The Iva Valley Shooting at Enugu Colliery, Nigeria: African Workers

Aspirations an the !ailure of Colonial "a#or $efor%

Carolyn A& 'ro(n
After Worl War II African (orkers e)pecte to #e a(are for their
loyal support of *E%pire+ uring the (ar an anticipate raical social
an political changes in co%pensation for their loyalty an for the
conitions they enure uring the (ar& What they confronte instea
(ere halfhearte political refor%s that faile to pave the (ay for
inepenence an %ore sophisticate atte%pts to create stringent
prouction regi%es in the colonies in (hich %anagers, (ith support of
the state, resiste (orkers e%ans for increase (ages& 'ritains
Colonial ,ffice, anticipating an out#urst of pent-up grievances, trie to
coa) local %anagers an colonial govern%ents to use *%oern+
syste%s of inustrial relations an la#or control to channel (orker
unrest through %anagea#le organs of (orkplace consultation& This,
they felt, (as key to insulate inustrial isputes fro% the volatile
political conte)t of ecoloni.ation, a conte)t (hich 'ritain neither
unerstoo nor yet controlle& S%arting uner the anticolonialist
criti/ue of its (arti%e allies0the 1SS$ an the 1nite States0'ritain
#egan to put *ol (ine in ne( #ottles+ #y refocusing the i%perial
1
%ission to e%phasi.e the econo%ic an social *evelop%ent+ of
colonial societies& *2evelop%ent+ (as a vaguely construe ieology
that hi the econo%istic %otives of the i%perial state 3an its
esperate post(ar nee for colonial resources40to evelop %ore
efficient (ays to capture scarce an hence highly value colonial
resources for use in 'ritains post(ar recovery& In Nigeria grounnuts
an pal% proucts no( co%%ane prices higher than uring the (ar&
They (ere (onerful sources for earning har currency, i&e& 1& S&
ollars, paying off loans fro% the 1&S&, an purchasing capital goos
neee for the reconstruction of its evastate inustrial #ase&
5oreover #y getting the% fro% the colonies (ithin the sterling area,
'ritain neent spen alreay scarce har currency purchasing the%
on (orl %arkets&
1
If only colonial (orkers coul #e %ae to #e %ore
prouctive an %ore ocile& The various refor% proposals of the
post(ar perio (ere an atte%pt to resolve these contraictions&
As against these i%perial plans stoo an e)pectant population of
colonial (orkers (ith their o(n plans for the post(ar future& The
propagana of the (ar encourage colonial (orkers to clai% their right
to evelop their o(n interpretations of *evelop%ent+ an these (ere
1
5ichael Co(en an Nicholas Westcott, *'ritish I%perial Econo%ic
6olicy 2uring the War,+ in Africa and World War II, e& 2avi 7illingray an
$ichar $ath#one 8"onon, 9:;<=, p& >>& !reerick Cooper,
Decolonization and African Society: The Labor Question in French and British Africa,
Ca%#rige: Ca%#rige 1niversity 6ress, 9::<& p& ?@A&
2
often at os (ith i%perial plans& Throughout colonial Africa (orkers
%o#ili.e to
2
ensure that this ne(, *%oern+ Africa fulfille their nees
an %any poure their energy into preparing their chilren for
positions (ithin an inepenent nation& These e)pectations fuele a
(ave of largely ur#an post(ar protests that engulfe the colonies
throughout Africa& In Nigeria the first sign of these ne( (orker protests
(as the 9:>B Nigerian Ceneral Strike, (hich launche a national (ave
of inustrial unrest that continue through the en of the ecae& The
political conte)t of the Col War %ae these protests particularly
#otherso%e to the i%perial state #ecause it (as in a (eakene
conition to #oth %onitor the influence of Co%%unists in these volatile
colonies an respon to the post(ar e)pectations of the %etropolitan
(orking class&
The entire enterprise of refor% an evelop%ent (as a hoc an
fraught (ith contraictions& In the colonies %anagers an state
officials pushe a prouctionist ethos an trie to sei.e a eeper
control over the la#or process #y introucing su#tle an %ore o#vious
changes in the la#or process that reuce la#ors autono%y in the
2
5ost of these strikes (ere in transport& See Ti%othy ,#erst, *Cost of
"iving an Strikes in 'ritish Africa c& 9:A:D9:>:: I%perial 6olicy an
the I%pact of the Secon Worl War,+ 6h2 issertation, Colu%#ia
1niversity, 9::9& !or su%%ary treat%ent of these revolts, see
!reerick Cooper, Decolonization and African Society, chapter <&
3
(orkplace& The Colonial ,ffice urge local officials to institute the
types of inustrial relations processes that ha proven of so%e success
in the %etropole& 'ut %ost colonial officials an %anagers gave only
no%inal ac/uiescence to these refor%s (hile trying to retain ol
%ethos of (orkplace control #ase on coercion an #rutality&
Eo(ever, the political conte)t necessary to sustain such colonial
espotis% ha change& ,fficially racist practices (ere ifficult for the
state to support, a reality that %any colonial %anagers foun har to
recogni.e& While the Colonial ,ffice eventually prevaile an so%e
for% of *%oern+ inustrial relations (ere transferre to the colony
neither %etropolitan nor local officials (ere really co%%itte to
supporting %eaningful organs of (orker representation or Fust rules for
isputes %anage%ent& In the colonies local officials evelope a
%yria of (ays to su#vert these *%oern+ inustrial-relations
processes, (hich often sti%ulate an inustrial crisis (hich, in the
conte)t of the ecoloni.ation spille over into the political arena& An
the Colonial ,ffice evelope e%pire-(ie strategies to su#vert the
evelop%ent of strong trae unions& This (as the case in the Enugu
Covern%ent Colliery in 9:>: (hen police shot %iners engage in a
peaceful e%onstration, transfor%ing an inustrial protest into an icon
of the struggle for inepenence&
In its ca%paign to pro%ote a %oicu% of refor% the Colonial ,ffice
4
(as force to seek the colla#oration of a *partner+ for%erly vie(e
(ith suspicion uring the (ar0the 'ritish Traes 1nion Congress&
Eager to #e accepte #y the state the 'T1C ispatche hunres of
%en throughout the e%pire to esta#lish la#or epart%ents, launch
ispute-%anage%ent syste%s, teach the principles of inustrial
relations, an pro%ote *responsi#le+ trae unionis% to a restless an
ne(ly e%po(ere (orking class& 5aking African (orkers %ore
*prouctive+ (as not Fust a technical processG it also involve a
efinition of prouctivity that often isavantage (orkers& Civen the
irregularities of the colonial la#or process the %eans of %easuring an
assessing *prouctivity+ (ere far fro% o#Fective& 5oreover, colonial
%anagers coul easily o#scure their resistance to ne( syste%s of
inustrial control if they coul prouce output an cost-of-prouction
figures that suggeste ne( econo%ies& As inustrial relations
strategies (ere applie in the colonies this o#scurantis% (as far %ore
ifficult to ensure (ith (orkers (hose perspective (as shape #y an
a(areness of the conitions of their %etropolitan counterparts, a factor
of increase i%portance as the co%%unications avenues of (ar
propagana (ere sei.e #y nationalist leaers& The e)perience of
inustrial (orkers in Enugu inicates that it (as often fro% the %ost
re%ote (orkplaces that the %ost serious attacks (ere launche&
As a state enterprise the Enugu Covern%ent Colliery (as consiere
5
an i%portant site for the "a#our 6arty to pro%ote its a%#itious plans to
contain an refor% colonial la#or& It involve the legali.ation of trae
unions, the eploy%ent of cooperative 'T1C avisers to coach
*responsi#le+ trae unionis%, the proing of colonial governors to
%oerni.e la#or policies, the enless proposals an convolute
proceures esigne to efuse inustrial conflicts an the various
*enlightene+ social (elfare policies& 'ut rather than prevent
isruptive inustrial isputes they le to the very type of e)cessive
#rutality that threatene to catapult inustrial ispute into a #roa-
#ase political crisis, the type that coul threaten the pace of
ecoloni.ation&
Enugu (as Fust the type of city that (oul generate Colonial ,ffice
concern& It (as the seat of the regional govern%ent an ha the
highest literacy rate in the East& !orty percent of its population of ten
thousan (as literate an supporte a vi#rant an raical nationalist
press o(ne #y a pro%inent nationalist, Nna%i A.iki(e& The citys
role as an a%inistrative an inustrial center gave it a social
co%position that (as politically volatile& With its hunres of
iscontente clerical (orkers, unsatisfie (ith the pace of political
change, an thousans of inustrial (orkers, trying to scrape together
a living (ith (ages that ha eteriorate since the 2epression, the city
6
(as a hot#e of nationalist activity& The clerks
3
%ae Enugu a center
of a %ilitant nationalist group, the Hikist %ove%ent, (hich inclue
a%ong its %e%#ers several pro%inent 5ar)ist "eninists& The Hikists
appeare to #e teetering angerously close to encouraging %ass
protests of *positive action+ in Nigeria si%ilar to the protests in Chana&
,n ,cto#er ?I, 9:>;, ,sita Ag(una, a %e%#er of the Hikists, elivere
a speech calle *A Call for $evolution,+ (hich %ae thirteen proposals
for civil iso#eience& The govern%ent #eca%e alar%e an arreste
the %aFor %e%#ers of the group&
4

This (as the political conte)t in Nove%#er 9:>: (hen police shot
t(enty-t(o %iners engage in a sit-in at the Iva Valley %ine& This
paper argues that the shooting (as a prouct of these processes that
shape post(ar la#or policy an stoke African (orking- class %ens
aspirations& In the (orkplace #oth la#or an %anage%ent anticipate
changes #ut their vision of the esire nature of these changes (as in
conflict& In the post(ar perio %anage%ent an the la#or *e)perts+ in
the Colonial ,ffice e)pecte to finally #ring African (orkers uner
%anagerial control an to encu%#er their isputes (ith ela#orate
3
The classic stuies of this perio are $ichar Sklar, Nierian !olitical
!arties: !o"er in an #$erent African Nation, 6rinceton: 6rinceton 1niversity
6ress, 9:<A, an Ja%es Cole%an, Nieria: Bac%round to Nationalis$, "os
Angeles an 'erkeley: 1niversity of California 6ress, 9:B;&
4
Sklar, Nierian !olitical !arties, IBG J& ,& ,lusanya, The Second World War and
!olitics in Nieria, &'(')&'*(, "onon: Evans 'rothers, 9:IA, p& 99<&
7
#ureaucratic processes esigne to reuce isruptions of prouction&
'ut %iners ha no intention of allo(ing their la#or po(er to #e /uietly
appropriate to fulfill the proFect of %etropolitan reconstruction& 2uring
Worl War II Enugu (orkers #eca%e %ore a(are of their conitions in
co$+arison "ith those of si%ilar (orkers in Englan an else(here& This
a(areness (as e)presse in the e%ans that (orkers %ae,
collectively an iniviually, to #ring their conitions an pay
scheules in concert (ith those in the %etropolis& Eaving live through
the (ar, (hen they (ere tol that they (ere e/ual to %etropolitan
(orkers they raise e%ans that e)presse ne( ieas a#out their
responsi#ilities as (orking %en uring a perio of intense anticipation
