co o pe r atio n
with th e
Unive r s ity
o f Cal if o r nia at Lo s
Ange l e s ) gr ad uate d e gr e e s
in h e al th
po l icy anal y-
s is and So vie t Inte r natio nal Be h avio r . On Rand , s e e Br uce L. R. Smith , T h e Rand
Co r po r atio n:
Cas e
Stud y o f
a
No npr o f it Ad vis o r y Co r po r atio n, Cambr id ge :
Har var d
Unive r s ity
Pr e s s , 1966, and Fr e d
Kapl an,
T h e W izar d s
o f Ar mage d d o n,
Ne w Yo r k : Simo n and Sch us te r ,
1983. T h e
Navy De par tme nt
h as its o wn co ntr act
r e s e ar ch e r ,
th e Ce nte r f o r Naval
Anal ys is ,
wh ich is no w
manage d by
th e Hud -
s o n Ins titute , an
Ind ianapo l is -bas e d
th ink tank f o und e d
by
He r man Kah n.
10. On th e
e ar l y h is to r y
o f th e Ur ban Ins titute , s e e Paul Dick s o n,
T h ink
T ank s ,
Ne w Yo r k :
Ath e ne um, 1971,
pp.
221-235. Se e al s o Ho war d Gl e ck man, "A
W as h ingto n
W al l f l o we r Star ts to
Bl o o m," Bus ine s s W e e k ,
Mar ch
9, 1987,
pp.
1 12, 116 and
Spe nce r
Rich , "T h ink T ank Sur vive s Le an
T ime s ,"
W as h ingto n
Po s t,
May
16, 1988,
p.
A13.
II. On th e Eco no mic
Po l icy
Ins titute , s e e Paul
T ayl o r , "Anal yzing
Al te r native s in Labo r 's T h ink
T ank ,"
W as h ingto n
Po s t,
Fe br uar y
19, 1987,
p.
A25.
12. Sch ul tze s e r ve d as
Bud ge t
Dir e cto r in th e
Jo h ns o n
ad minis tr atio n and Ch air man o f th e Co uncil
o f Eco no mic Ad vis o r s in th e Car te r Ad minis tr atio n.
13. Se e , f o r
e xampl e ,
Ste ve n W al d man, "T h e
King
o f
Quo te s : W h y
th e Pr e s s is Ad d icte d to No r -
man Or ns te in," T h e
W as h ingto n Mo nth l y,
vo l .
18,
no . I I
(De ce mbe r 1986) pp.
33-40.
Re f e r e nce s
Ame r ican
Ente r pr is e
Ins titute . 1987. 1987 Annual
Re po r t. W as h ingto n,
DC: Ame r ican
Ente r pr is e
Ins titute .
Be ncive nga, Jim.
1984.
"Yo ung,
Br as h and Co ns e r vative ." Ch r is tian Scie nce
Mo nito r , Octo be r 5.
Bl ume nth al ,
Sid ne y.
1986. "Har d T ime s at th e T h ink T ank ."
W as h ingto n
Po s t, June
26.
Br o o k ings
Ins titutio n. 1987. Annual
Re po r t
1987.
W as h ingto n,
DC: T h e
Br o o k ings
Ins titutio n.
Ce nte r f o r
Str ate gic
and Inte r natio nal Stud ie s . 1988. 1987-88
Pr o gr ams
and Activitie s .
W as h ingto n,
DC. Ce nte r f o r
Str ate gic
and Inte r natio nal Stud ie s .
Fl y,
Rich ar d . 1986. "W h at's In f o r Pr e s id e ntial
Ho pe f ul s :
T h ink T ank s ." Bus ine s s W e e k ,
May
12.
He r itage
Fo und atio n. 1987. 1987 Annual
Re po r t. W as h ingto n,
DC:
He r itage
Fo und atio n.
Ke l l e y,
Pe te r . 1988. "T h ink T ank s Fal l Be twe e n Pur e Re s e ar ch and
Lo bbying."
Ho us to n Ch r o nicl e ,
Mar ch 9.
Kid d e r , Rus h wo r th M. 1984. "Fr o m Le f t to Ce nte r ." Ch r is tian Scie nce
Mo nito r ,
Octo be r 2.
Land e r s , Ro be r t K. 1986. "T h ink T ank s : T h e Ne w Par tis ans ?" Ed ito r ial Re s e ar ch
Re po r ts ,
I, 23,
June
20.
Mo o r e ,
Jo h n
W . 1988. "Lo cal
Righ t
T h ink e r s ." Natio nal o umal , Octo be r I.
Ro s e nth al , Jame s .
1985.
"He r itage Hype ."
T h e Ne w
Re publ ic, Se pte mbe r
2.
Saf ir e , W il l iam. 1986. "T ank s f o r th e Me mo r ie s ." Ne w Yo r k T ime s ,
Se pte mbe r
I.
Victo r , Kir k . 1988. "Af te r th e
Victo r y."
Natio nal
jo ur nal , Se pte mbe r
24.
W h ittl e ,
Rich ar d . 1985.
"Jo ur nal is ts
Fil l
Up
at T h ink T ank s ." Dal l as
Mo r ning
Ne ws , No ve mbe r 10.
PS: Po l itical Scie nce & Po l itics 578