of the future of the colonial state& Wages provie a sure %eans of
preparing their fa%ilies for future opportunities, since ecoloni.ation
(as i%%inent& ,thers sacrifice to construct schools an health clinics
in natal villages& The fulfill%ent of these responsi#ilities (as reflecte
in (orkplace struggles an the e%ans %iners place #oth on their
e%ployers an the colonial state&
This paper argues that the post(ar perio is a ti%e (hen the states
interventions to *%oerni.e+ the %eans of controlling African la#or
an the social conte)t in (hich (orkers live (ere the%selves the
cause of the rash of inustrial isputes that rivete post(ar African
societies& In one of historys great ironies the task of creating the
8
post(ar e%pire fell on the "a#our 6arty& 6ushing a package of la#or
rights (hile custoian of the i%perial state ha its contraictions an
these contraictions #u##le up an slappe "a#our in the face&
The paper is #uilt upon the ele%ents of this reconstruction: the fla(e
introuction of state-sanctione trae unions, the e%ergence of a
politically sophisticate union leaer, the introuction of a legal
fra%e(ork to ecasuali.e la#or #ut not proletariani.e la#orers, an the
intervention of the state to reorgani.e the trae union accoring to
foreign principles& These ele%ents of the policy of la#or refor% are
iscusse in outline for%& The concluing section escri#es the
shooting itself an suggests areas of further e)ploration, %ost
specifically the hearings of the investigative co%%ission as a te)t for
e)a%ining ecoloni.ation& 6reli%inary analysis inicates that the
co%%ission, le #y W& J& !it.geral, for%erly of the 6alestine "an
Co%%ission, (as far %ore than a #oy constitute to investigate an
inustrial isputeG rather it (as a vehicle use #y the Colonial ,ffice to
istance itself fro% the #ungling political proposals of the Nigerian
state&
Introucing the Enugu Colliery: The 5ines After Worl War II
6lease note that in 3the4 future the esignation *%en+ %ust #e
su#stitute
9
for *#oys+ in all co%%unications referring to the Colliery
la#our either collectively or iniviually& No person
e%ploye #y this epart%ent %ust #e aresse as *#oy&+
Announce%ent #y Colliery 5anager, ?A 2ece%#er 9:>9
B
The govern%ents (hich rule !rench West Africa an
'ritish Africa uring the early (ar years ha one
characteristic in co%%on: #oth (ere planning for futures
that i not e)ist&
!reerick Cooper, Decolonization and African Society
<
Enugu Covern%ent Colliery (as a state-o(ne enterprise an a
strategic resource uring Worl War I an Worl War II& The %ines
(ere locate in southeastern Nigeria, in a region populate #y the Ig#o
people, one of the three largest ethnic groups in conte%porary Nigeria&
Its coal (as the %ain fuel source for the Nigerian Covern%ent $ail(ay
an, uring the (ar, the rail(ays of other West African colonies as (ell
as Englan itself& The coal %arket inclue stea%ships that plie the
West African coast an the tin-%ining co%panies of northern Nigeria as
5
Nigerian Coal Corporation !iles, 8hereafter NCC= Ne( No& 6&9, *"etter
fro% Colliery 2epart%ent to All officials an staff0European an
African,+ ?A 2ece%#er 9:>9&
6
Cooper, Decolonization and African Society, p& 99@&
10
(ell& Although the (orkforce (as s%all, ranging fro% five thousan to
seven thousan in this perio, the central position of the inustry in
West Africa a%plifie the po(er of its (orkers, an isputes attracte
the attention of the Colonial ,ffice& The %iners (ere very a(are of this
centrality&
There (ere t(o %ines operating uring this perio, Iva Valley an
,#(etti& 'oth use the +illar,and,stall syste$ of e)traction, in (hich
%iners ivie the entire %ine into sections 8as if on a gri=, a process
calle de-elo+$ent, (hich they e)tracte later, in robbery& This syste% of
e)traction encourage a series of values that #eca%e i%portant for
the evelop%ent of %iners self-ientity& In the Enugu %ines the
ivision of tasks follo(e the 2er#yshire syste% use in the northern
coalfiels of Northu%#erlan an 2urha%, the ho%e of the Collierys
first %anager& In this syste% all tasks preli%inary to the actual coal-
getting (ere perfor%e #y speciali.e (orkers (ho set ti%#er
8ti%#er%en=, lay the rails 8rail%en=, re%ove stone to %ake roa(ays
of sufficient height, an #uil packing (alls 8special la#or=&
7
The he(ers
8%iners= only cut the coal an put it in the tu#s, (hich tu#%en pushe&
5anage%ent assu%e that this fractionali.e ivision of la#or (as
7
!or a goo iscussion of the syste% of (ork in the Northu%#erlan
fiels, see 5& S& 2aunton, *2o(n the 6it: Work in the Creat Northern
an South Wales Coal !iels, 9;I@D9:9>,+ #cono$ic .istory /e-ie", ?
n
ser&, A>,> 8Nove%#er 9:;9=: B;?&
11
appropriate for Kthe African (orker,+ (ho% they eprecate as
incapa#le of hanling %ore than a single task& Eo(ever, espite these
assu%ptions that the (orkers lacke skill, the 2er#yshire syste%
encourage the %en in various points in prouction to recogni.e the
intuitive kno(lege re/uire of their Fo#s& This a(areness gave the%
po(er an personal prie, (hich (as e)presse in their e%ans
uring the (ar&
'oth the syste% of e)traction0pillar an stall0an the particular
co%position of the (ork group ha i%plications for the calculations of
prouctivity& 2uring the (ar these calculations (ere use (ith
eceptive intent #y a %anage%ent seeking to roll #ack gains %iners
ha achieve #efore the (ar& 6ay syste%s for colliery (ork are
e)ceeingly co%ple) an a central ele%ent in %anagerial control over
the prouction process& They usually use a co%#ination of piece an
ay rates (ith unergroun allo(ances for various categories of la#or
in (ays that create incentives for prouction& This (as especially
i%portant (ith the pillar-an-stall syste%, (hich opene far too %any
(ork faces for %anage%ent to supervise& Thus %iners+ (ages (ere
#ase largely on *piece rates+ (hile the %en (ho pushe tu#s, Ktu#
#oys+ (ere on aily rates #ecause the nu%#er of tu#s they pushe
(ere eter%ine #y the a%ount the he(ers prouce& Eo(ever, in the
settle%ent of a traes ispute uring 9:AILA; the he(ers (on a
12
significant ay rate
8
(hich graually ca%e to #e the o%inant
percentage of their (ages& This #eca%e, in effect, a %ini%u% (age&
5ine engineering principles esta#lishe an ieal ratio for the %iners
eploye in *evelop%ent+ as against *ro##ery+& In 9:>A the %anager
istorte the *ieal+ ratio of 89= (orkers in *evelop%ent+ an
*ro##ery+ an 8?= of %iners to other unergroun la#or in orer to
respon rapily to an e%ergency re/uest for coal fro% Englan&
9
Ee
e)pane the si.e of the (orkforce, putting the %aFority on *ro##ery+&
The favora#le i%pact on output an la#or costs (as ra%atic (ith a
??@M increase in output (ith a >@M lo(er the price per ton&
10
The
pro#le% (as that eventually e)traction reache the li%its of e)isting
de-elo+$ent an it (as necessary to re-eploy %en to carve out ne(
pillars for future e)traction& Instea of retrenching (orkers (ho (ere
no longer a#le to perfor% robbery, they retaine the%, an the nu%#er
8
This settle%ent (as grante #y the 2irector of the $ail(ay, the
a%inistrative unit of the Colliery, (ho (as unfa%iliar (ith the %ore
conventional syste%s of pay that %ine %anage%ent e%ploye to
increase prouctivity& !or a iscussion, see C& 'ro(n, 0We Were All
Sla-es1: African 2iners, 3ulture and /esistance at the #nuu 4o-ern$ent 3olliery,
6orts%outh, NE: Eeine%annLCreen(oo, ?@@A&
9
This re/uest (as fro% the Co%#ine Coal 'oar of "onon, (hich (as
reeling fro% la#or shortages in the 'ritish coal inustry& !or a
iscussion of this crisis, see 'arry Supple, The .istory of the British 3oal
Industry5 6ol5 7, &'&()&'78: The !olitical #cono$y of Decline, ,)for: Clarenon
6ress, 9:;I&
10
6u#lic $ecors ,ffice, 7e( Carens, 8hereafter 6$,= C&,&
B;AL?<9LA@>?B ?A, Covernor 'ourillion to Stanley in Colonial ,ffice,
January 9:A>&
13
of %en e)ceee Kthe e%ans of de-elo+$ent an got out of proportion
(ith the strict nees of the circu%stances&+
11
,nly 9 he(er (as
assigne to de-elo+$ent for every &I he(ers in robbery as against the
ieal ratio of 9 in ro##ery for every ?&?< in evelop%ent&
The esti%ate costs of this i%#alance (as over N9I,@@@ per year&
12
Since the he(ers (ere the actual coal getters any eploy%ent of la#or
that ecrease their nu%#ers in relation to other classes reuce ,5S&
The he(ers+ proportion of the total (orkforce ecline fro% ?@&B>
percent in 9:>@L>9 to 9>&>A percent in 9:><, as is seen in the graph
#elo(&
13
Conveniently, %anage%ent ignore these calculations (hen
linking any future (age gains to increase prouctivity&
This perio of e)tensive *evelop%ent+ for future e)traction also
create an aitional source of increase costs #y lo(ering of the ratio
of %iners to other unergroun (orkers& 1nergroun %iners (ere
alreay outnu%#ere #y other (orkers& Work groups (ere co%pose
of one rail(ay-%an, t(o ti%#er-%en, eight tu#-%en, an eight he(ers&
11
I#i&
12
This ratio is an ieal that cannot #e attaine given the real conitions
in the %ines& Eo(ever, #y appro)i%ating this ratio the %anage%ent
coul significantly reuce la#or costs, an thence, costs of prouction&
6o(ell 2uffryn Technical Services, *!irst $eport to the 1ner-Secretary
of State for the Colonies, on the Covern%ent Colliery, Enugu, The
Characteristics of the Coal 6rouce an the Investigation into the
,ther Coal an "ignite $esources,+ "onon, 9:>;, 5i%eographe,
*Characteristics of the Coal,+ 2-9?, 2-9>, 2-9B&
13
6o(ell 2uffryn, *Characteristics of the Coal,+ 2-9;&
14
The pri%ary coal proucers, the he(ers, (ere less than half of this
nineteenD%an group& In fact, the ratio of he(ers ecline relative to
other unergroun (orkers #ecause of the necessary %aintenance of
the large nu%#er of (orksites in operation uner the +illar,and,stall
syste$& As the %anage%ent opene ne( (ork istricts or *ro##e+
those in de-elo+$ent, %ore an %ore %en (ere neee for *ea-(ork,+
i&e&, the %aintenance of roa(ays, pu%ping of (ater, an replacing
ti%#er& With the opening of ne( areas #y *evelop%ent+ the ratio of
prouctive to nonprouctive face (orkers reuce output #y A@
percent, an ae : to the total cost of prouction per ton& Ee(ers
(ages (ere only A&: of this a%ount, (hile the re%aining B&9 (as
pai other unergroun (orkers& In this case the he(ers output (as
not high enough to co%pensate for this large nu%#er of (orkers, an
it istorte the prouctivity calculations& 5oreover, as aitional %en
(ere eploye for surface tasks, the he(ers proportion of the (ork
group ecline&
The financial i%pact of these %anagerial ecisions (as o#scure (hile
(ages (ere lo(, or (hen only the he(ers receive a #asic aily tu#
rate& The full conse/uence of this ecision (oul #eco%e o#vious after
the (ar (hen, in 9:>< the tu# %en, as (ell as he(ers, receive piece
rates&
15
Graph 6.1 Hewers in Relation to Other Categories of Workers
Hewers
Undgrd
Surface
0
000
!000
6000
"000
1#!0 1#!1 1#! 1#!$ 1#!! 1#!% 1#!6 1#!& 1#!"
'u()er of *en
Surface
Undgrd
Hewers
,ne of the (ays that the inustry *hi+ this superfluous (orkforce is
through the practice of *rostering&+ This (as a syste% of *sharing
(ork+ in (hich nu%#ers of (orkers are kept on the roster in e)cess of
aily nees& Each ay %anage%ent poste a list or roster of the group
of %en selecte to (ork that ay& ,nly those %en (hose na%e
appeare (ere e%ploye for the ay& In %any respects this
constitute a *registration+ syste%, a %etho that %anage%ent coul
use to sei.e %ore control over the su++ly of la#or& The syste% invite
corruption an le to ur#an overcro(ing as (orkers flocke to the
%ine site to present the%selves aily for (ork& This syste%, (hich
institute casual la#or, (as attacke #y the state in its refor%
legislation&
Colonial Syste%s of Worker $epresentation: the Trou#le 'irth of
Colliery Trae 1nions, 9:>9D9:><
War conitions ha inicate the nee for so%e type of (orker
16
representation an a reluctant %anage%ent accee to the Colonial
,ffice e%an that it esta#lish the inustrys first trae unions& In
9:A: the Colonial ,ffice ha pushe colonial govern%ents to esta#lish
unions as *the surest %eans of securing inustrial sta#ility an the
re%oval of e)tre%ist tenencies&+
14
As ,r%s#y-Core ha note earlier,
not to o so (oul *encourage the for%ation of illegal organi.ations
(hich %ay easily evelop into *secret societies+ an e)ten their
operations into the political fiel&+
15
Eo(ever, %ost colonial authorities
ignore his re/uest to esta#lish la#or epart%ents an to authori.e
trae unions& It (as only after the (ar #egan an authorities trie to
ensure that isruptions in prouction i not occur, that these
irectives (ere taken seriously&
T(o unions (ere esta#lishe in 9:>9 at the Colliery: on the surface,
the Colliery Surface I%prove%ent 1nion 8CSI1=, an unergroun, the
Enugu Workers Trae 1nion 8EWT1=&
16
'oth (ere plague #y leaership
opportunis% an %anipulation as (ell as corruption& They replace
inigenous (orkers organi.ations, calle Nzu%o, that ha successfully
14
Creat 'ritain, West Inia $oyal Co%%ission $eport 85oyne $eport=,
E5S,, "onon, 9:>B 8C52&<<@;= $oyal Co%%ission on istur#ances in
Trinia as cite in 6eter Weiler, *!or%ing $esponsi#le Trae 1nions:
The Colonial ,ffice, Colonial "a#or an the Traes 1nion Congress,+
/adical .istory /e-ie" ?;DA@ 89:;>=: AI>& !or the %ost authoritative
stuy, see 7en 6ost, *Arise 9e Star-lins1: The :a$aica Labor /ebellion of &'(;
and its After$ath, The Eague: NiFhoff, 9:I;&
15
6$,, C, 9I<<LAI, ,r%s#y-Core, *Circular,+ ?> August 9:AI, as cite
in Weiler&
16
The union #eca%e the Colliery Workers 1nion uring the (ar&
17
le the (orkers through several ecaes of protest& The unions
reflecte the occupational ivision in coal %ining #et(een
unergroun an surface (ork&
5anage%ent encourage its colla#orators fro% the clerical pool, in the
case of the Enugu Surface Workers 1nion, an the *#oss #oys+ (ith
the Enugu Coal 5iners 1nion to for% the unions& 6reicta#ly, they
%anipulate the (orkers an atte%pte to use the% to increase their
po(er (ith %anage%ent an the state& Although privilege #y their
literacy, clerical (orkers (ere not successful in (inning the loyalty of
the key unergroun (orkers0the %iners&
"ike colonial unions every(here, Enugus unions (ere eprive of the
full rights of %etropolitan unions an these penalties %ae it ifficult
for the% to function effectively& They face co%pulsory registration
uner ter%s to #e ecie at the iscretion of the govern%ent an
(ere su#Fecte to special restrictions: a si)-%onth (aiting perio,
fre/uent i%prison%ent of %ilitant leaers, an a close %onitoring of
finances&
17

Aitionally, they confronte skeptics in the Colonial ,ffice (ho felt
that African *(orkers+ i not deser-e unions #ecause they (erent
9I
6$,, C, BB>L9A?LAAI?:, Sec& of State ,liver Stanley, to E&V& Te(son,
Assistant Secretary, 'T1C, ;8O= July 9:>A&
18
actually *inustrial %en&+ In fact the e#ate a#out race an class (as
one of the crucial intellectual iscussions that affecte colonial policy&
18
Nonetheless, throughout the (ar (orkers %ae their support for the
unions contingent upon their success in representing their interests&
!ro% the very #eginning trae unions (ere seen as instru%ents of
govern%ent control&
The Nigerian state an the Colonial ,ffice ha reconceptuali.e
colonial la#or (ithin an e)isting conte)t of i%prove social (elfare,
increase (orker prouctivity, an controlle syste%s of
representation& The ela#orate legislative structures that
#ureaucrati.e (orker protest encourage (orkers to seek out their
o(n *interpreters+ of this a%inistrative %a.e& 5ost often these
*interpreters+ (ere charis%atic, (ere conte%ptuous of (hite #osses,
relishe their position leaing the *%asses,+ (ere sufficiently eucate
to co%prehen an si%plify the la#or legislation, an (ere usually
very attracte to the nationalist %ove%ent& Nigeria ha %any such
leaers05ichael I%ouu of the $ail(ay Workers 1nion, an Nuka E.e
an A& A& AioD5oses of the A%alga%ate 1nion of 1AC African
Workers 81NA5AC=, to na%e a fe(&
19
In Enugu this leaer (as fro%
18
!or a iscussion of this in the conte)t of the coal %ines, see *A K5an
in the Village is a K'oy in the Workplace: Colonial $acis%, Worker
5ilitance an Ig#o Notions of 5asculinity in the Nigerian Coal Inustry,
9:A@D9:>B,+ in "& "insay an S& 5iescher 8es&=, 2en and 2asculinities in
2odern Africa& 6orts%outh, NE: Eeine%ann, ?@@A, pp& 9B<DI>&
19
Wogu Anana#a, The Trade <nion 2o-e$ent in Nieria, Ne( Pork: Africana
19
a%ong the *Junior Technical Staff,+ that group of Africans #eing
traine, in a type of *inustrial ecoloni.ation,+ to assu%e responsi#le
positions in the inustry& In 9:>A Isaiah ,Fiyi, a for%er schoolteacher,
#eca%e the Ceneral Secretary of the EWT1& Eis e%ergence (as one of
the contraictions unleashe #y the Colonial ,ffice la#or refor%s&
1nlike %any of the other African staff (ho sa( their posts as
opportunities for personal avance%ent, ,Fiyi use his training in
Nigerian la#or la( to evelop e%ans that fully e)ploite the legal
para%eters set forth #y the state& Eis conte%pt for the racial culture of
the %ines an his arrogance to(ar his European superiors %ae hi%
a natural hero of the (orkers an a #Qte noire of European #osses& ,ne
infor%ant recalle that #efore ,Fiyis ascent (orkers (ere force to
#ri#e European #osses:
This age is also kno(n as the turkey getting age #ecause
(ithout #eing a#le to give present of turkey an possi#ly
%oney an pay inhu%an aoration to the European ,ver
%anager one cannot aspire to have a penny increase on
6u#lishing Corporation, 9:<:, p& IBG $o#in Cohen, *Nigerias "a#our
"eaer No& 9: Notes for a 'iographical Stuy of 5& A& ,& I%ouu,+
:ournal of the .istorical Society of Nieria B, ? 89:I@=: A@AD;G Wale
,ye%akine, *the Nigerian Ceneral Strike of 9:>B,+ :ournal of the
.istorical Society of Nieria I, > 8June 9:IB=: <:ADII9&
20
his salary&
?@
,Fiyi ha nationalist sy%pathies an enFoye challenging European
#osses (ho (ere accusto%e to near-total po(er over their (orkers&
To European staff the erosion of their privileges to physically an
ver#ally a#use 'lack (orkers appeare as the loss of (ork iscipline
an they co%plaine to %anage%ent that *their #oys+ (ere e)hi#iting
a ne(, an angerously recalcitrant, attitue& ,Fiyi typifie these
intolera#le for%s of *cheeky+ #ehavior, (hich he appeare to have
enFoye&
1nlike the eucate clerks, he i not look o(n on the %iners an
other la#orers, #ut relishe his role as their leaer& Ee (as a populist
leaer, /uite si%ilar to %any trae union leaers of the perio, %en
(ho% the Colonial ,ffice vie(e (ith suspicion& Nigeria ha a nu%#er
of such %en, leaing Whitehall to conclue that the %aFor pro#le% in
West Africas la#or relations (as the irresponsi#le, ine)perience, an
*politically %ine leaers&+
?9
'ut to the %en he ha I%ena,
??
a
%asculine Ig#o concept e)presse in a (illingness to confront an
20
6ersonal Collection of 2avi S%ock& J& A& 2ie(ait Typescript&
21
6$,, C, BB>L9?:LAA<A<, *$ecor of a 5eeting Eel on ?A June
9:>?&+
22
!or an e)tensive iscussion of this concept, see 0We Were All Sla-es,1
Chapter 9&
21
unFust aversary even at personal risk, a stu##ornness in attacking a
pro#le%, an a strength to take a stan for (hat (as %orally goo& As
he struggle against his etractors fro% (ithin the CSI1 as (ell as
(ithin his o(n union, he eli#erately challenge the types of racial
authoritarianis% e)ercise #y (hite staff unergroun&
In his confrontations (ith the state an the ne( Colliery %anage%ent
he often startle the% (ith his kno(lege of pertinent trae union
orinances an his a(areness of the gains of the national an
international trae union %ove%ent& In fact, he often ha a eeper
unerstaning of the la#or legislation than i local %anagers an
istrict officers& When the %anager trie to fire ,Fiyi for his trae union
activities he cite the ne( la#or regulations to argue that he neee
three %onths (ritten notification an an opportunity to ans(er the
charges #efore any is%issal&
?A
Ee persiste in #elieving, /uite
correctly, that he (as #eing persecute #ecause of his union activities&
Ee also operate (ithin an ethic that articulate a sense of leaership
responsi#ility an the inevita#ility of conflict (ith %anage%ent (hen
(orking (ithin the inustrial relations structures& Ee note in a letter
to the %anager:
I agree that, at trae ispute intervie(s hel
23
NCC, 6&?L9L9, ,Fiyi to Colliery 5anager, 9: ,cto#er 9:>>&
22
#et(een the 5anager an the 1nions, I al(ays
possess strictness in %y iscussions, an that
is a %atter of uty, an shoul not #e reckone
as evience of unruliness an conuct to the
5anager&
?>
,Fiyis political sy%pathies (ith the raical (ing of the nationalist
%ove%ent, the Hikist, le hi% to fra%e the (orkers struggle in the
rhetoric of raical nationalis%& As a union leaer, he articulate
inustrial grievances (ithin the conte)t of colonial e)ploitation& Ee
characteri.e the relationship #et(een the (orkers political status as
colonial *su#Fects+ an the intolera#le conitions in (hich they (orke
an live& These linkages (ere even %ore o#vious to (orkers in a
state enterprise such as the Colliery& ,Fiyi clarifie the political
contraictions in his presentation of the Colliery (orkers e%ans& !or
e)a%ple he use allegations of racial iscri%ination to link the
(orkers inustrial struggles (ith the general nationalist ca%paign
against colonial racis%& A key co%ponent of his ieology (as the
e)pectation that those in authority0the state0ha a responsi#ility for
the social evelop%ent of their e%ployee& These the%es of racial
iscri%ination an state responsi#ility to prevent it (ere echoe
throughout the nationalist %ove%ent&
24
I#i&
23
The "egislative Structure of $efor%: "a#or Sta#ility an the 9:>B Crisis
The 9:>: shooting arose fro% a series of (arti%e inustrial crises that
originate (ith grievances that the union raise in late 9:>A& T(o
factors converge an #oth (ere relate to the process of la#or refor%
initiate uring the (ar& ,ne (as the legislation governing strikes,
(hich inclue prohi#itions an co%pulsory ar#itration& The other (as
%anage%ents atte%pt to reuce the autono%y of the he(ers #y
putting the% fully on piece rates& These t(o factors (ere #rought to a
hea #y a union %e%oranu% that raise e%ans that reflecte the
(orkers a(areness of the victories of 'ritish coal %iners& Wages ha
#een stagnant as against inflation that ha reache IB percent in
Enugu #y 9:>A& In fact 9:>A (as a critical year nationally for it (as the
ti%e (hen the full econo%ic (eight of the sacrifices of the (ar hit the
Nigerian (orking class& In "agos, the (orkers %ove%ent %o#ili.e
against 9B@ percent inflation& Aitionally, this (as the year (hen
Enugus %iners (ere calle upon to co%pensate for the crisis in the
'ritish coalfiels, (here (orker protest, %anpo(er shortages, an
a#senteeis% e)acer#ate fuel shortages&
?B
,ne of the su#Fective conse/uences of the (ar (as colonial (orkers
a(areness of their role in the survival of 'ritain& When the capitulation
25
!or a historical su%%ary of the prover#ial crisis in the 'ritish coal
inustry, see Supple, The .istory of the British 3oal Industry5 6ol5 7, &'&()&'78&
24
of !rance le to a Vichy West Africa the Colonial ,ffice felt that the
colonies of Chana, Ca%#ia, Sierra "eone, an Nigeria (ere in Feopary&
There (as a percepti#le shift in the content of propagana
?<
that
targete these populations& $ather than speak only to the *evils+ of
Na.is%, they no( e%phasi.e the *partnership+ an co%%on suffering
of colonial su#Fects an the %etropolitan po(er& Si%ilarly the (ar
e%phasi.e the co%%onalities of coal %ining (hether in Englan or
Nigeria, an the %en (ere even %ore intereste in ho( their (ages,
conitions of service, an living conitions co%pare to those of 'ritish
an A%erican %iners& Increasingly they #ehave as part of an
international #rotherhoo, a *(orl+ that 2avi !rank calle *the
country of coal,+
?I
a #rotherhoo of %iners acutely a(are that they
ha prouce the pri%ary energy source for the nationals fighting the
(ar&
26
!or a co%parative stuy, see Wenell Eol#rooks *'ritish 6ropagana
an the 5o#ili.ation of the Col Coast War Effort, 9:A:D9:>B, + :ournal
of African .istory ?<, > 89:;B=&
27
This phrase (as part of a #eautifully poetic section of his revie( of
several #ooks on coal %iners, *The Country of Coal,+ Labour=Le Tra-ail >&
8Spring 9:;;=: ?A>& It reas
The country of coal is a iscontinuous lan & & & it
runs fro% the %ining settle%ents of Scotlan an
Wales to the coal to(ns of West Virginia an Illinois&
& & & The po(er of coal has #een a founing force in
the evelop%ent of inustrial capitalis% an the
people of this relatively unrecogni.e country has
share %uch history in co%%on&
Nigerian %iners share in this e)perience&
25
Eaving legali.e unions the state chippe a(ay at the rights of
organi.e la#or through a series of (arti%e legislation covering
*essential inustries,+ a rather #roa category (hich, in an econo%y
so o%inate #y the state, covere the %aFority of Nigerias (orkers&
In 9:>? the Nigerian Ceneral 2efense $egulation prohi#ite strikes an
lockouts,
?;
%anate ispute proceures that inclue #ining
ar#itration an (aiting perios, an prohi#ite the right to strike&
?:
1ntil 9:>B the ne( legislation secure relative peace in the coal
inustry& 'ut there (ere %any signs of iscontent& Conflict erupte on
several fronts: for the right to (ork uner *rostering,+ against
custo%ary racist syste%s of inustrial iscipline, for (age increases, to
secure recognition of (orkers organi.ations an for i%prove%ents in
conitions unergroun& 'ut the conflict that (oul plunge the inustry
into its (orst crisis (oul occur (hen a ne( %anager altere the
organi.ation of unergroun (ork an the syste% of pay&
In August 9:>> ,Fiyi su#%itte a %e%oranu% that e%ane
increase pay an referre to gains of 'ritish coal %iners, (ho ha
secure a seven-hour (orking ay, an unergroun allo(ance, an
28
$o#in Cohen, Labour and !olitics in Nieria, &'7*)&'?&, "onon: Eeine%ann
Eucational 'ooks, 9:I>, p& 9B:&
29
I#i&
26
i%prove%ents in occupational health&
30
When he threatene a strike,
he (as in violation of the 2efense $egulations an the %anager took
the opportunity to restructure the la#or process in (ays that reuce
the he(ers control over prouction& Specifically he presente t(o
options #oth instituting synicates of thirty to si)ty he(ers an thirty
tu# %en& ,ption one (oul institute group pay an option t(o
iniviual pay& 'oth options (oul re%ove the he(ers aily rate,
%aking their (ages entirely epenent on prouctivity& The proposal
(oul have constitute a eskilling of the he(er an (as appropriately
oppose for this reason&

The %anagers proposal (as far %ore than an atte%pt to ena#le the
%en to %ake %ore (ages&
31
It (as a %ove to recapture %anagerial
control over the la#or process at a ti%e (hen Enugu coal (as of
strategic value to the E%pire& Workers recogni.e it as such an
respone accoringly& In January 9:>B the ispute (as settle #y
co%pulsory ar#itration, uner the Nigerian 2efence $egulations
89:>9=, (hich rese%#le 'ritains Essential Work 8Coal 5ining
Inustry= ,rer of 9:>9, (hich prohi#ite strikes in strategic inustries&
The issue (ent to #ining ar#itration an the settle%ent institute the
30
NCC, 6&?L9L9, ,Fiyi to 5anager, 9< August 9:>>&
31
!or a fuller iscussion of this crisis, see %y 0We Were All Sla-es,1
Chapter <&
27
synicates #ut (ith iniviual pay&
When the union refuse to follo( this unfavora#le ar#itration the
%anager fire the entire (orkforce an hire eighteen hunre ne(
%en& Clai%ing that the union no longer represente these (orkers, he
strippe the Colliery Workers 1nion of its recognition& 'ut the (orkers
retaliate (ith a *go slo(+ (hich, since technically not a strike, i not
violate the 2efense $egulations& In the secon /uarter of 9:>B output
ha plunge fro% 9B9,<<> tons to 9@@,BA:, reaching, #y the final
/uarter, a recor lo( of 9<,B><&
32
'y the Ar%istice the inustry (as (ithout recogni.e (orker
representation #ut clearly the trae union an its fla%#oyant leaer,
,Fiyi, (ere still popular& The task confronting #oth %anage%ent an
the colonial state (as ho( to create a crei#le (orkers organi.ation
"ithout ,Fiyis leaership& In other (ors, ho( to create unions (ith the
shell of (orker representation #ut (ithout %eaningful po(erO The
post(ar conFuncture (oul appear to present ne( opportunities to
achieve po(erless trae unions #ut in reality it create even %ore
serious challenges to the colonial state&
The 6ost(ar 6erio in the Colliery: The Eeightene Contraictions of
32
!eeral Covern%ent of Nigeria, 5inistry of "a#our Archives,
8hereafter 5"A= ALS&?, Vol& I, *Collliery 5anager Ruarterly $eports,
9:>B&+
28
the Colonial Workplace
When the "a#our 6arty ca%e to po(er in July 9:>B it (as confronte
(ith the esperate task of re#uiling 'ritains inustrial infrastructure
uner the heavy #uren of e#t to the 1nite States an fulfilling the
political aspirations of colonial people& These t(o proFects (oul prove
to #e /uite ifficult to reconcile& The previous concerns (ith organi.ing
African trae unions, shaping inustrial relations through the
application of *%oern+ process an institutions, an raising the
prouctivity of African (orkers #y i%proving the social (elfare of the
colony gave (ay to a narro(e concern (ith output an prouctivity&
33
The role of colonial resources (as clear& "a#our planne to *incorporate
the post(ar colonial hinterlan, no( preo%inately Africa, as a source of
foo an ra( %aterials to replace i%ports fro% ollar sources&+
34
In the
colonies %anage%ents struggle to control prouction0couche in the
ter%inology of *prouctivity+0(as an inustrial e)pression of this
*prouctionist+ evelop%ent proFect&
While state officials in 'ritish West Africa %ule through the political
transition to representative govern%ent, %anage%ent stu%#le fro%
crisis to crisis at the Colliery, arrogantly ignoring the inicators of
i%pening isaster an confiently assu%ing that they coul fin a
33
Cooper, p& ?@>&
34
I#i&, p& B:&
29
*cooperative+ alternative to ,Fiyi& To the Colonial ,ffice this (as a
political conte)t of angerous possi#ilities& 5any local officials sa(
Co%%unist conspiracies #ehin every nationalist strategy an %ost
#elieve that African (orkers (ere too unsophisticate to recogni.e
their %anipulations an (ere not a#le to *see through+ leaers like
,Fiyi& Thus the "a#or 6arty follo(e a policy of epolitici.e trae
unions, (ithout recogni.ing the contraiction in its o(n history& The
challenge (as ho( to insulate the trae unions fro% the political
struggle an to ensure that they focus on econo%istic e%ans (hile
channeling their iscontent through #ureaucratic proceures&
2epolitici.e trae unions, (hile /uite ifficult to effect in colonies,
(ere especially i%possi#le to create in a state-o(ne inustry such as
the Colliery& The connections #et(een inustrial grievances an the
political status of Nigeria as a colony (ere not lost on the %iners&
There were gendered dimensions to the workers responses to the postwar realities. As
working men the miners were determined to !lill their responsi"ilities to their amilies
and #omm!nities. The$ #ame o!t o the war as dierent men. To the ind!str$s workers
this was a time o e%#iting possi"ilities& whi#h the$ had 'paid( or with their la"or d!ring
the war. The$ were poised to demand wages that allowed them to prepare their amilies&
)illages& and #omm!nities to a##ept more politi#al responsi"ilit$ within an e)ol)ing
*igeria. The postwar str!ggles rele#ted workers desire to settle !nresol)ed #laims and
to re)itali+e their !nion& ho""led "$ the insidio!s manip!lations o the metropolitan and
30
#olonial state and the ind!str$s management. ,n the -n!g! area #ollier$ .o"s were
important in inan#ing the large n!m"er o de)elopment pro.e#ts these men organi+ed in
the )illages. /istri#t 0i#ers re1!entl$ #ommented that the miners saw themsel)es as
progressi)e men and oten e#hoed the opinions o the 'intelligentsia in -n!g!.( 2or
e%ample the$& like the intelligentsia& re.e#ted the go)ernments 3ass 4itera#$ programs
35
in a)or o #omp!lsor$ ed!#ation. The$ emphasi+ed their position "$ a 1!ite phenomenal
o!t"!rst d!ring 1946 and 1947 o #onstr!#ting large stone5"!ilt primar$ s#hools& paid or
to a large e%tent rom the wages o #olliers and wage earners li)ing in -n!g!.
36
The specific grievances (ere relate to the %ens assu%e
responsi#ilities in their co%%unities& As %en of consiera#le stature
an pro%inence Colliery (orkers (ere also co%%itte to supporting
%aternity clinics, #uiling roas, an #ringing pota#le (ater to the
village& These co%%it%ents (ere #ase on their a#ility to earn sta#le
(ages, (hich (ere uner%ine #y the unpreicta#ility of (ork uner
the aily *rostering&+ A %ans ina#ility to %eet these responsi#ilities
#eca%e a source of sha%e an threatene his staning as a
progressive force in the village& These senti%ents (ere especially
35
The govern%ent propose %ass literacy in (hich rather #asic reaing
skills (ere taught& The nationalists e%ane for%al pri%ary an
seconary eucation, (hich they felt (oul #etter prepare the people
for inepenence&
36
National Archives Enugu, 8hereafter NAE= 122IST :L9L9L, *Annual
$eport 9:>I0 1i 2ivision&+ 'oth colliers resient in the villages an
those (ho #oare in to(n hel regular %eetings to iscuss their
contri#utions to the school& 6& ?L9LA, 2&,& 1i to Colliery 5anager, 9?
!e#ruary 9:><&
31
acute a%ong the he(ers, (hose self-i%age as (orking %en (as
relate to their role as the principal coal-getters& They unerstoo that
the financial solvency of the inustry epene on their skill an la#or
an they i not feel that they (ere #eing treate fairly&
'y January 9:>< the (orkers ha #een (ithout a union for over a year
an the issues that ha le to the strike (ere largely unresolve&
Aitionally, ,Fiyi (as uner attack #y the erst(hile leaers of the
trae unions0a group of issient clerks an *native+ supervisors& It is
i%portant to re%e%#er, ho(ever, that (orker support for any
leaership (as contingent upon their elivering the *goos+0higher
(ages an i%prove%ents in (orking conitions& Ee coul not assu%e
that their support (oul #e unconitional& It (as therefore critical for
hi% to #e *seen+ as persistently presenting their issues #efore the
%anage%ent des+ite the fact that his union no longer ha recognition&
In 9:>I he succeee in aressing %ost of the (orkers concerns&
"urching To(ars the Iva Valley Shooting: The Contraictions of
5etropolitan "a#or 5oels
The ispute #egan in January 9:>< (hen ,Fiyi, #esiege #y issients
fro% the clerical an supervisory staff, revitali.e the unresolve
e%ans that ha generate the 9:>B crisis& This ti%e he tappe into
the antiiscri%inatory iscourse of the nationalists an challenge the
32
%anage%ent to e)ten the recent a(ar of a 6B unergroun allo(ance
to 'ritish unergroun %anagers to African %iners& Tapping into the
iscourse of parity cha%pione so strongly #y the propagana of the
(ar, ,Fiyi shre(ly argue:
The (orkers S #elieve that the approve 1nergroun
allo(ance is not only applica#le to European 1nergroun
(orkers, #ut also to the African (orkers& If the Colliery 5anager
allo(s only the European (orkers to get their allo(ances & & &
then he is sho(ing a gri% iscri%ination in that respect&
AI
"ike %any eucate trae union leaers throughout Africa, ,Fiyi ha
rapily %astere the legalities an structure of the Colonial ,ffices
la#or refor%s, an %anipulate the% against the state& Citing
$egulation 9B< of the sa%e Nigerian 2efense $egulations that (ere
use in 9:>B, he argue that the is%issal of the (orkers in 9:>B (as a
lockout, (hich (as prohi#ite #y la(&
38
In %aking this argu%ent, he
caught officials off guar an sent the% scurrying to their legal counsel
for interpretations of the la(, sparking a e#ate #et(een regional an
national officials&
39

37
NCC, 6& 9LA *5e%oranu% of Agree%ent09:>I,+ 9@ Nove%#er
9:>I&
38
NAE, NICC,A" 9L9L?9, CW1 to 5anager, ?> Septe%#er 9:>B&
39
NCC, 6& ?L9LA 2istrict ,fficer to $esient, I 5arch 9:><G $esient to
2istrict ,fficer, 99 5arch 9:><&
33
The follo(ing %onth, !e#ruary 9:><, he iscovere a legal (ay to
circu%vent the restrictions of the la(& ,Fiyi le the (orkers in a #rief
*go slo(,+
40
(hich he calle a *ca@canny1 ra(ing upon a ter% in English
%ining protests5 To 04o ca@canny1 (as a 2urha% 81&7&=
41
ter% for *go
slo(+ or *(ork to rule&+ ,Fiyi inigeni.e the ter% #y calling it *(elu
n(ayo+
42
in Ig#o an spent %any ays in the %ines teaching the %en&
Although the e%onstration /uickly fole in the face of a lockout, it
nonetheless (as a #aro%eter of the levels of iscontent si%%ering
#eneath the surface of inustrial cal%&
'ut in Nove%#er of the follo(ing year the (orkers initiate another
*go slo(,+ (hich (as far %ore successful& "aunche to reiterate the
original grievances of 9:>> against racial iscri%ination in (ages, an
for i%prove conitions of service, the protest (as i%%eiately thrust
into the conciliation syste% authori.e #y the ne( inustrial-relations
%achinery&
43
The e%ans ha inclue an unergroun allo(ance,
40
Ag(u Akpala, *'ackgroun to Enugu Shooting Incient in 9:>:,+
:ournal of the .istorical Society of Nieria A, ? 89:<B=: ABB&
41
5iners use a ter% fro% 'ritains northern coalfiels to escri#e this
0ca@canny& 04o an canny1 is the 2urha% ter% for *go slo(+ or (ork-to-
rule& 2ave 2ouglass, *6it talk in County 2urha%,+ in $aphael Sa%uel
e&, 2iners, Quarry$en and Salt"or%ers5 .istory Wor%sho+ Series, Eistory
Workshop Series: $outlege an 7egan 6aul, 9:II, p& A99&
42
Anana#a %entions that ,Fiyi traine the %en in this tactic for three
(eeks in the 9:>I ispute& Anana#a, Trade <nion 2o-e$ent in Nieria, p&
9@9&
43
It is interesting to note that this ti%e state officials steppe in (hen
the %anager trie to institute another lockout&
34
the restoration of the he(ers aily rate, an the provision of fringe
#enefits to staff& The latter (as clearly a e%an ,Fiyi hope (oul
/uell the issent fro% (ithin the staff an clerical ranks& Surprisingly,
the (orkers (on an the provisions (ere applie retroactively& Ee(ers
receive overti%e pay for holiays an supervisory staff a si)-hour
(ork ay co%para#le to that of the Europeans& Aitionally, the
agree%ent prohi#ite the hate *rostering+ syste%&
The %ost i%portant provision of the agree%ent (as its (age a(ar,
(hich grante over N9B@,@@@ in #ack (ages to %ost categories of
(orkers retroactive fro% January 9, 9:><& The settle%ent illustrate
the #enefits of accepting the states inustrial relations proceures an
also esta#lishe the principal of retroactivity in the calculation of
(ages& The agree%ent also inclue a provision to reinstate the union
follo(ing a process of reorgani.ation accoring to the #ranch syste%&
!ro% its inception the union ha evolve into a structure that, (hile
*Western+ in for%, (as Ig#o in function& The previous CW1 structure
(as unitary, (ith all classes of la#or relating irectly to the e)ecutive
co%%ittee& There (ere %ass %eetings, largely o%inate #y ,Fiyis
charis%atic presence& In %any respects the union leaership
rese%#le that e)ercise #y po(erful an influential %en in the
village& 'ut there (as noting in Ig#o organi.ational culture that
rese%#le the representative structure i%plicit in the #ranch trae
35
union %oel&
The real ai% of the restructuring (as to reuce the access of ,Fiyi to
the unergroun rank an file& 'ut the process use i%porte
organi.ational principles that ha a ifferent %eaning in Ig#o culture&
$o#ert Curry, a 'ritish T1C avisor, restructure the union along a
#ranch organi.ational %oel,
44
(hich he hope (oul reuce the irect
control ,Fiyi appeare to e)ercise over the rank an file& Eo(ever, this
%oel ha a ifferent cultural %eaning to the Ig#o la#or force, (ith
tragically unintene conse/uences& While Curry thought he ha
create #ranches roote in Fo# istinctions that introuce a ne( layer
of officers #et(een ,Fiyi an his #ase a%ong unergroun (orkers, to
the %en he ha create fi-e inepenent unionsT There (as no such
principle as representational organi.ation (ithin Ig#o culture&
The restructuring also ha other conse/uences& It gave each Fo# group
an e/ual nu%#er of representatives in the union e)ecutive an an
44
Curry ivie the union into #ranches, each (ith its o(n officers
ealing inepenently (ith %anage%ent& These #ranches (ere for
Surface (orkers, Ee(ers, 5echanics an !itters, 1nergroun
Workers, an Clerical& The ne( E)ecutive Co%%ittee (as co%pose of
electe #ranch officers (ho for%e a $epresentative Co%%ittee fro%
(hich the unions E)ecutive Co%%ittee (as electe for negotiations
(ith %anage%ent& Such negotiations, ho(ever, (oul only occur if
#ranches (ere una#le to resolve grievances (ith %anage%ent& Thus,
these various #ranches assu%e %any of the functions for%erly hel
#y ,Fiyi an the union e)ecutive& !or a full iscussion, see 'ro(n, We
Were All Sla-es, pp& ?:IDA@9&
36
each category of (ork ha its o(n organi.ation e)pression& The
conse/uences (ere to introuce a level of organi.ational
ecentrali.ation that strengthene issent an isolate the union
leaer, ,Fiyi, fro% his #ase& The clerical an %ine supervisory staff, the
center of opposition to the union leaership, no( ha an
*inepenent+ organi.ation& 5oreover, they ha the sa%e nu%#er of
representatives in the union e)ecutive as their %ore nu%erous 8an
%ore %ilitant= %iners& The unergroun (orkers0he(ers, tu#%en,
rail%en, an special la#or0each ha an autono%ous organi.ational
unit& !inally, in 2ece%#er 9:>;, the unions recognition (as restore
#ut the sees of frag%entation (ere e%#ee in the ne( structure&
'ecause of the ifferent %eaning of the #ranch structural %oel, the
reorgani.ation initiate a process in (hich the union e)ecutive ha
little if any centrali.e po(er& 5oreover, it challenge the union
leaerships a#ility to retain staning (ith the %e%#ership&
Al%ost i%%eiately there (ere signs that the a(ar (as still
unaccepta#le as groups of (orkers raise co%plaints a#out the
calculations of their (ages& Aitionally, the consultative aspects of
the agree%ent re/uire that ,Fiyi #e engage in aily Foint
consultations (ith %anage%ent over unresolve issues fro% the 9:>I
Agree%ent& Eo(ever, these ne( re/uire%ents create suspicions
a%ong his %e%#ers that he (as #etraying their interests& Eis
37
attenance at these largely fruitless %eetings (ere cite #y issients
as evience that he ha #eco%e a *frien+ of %anage%ent& The
%eetings the%selves (ere to resolve errors in the calculation of
overti%e an seniority allot%ents& 5ore i%portantly, the union trie to
challenge the prouction %ini%u%s he(ers an tu# %en (ere
re/uire to attain in orer to re%ain e%ploye& In the %ist of all of
these negotiations ,Fiyi (as fighting atte%pts to uner%ine his
authority a%ong (orkers fro% the clerical an *native+ supervisory
staff&
Negotiations continue rather uneventfully
>B
until Septe%#er 9:>:
(hen the %anager, in violation of the 9:>I agree%ent, announce he
(oul resu%e *rostering&+ The i%pact (as over(hel%ingly negative
#ecause ru%ors (ere circulating a%ong the %en that the Colliery
o(e an aitional N9;@,@@@ in #ack pay to co%pensate for hours of
(ork lost uring the interval #et(een the outla(ing of rostering #y the
June l:>< Trae 1nion ,rinance an the Collierys suspension of
rostering uner the l:>I Agree%ent&
><
These ru%ors, (hich (ere
pro%ote #y union issients, (ere #ase on a logical application of
45
Actually, these negotiations (ere anything #ut uneventful& Civen the
racial contraictions of the ecoloni.ation perio, they #eca%e an
arena of intensive class struggle an racial tension& See the file
3R1E$P: S,5ETEINC 5ISSINC EE$E&4
46
Ag(u Akpala, *African "a#our 6rouctivity0a $eappraisal,+ African
Quarterly 9?, A 89:I?=: ?A:&
38
the principle of retroactivity so pro%inent in the 9:>I Agree%ent an
caught the govern%ent #y surprise&
1sing his interpretation of Sections Al an A< of the ne( Trae 1nion
,rinance, effective June l, l:><, ,Fiyi argue that it prohi#ite
*rostering+ an esta#lishe penalties for e%ployers (ho persiste in
using it& Section Al state that an e%ployer (as o#ligate to give all
"or%ers on oral contracts seven ays notice #efore their contract coul
legally #e ter%inate& 1ner Section A< e%ployers failing to follo( the
perio of notification %ust provie (ork for all physically fit e%ployees
(ho sho( up for (ork or +ay "aes eAui-alent to the a$ount they "ould other"ise
earn&
47
Again, ,Fiyi e%onstrate a %ore sophisticate unerstaning of
the la#or legislation than i local inustrial or political officials& As a
piece of legislation the la( (as atte%pting to reuce e%ployers use of
casual la#or, (hich #y the post(ar perio (as associate (ith
uncontrolla#le %igration to the cities an threatene political unrest&
The nationalist parties political #ase (as in these cities an (ith the
econo%ic contraction after the (ar an the priorities of the
*prouctionist+ proFect, the concentration of large nu%#ers of
une%ploye %en (as inee a political anger&
47
I#i&, ?::&
39
The Shooting of Nove%#er 9;, 9:>:: The !ailure of "a#or $efor%
'y late 9:>: the Colliery (as teetering on the ege of another la#or
crisis& ,Fiyi (as struggling to keep his reputation a%i a la#or
consultation process desined to prevent (orker activis%& The issients
(ere spreaing ru%ors that the (orkers eserve %ore %oney an
the %anage%ent (as angry that these *i%puent natives+ ha
succeee in getting a settle%ent in 9:>I& The political environ%ent
(as #eco%ing increasingly raicali.e& The European co%%unity
vie(e nationalist agitation (ith rea an reacte hysterically to
ru%ors a#out raicals (ho %ight, in fact, have co%%unist
connections& The Colonial ,ffice ha Fust (eathere a %aFor crisis in
the Col Coast, (here the e)-service%ens riot at Cape Coast Castle
48
succeee in strengthening 7(a%e Nkru%ahs *positive action+
ca%paign, (hich (as inspire #y Canhis strategy& This %ae the
Nigerian govern%ent even %ore concerne a#out the political
raicalis% of veterans, %any of (ho% live in Enugu an (orke in
the Colliery& So%e si) hunre live in the rural area&
49
5any ha #een
traine in guerrilla (arfare in Southeast Asia
50
an (ere a%ong the
48
1nrest a%ong e)-service%en #egan in 9:>< (hen they e%ane
#etter conitions of life an pay%ent& The contrast #et(een their living
conitions an those of Europeans increase their ire& Creat 'ritain&
/e+ort of the 3o$$ission of #nAuiry into Disturbances in the 4old 3oast, &'7;5
Colonial No& 9?A&
49
Akpala, *'ackgroun to the Shooting Incient,+ AB9&
50
,ver 9@@,@@@ West Africans fought in 'ur%a uring the (ar&
40
%ost vociferous critics of the slo( an unenlightene pace of political
change&
There (as an at%osphere of %ass hysteria a%ong %any of the
e)patriates in the city& So%e (ere reacting to the general change in
race relations, in (hich the govern%ent refuse to support custo%ary
racist practices, such as the use of the ter% *#oy+ to escri#e
occupational categories& 8*6ick #oys+ 3he(ers4, *tu# #oys 3tu# %en4,
an so forth&= Covern%ent intelligence in "agos ha #een alerte that
*e)tre%ists+ ha #een atte%pting to ac/uire ar%s an e)plosives to
#e istri#ute to *terrorist parties+ 8i&e& HikistsO= to use in a *positive
action+ ca%paign& So%e thefts ha eviently occurre, incluing thirty
cases of Colliery e)plosives& Eleven ha never #een recovere&
51
'y the
ti%e of the Collierys Nove%#er 9:>: crisis the govern%ent
anticipate the possi#ilities of raical isruptions through the Hikist
linkages (ith the trae union %ove%ent&
This (as the political an inustrial conte)t in (hich the he(ers #egan
to evaluate the veracity of the ru%or that they (ere ue arrears fro%
the perio of *illegal+ *rostering&+ !or %uch of Septe%#er an ,cto#er
9:>: they (ere very restive an their representatives raise the issue
repeately in the conciliation iscussions, (hich (ere i%properly #eing
51
I#i&, p& A>G The Ti$es of London, < January 9:B@&
41
use for collective #argaining& 5inutes of the Council %eetings sho( a
isainful %anipulation of proceures an o#fuscation #y %anage%ent
to stall the (orkers& ,Fiyi, (hile alert to this crass %anipulation, (as
caught in the position of #eing a part of a negotiating tea% (hile the
#ranch representatives assu%e they heae their o"n unionT The
he(ers no longer accepte the central e)ecutive as representing their
interests& ,n Nove%#er ;, in the %ist of negotiations, they #egan a
*(ilcat go slo(&+ The crisis escalate (hen the %anager suspene
fifty (orkers, (hich, far fro% stopping the protest, only e)pane the
strike to the tu# %en& When the govern%ent #egan to recruit ne(
(orkers, in anticipation of a lockout, the %en occupie the %ines&
The i%%eiate cause of the shooting (as an atte%pt to re%ove %ine
e)plosives fro% the Iva Valley %ine& The series of ecisions taken #y
the political officials0the Chief Co%%issioner, %anager, an hea of
the ne(ly for%e coal #oar0fro% Nove%#er 9< through 9;, either
arose fro% a eter%ination to finally iscipline the coal %iners or a
confusion of this inustrial conflict (ith a political crisis& The group
ecline the assistance of the only person traine in la#or relations, a
senior la#or avisor fro% the 'T1C, (ho (as the ne(ly appointe
la#or irector& ,nce they ha %ae the ecision to call in the police,
the situation rapily eteriorate uner false assu%ptions,
%isunerstanings, an enshrine erogatory ieas a#out African
(orkers&
42
,n Nove%#er 9I there (ere nine hunre police%en
52
in Enugu, %any
of the% Eausa soliers fro% the North& ,n Nove%#er 9;, they ca%e to
re%ove all the e)plosives, #ecause officials feare that they (oul fall
in the hans of raicals& The %iners, #elieving that the re%oval of the
e)plosives signale a *lockout,+ appeare hesitant to per%it the
operation& Several eye(itnesses sai that the %iners cro( (as not
unruly #ut only curious a#out the co%%otion of the police arrival an
the unusual color of the police%ens #lack unifor%s& Neither (itness
consiere the cro( to #e hostile&
53

The %en refuse a re/uest that they help in re%oving the e)plosives,
not #ecause they intene to retain the% #ut #ecause the re/uest
ignore their Fo# hierarchies& A (itness note:
What they sai (as that they (ere not carrying %en& They are
tu# %en an pick #oys an have nothing to o (ith the carrying
of the %aga.ine& & & & This Fo# is for ti%#er %en, so%e special
la#orers& Ee shoul call the%&
B>
52
The account that follo(s is #ase on oral history collecte in Nigeria
an the co%%ission proceeings& Colonial ,ffice, *En/uiry into the
2isorers in the Eastern 6rovinces of Nigeria: 6roceeings of the
Co%%ission,+ vols& 9D?& "onon: Eis 5aFestys Stationery ,ffice, 9:B@&
5i%eographe&
53
Intervie( (ith E%anuel ,kafor, 1(ani, Enugu, 9@ July 9:IBG
Intervie( (ith 6eter Afe%uefuna, Tinkers Corner, Enugu, ?< July 9:IB&
54
6roceeings, Testi%ony of J& E& N.erogu, Screen !ore%an,
43
The initial plan to re%ove the e)plosives prove un(orka#le #ecause
there (ere %ore than anticipate& ,fficials then secure a train to
transport the e)plosives& In the interval one (orker (as given the key
to lock the %aga.ine an i so (ith no resistance&
55
'y that ti%e
seven to eight hunre %en ha gathere at the %outh of the %ine to
(atch&
56
At the investigative co%%ission hearings one Consta#le ,kolie
escri#e frienly iscussions #et(een the (orkers an the
consta#les& In fact he overhear one police%an saying
We o not co%e to shoot you people& Pou are e%aning your
rights fro% the Covern%ent& The Covern%ent (ill pay you
people this %oney&
BI
To this he allege that a (orker replie *We are gla you people kno(
this, #ut you people shoul re%e%#er (e #e #rothers+
58
The %en ha
little inication that they (ere in anger&
As against the perceptions of Nigerian police%en of an at%osphere of
fraternity (as the perception of a near-hysterical 'ritish police officer&
6roceeings, p& I<A&
55
J& E& N.erogu, I<9&
56
6roceeings, p& B9:&
57
Testi%ony of A& ,kolie, "ance Corporal 6olice !orce, I;?&
58
,kolie, I;?&
44
The split-secon ecisions %ae #y 'ritish officers reflecte their o(n
insecurities an si%%ering anger at the states hanling of this perio
of political transition& The at%osphere of cooperation (as not the scene
that the Assistant Superintenent of 6olice, Enugu, sa( or unerstoo&
The chatter, singing, an fraterni.ing appeare threatening to hi%& Ee
felt he%%e in #y the %iners, (ho (ere so nu%erous that he note
*the (hole place (as #lack (ith the%&+
59
Si%ilarly, Captain !& S& 6hillip,
Senior Superintenent of 6olice, sa( only %enace&
In this crucial %o%ent the raciali.e figure of the *African (orker+
e%erge in the i%agination of the 'ritish officers an fuse (ith the
stereotype of the *pri%itive native&+ To Captain 6hillip these (ere not
inustrial %en conucting a protest #ut savage, hysterical natives,
oing *angerous ances,+ screeching unintelligi#le noises, poise to
attack his troops& At a#out 9:A@ p&%& he got to the Iva Valley %ine an
#eca%e (orrie a#out the nu%#ers an the %oo of the cro(& They
see%e to #e *pouring+ out of the %ines #y the hunres& 2espite his
assu%ptions that they (ere hostile, he nonetheless he felt sufficiently
confient of their cooperation to solicit their assistance in re%oving
e)plosives fro% a near#y %aga.ine&
In %any (ays the Captain appeare ensnarle in %isleaing colonial
59
Testi%ony of E& J& $& ,r%iston, Senior Assistant Superintenent of
6olice, Enugu, 6roceeings, p& >AB&
45
stereotypes a#out African %en& Ignorant of the Ig#o language an
unfa%iliar (ith the traitions of Colliery protest, he panicke& To hi%
they #eca%e an angry %o#, #ranishing *(eapons0#o(s, arro(s,
%achetes, long steel #ars&+
<@
Curiously, %any of the %en ha re
pieces of cloth tie to their %iners hel%ets, (rists, or knees, (hich
6hilip assu%e to #e the signs of *so%e organi.ation along %ilitary
lines&+
<9
As the %inutes passe the %en #egan to sing hy%ns an
songs of soliarity0*We are all oneT+
<?
'ut the Captain only hear a
*tre%enous ho(ling an screeching noise going on+
<A
to (hich
several %en ance in a *angerous+ (ay&
<>
After giving the orer to
shoot 6hilip hi%self ai%e his revolver at a ancer i%%eiately in front
of hi% (ho *(as Fu%ping up an o(n an his eyes (ere popping out
of his hea0like a lot of the others&+
<B
Within a secon he ha shot
Sunay Anyasao in the %outh&
<<
60
The presence of (eapons (as challenge #y %any (itnesses& I have
inclue it here #ecause it is part of the testi%ony an #ecause it
attests to the hysterical state of %in of the officers& See testi%ony of
6hillip a#ove&
61
6hillip testi%ony, 6roceeings, >;B&
62
Intervie( (ith E%%anuel ,kafor&
63
6hillip testi%ony, ><@&
64
6hillips testi%ony (as challenge in this characteri.ation #y
Ruashie-Ion, a la(yer for the %en& 6roceeings, /uote fro% 6hillip
testi%ony testi%ony, >;A&
65
6hillip testi%ony, >BI&
66
6hillip testi%ony, >II&
46
Sunay Anyasao (as the first to fall ea& Ee ha #een a%ong the
%iners (ho ca%e out of the %ines (hen the train approache the
e)plosives stores& Ee (as a he(er an the #rother of '& 1& Anyasao of
5#ieri, ,(erri, a pro%inent clerk an union issient& Sunay (as in
the front of the cro( outsie Iva 5ine& Ee (as a young %an, recently
%arrie, (ho ha co%e to Enugu to earn a living& Ee occupie the
%ine to prevent a repeat of the 9:>B lockout an ha co%e outsie
(hen the #lack-shirte 5ushi troops fro% northern Nigeria
ise%#arke fro% their transport trucks& Sunay Foine his #rother
%iners, chanting an singing an ancing in front of the cro( facing
the troops an their co%%aning officer& Ee pro#a#ly i not hear the
(arning shots, nor i he e)pect that the police (oul fire& 6hilip
ai%e his revolver at Sunay, shot hi% in the %outh, killing hi%
i%%eiately& 6hillip then shot "ivinus ,kechuk(u%a, a %achine %an
fro% ,hi, ,(erri, killing hi% as (ell& Eearing the noise, ,kafor Ageni,
an 1i tu# %an, venture out of the %ine an aske *Anything
(rongO+ A #ullet kille hi% on the spot&
<I
The shots (ere #arely aui#le over their singing an the %en pushe
67
This account is #ase on the 6roceeings&
47
closer an closer to the action& 6hilip sa( *an avalanche co%ing o(n
fro% the #ack, rolling on top of us&+
<;
'ut as it #eca%e clear that shots
(ere fire an %en (ere ying they ran in horror& 5any (ere shot in
the #ack&
<:
The volley kept co%ing for a goo t(o %inutes, spening
so%e eighty-seven rouns&
I@
$& A& 'ro(n, Assistant Superintenent of
6olice, 7ano, shoute the orer to stop shooting an (ent along the
line of fire an eflecte the rifles into the air& 'ut Superintenent
6hilip (as still shooting, having co%pletely lost his (its, after #eing
terrifie #y the native * (ith the %achete, & & & ancing roun an
roun, an slo(ly co%ing to(ars us, circling roun an roun&+
I9

The %en fle in all irections as the ea an (oune collapse on
the groun& 5any fle into a near#y strea%, (hile others retreate
#ack to the %ines& The shooting continue for several %inutes& 5any
anticipate %ore shots& E%%anuel ,kafor, a #lacks%ith, aske 6hilip
to take hi% to the hospital, *I surrener& Take %e to the hospital&+ Ee
alleges that 6hilip ans(ere *I ont care+ an left hi% #ehin&
I?
After
68
6roceeings, >9?&
69
When /uestione #y E& ,& 2avies as to ho( si) %en coul have #een
shot fro% the #ack, 6hillips testi%ony sai that a ricocheting #ullet
coul strike another person& 6hillip testi%ony, >;;
70
6roceeings, B>9&
71
6hillip testi%ony, p& >B;
72
Intervie( (ith E%anuel ,kafor&
48
the #arrage the troops cal%ly fell into for%ation an %arche #ack to
their epot in Enugu&
Infor%ants allege that the co%%aning officers %ae no
arrange%ents to care for the (oune an that the ea re%aine on
the groun for the rest of the ay& Villagers, hearing of the slaughter,
lay in (ait to a%#ush the troops as they returne #ut lost their
courage& Sunay (oul #eco%e fa%ous as the first one shot&
Nationalist leaers sai the shots (ere the inaugural #ullets of
Nigerias nationalist struggle& The ays of colonial rule (ere
nu%#ere&
IA
Conclusion: The After%ath: "a#or, 5ilitance an Tragey on the Eve of
Nigerian Inepenence
!ro% Nove%#er 9; through ?< only the cities of eastern Nigeria (ere
in revolt espite the nationalist assertion that the %assacre (as the
eath knell of colonial rule in Nigeria& In the five largest cities in the
east0Enugu, A#a, 1%uahia, 6ort Earcourt, ,nitsha, an Cala#ar
74
the
Hikists %ove to the forefront of organi.ing %ass e%onstrations,
(hich /uickly e)ploe in attacks on 'ritish property& The targets an
73
There are %any accounts of (hat happene after the shooting
#egan& It has re%aine as a trau%atic %e%ory in popular
consciousness in Enugu& Toay infor%ants speak of the event as if it
Fust happene& The entire incient eserves %ore thorough
investigation&
49
locations of the e%onstrations, as (ell as the co%position of the
cro(s, (hich (ere e)clusively ur#an, suggeste that the incient
ignite eep-seate grievances that ha accu%ulate uring the (ar&
2eclining (ages, high prices, an the stranglehol that the e)patriate
fir%s continue to have over the Nigerian econo%y (ere all oppose
#y the ur#an groups that Foine in the riot& This (as inicate in %ost
cities (here the targets of the e%onstrations (ere the e)patriate
fir%s, (hich (ere loote an #urne&
The states response (as preicta#le& Within (eeks the 'ritish
govern%ent ha convene a co%%ission of t(o 'ritish
74
an t(o
African Fuges& 2espite the conflicts character as an inustrial ispute
there (as no representation of trae unionists, 'ritish or Nigerian, on
the panel& 6reicta#ly the hearings #eca%e a %agnet for nationalist
politicians, %any of (ho% (ere la(yers& As an historical event the
hearings the%selves are eserving of serious analysis& They e)presse
the contraictions of colonial society in its e%ise& What is especially
74
The chair, W& J& !it.geral, (as for%er Chief Justice in 6alestine (here
he ha recently serve on a co%%ission of En/uiry on "ocal
A%inistration of Jerusale%& The other (as 6& W& Willia%s,
representative of Wigan in the Eouse of Co%%ons an legal avisor to
the National 1nion of 5ine(orkers& The t(o African %e%#ers, S& ,&
Ruashie-Iun of the Col Coast an N& A& Ae%ola of Nigeria, sat on
the supre%e courts of their respective countries& 2espite protests #y
socialist an co%%unist 56s, no 'ritish or Nigerian trae unionists
(ere selecte& Anthony 7irk-Creene, Biora+hical Dictionary of the British
3olonial Ser-ice, &'(')&'88, "onon: Eans Hell, 9::9&

London Ti$es, ?;
Nove%#er 9:>:&
50
telling is the e)tent to (hich the official report, calle the !it.geral
report,
75
veere #eyon a co%%entary on the actual event an
#eca%e a criti/ue of the state of inustrial relations in Nigeria as (ell
as the Nigerian states reticent response to the political e%ans of
the nationalists& Again, the separation of *econo%ic+ fro% *political+
(as /uite ifficult to create in reality& We cannot co%%ent fully on the
contents of the report here& Eo(ever several o#servations are
pertinent& !irst, the trae union leaer, Isiah ,Fiyi, #eca%e a scapegoat
for the shooting& The govern%ent report aopte the issients
position that he ha %isle the %iners into e)pecting aitional
arrears fro% *rostering&+ As (as the case (ith several other %ilitant
trae unionists at the ti%e, he (as Faile, conveniently, for other
charges associate (ith the ispensation of the 9:>I a(ar&
76
1pon his
release several years later, he (as #anne fro% Colliery property& Ee
never again le the (orkers& Eo(ever, %ost of %y intervie(s inicate
that even toay (orkers attri#ute their gains to the strength of his
leaership an his (illingness to sacrifice his iniviual gains for those
of the (orkers&
75
Colonial ,ffice, /e+ort of the 3o$$ission of #nAuiry into the Disorders in the
#astern !ro-inces of Nieria, Col& No& ?B<& "onon: Eis 5aFestys Stationery
,ffice, 9:><&
76
Apparently the union leaership aske the %e%#ers to pay the% a
s%all a%ount for their role in the negotiations& This practice, (hich fit
(ell (ithin the accepta#le #ounaries of Ig#o leaership an its
reciprocity, constitute *corruption+ in the eyes of the state& !or a
iscussion, see 0We Were All Sla-es,1 pp& ?:AD?:I5
51
The shooting #eca%e e%#le%atic of the e)cesses of colonial rule&
Toay it is still cite as the incient that #egan the Nigerian
inepenence %ove%ent& $esients of Enugu prouly cite it toay to
clai% prie of place in contri#uting to the collapse of 'ritish rule in
Nigeria& An the event is enshrine in popular %e%ory in a ra%atic
#ron.e sculpture of the shooting in a central %arketplace in Enugu&
77
What oes this incient tell us a#out this perio an a#out the #eliefs,
assu%ptions an actions of its key actors0African (orkers an 'ritish
colonials0uring the perio of i%perial la#or refor%sO In the volatile
perio of ecoloni.ation, conte)tuali.e #y the EastDWest conflict of
the *Col War,+ the *#est+ (ay of controlling African (orkers ha yet
to #e eter%ine& The la#or *e)perts+ in the Colonial ,ffice #u%#le
along, e)peri%enting (ith the shell of 'ritish inustrial relations as
(eakene #y the content of colonial authoritarianis%&
The contraictions of colonial society0race, class, an gener0(ere
far stronger than any 'ritish i%porte inustrial relations syste%&
6rocesses that (orke in Englan i not create the sa%e results in
Enugu& 5ost political an %anagerial officials refuse to accept African
(orkers as *e%ployees+ in the fullest sense& 5oreover, no %atter ho(
77
See the cover of C& 'ro(n, We Were All Sla-es5
52
%any ti%es 'T1C avisors ca%e to the colonies, they coul neither
convince African (orkers that they coul trust trae unions nor coul
they convince European e%ployers that syste%ati.ing inustrial
isputes (as in their interest& There (ere too %any uncertainties in the
transition to inepenence an too %any eep contraictions (ithin
colonial society White officials coul not process these changes an
Africans i not trust the state& Africans (oul not channel their
iscontent into institutions, especially (hen state sanctione, that they
i not trust&
Africans hear an unerstan the criti/ue of colonial rule fro%
'ritains (ar allies0the 1SS$ an the 1nite States& The tension
focuse on the application of Article II of the Atlantic Charter, signe in
August 9:>9, to 'ritains tropical colonies& Conceive as a state%ent to
Na.i-occupie Europe, it (as /uickly e%#race #y Africas
nationalists&
I;
It feature %any *angerous+ ieas such as the right of
self eter%ination, in Article II, (hich eclare:
the right of all peoples to choose the for% of govern%ent
uner (hich they (ill liveG an they (ish to see sovereign
rights an self-govern%ent restore to those (ho have
78
!or the fullest iscussion, see Ai, op cit& The nationalists (ere
prolific (riters, leaving a generous recor of their though on the
charter& !or one iscussion, see A& A& N(afor ,ri.u, Without Bitterness:
Western Nations in !ost,War Africa, Ne( Pork: Creative Age 6ress, Inc&, 9:>>&
53
#een forci#ly eprive of the%&
I:
In Nigeria there (as an air of anticipation that since the country ha
re%aine loyal to Englan an ha proven so inispensa#le to the (ar
effort, %aFor i%prove%ents, #oth political an econo%ic, (ere in the
offing& 5oreover (orking-class %en e)pecte that they (oul have the
inco%e to assu%e ne( leaership roles as fa%ily heas an
%oerni.ers& 1nlike the Nigerian govern%ent, they "ere +lannin for a
future that "ould eBist&
80
6ersonal, village, an fa%ily i%prove%ent #eca%e
ever %ore co%pelling goals as (orkers e)presse their e)pectations of
a #etter life, of a future (hen hostilities ene&
In Enugu (orkers unerstanings of these ieological changes an
e#ates (ere enriche #y the iscourse of the nationalist %ove%ent,
(hich (as particularly popular in this, the *city of clerks&+ The
influence of literate nationalists on Enugus %iners, encourage #y the
%e%#ership of #oth in the ur#an i%prove%ent unions
81
, %ae 'ritains
79
Willia% $oger "e(is, I$+erialis$ at Bay: The <nited States and the
Decolonization of the British #$+ire, &'7&)&'*7, Ne( Pork: ,)for 1niversity
6ress& 9:I;, p& 9?>&
80
This is a paraphrase of !reerick Cooper: *The govern%ents (hich
rule !rench West Africa an 'ritish Africa uring the early (ar years
ha one characteristic in co%%on: #oth (ere planning for futures that
i not e)ist&+ Chapter IV, *!orce la#or, strike %ove%ents, an the
iea of evelop%ent, 9:>@D9:>B,+ Decolonization and African Society, p&
99@&
81
1r#an ethnic unions (ere village-#ase groups (ho evelope (ays
of influencing rural politics an evelop%ent& 5any of the% raise
%oney fro% %e%#er contri#utions to launch a%#itious co%%unity
54
goal of epolitici.ing colonial unions %ore ifficult& A istrict officer
co%%ente in 9:>I:
2ivisional politics in 1i 2ivision are al(ays strongly
influence #y the vie(s of the intelligentsia in Enugu as
interprete #y the illiterate colliers, (ho, co%ing ho%e at
(eekens, an particularly at %onth-ens (ith cash
(ages, are a#le to pay the piper an call the social, an to
so%e e)tent the political, tune&
;?
!inally, espite the eprecating (ays in (hich colonial officials an
%anagers vie(e African (orking class %en, the %en the%selves
unerstoo their pro%inent role in their co%%unities as (ell as the
(orkplace& Colonial racis% %ay try to treat the *African (orker+ as an
African *#oy,+ #ut the (orkplace also valiate the% as #rave an
skille %en& The (orkplace (as a site of a %asculine (ork culture, in
(hich soliarity (ith ones (ork%ates challenge colonial inustrial
espotis%& Aitionally, this %asculinity (as further valiate in the
co%%unities an villages, (here these %en use their inco%es to
#eco%e *%oern,+ progressive, an politically po(erful& Contrary to
colonial perceptions of their ina#ility to proFect into the future, these
evelop%ent efforts& Toay they are for%e in African i%%igrant
co%%unities throughout the (orl an contri#ute far %ore to
evelop%ent initiatives than the foreign ai #uget of the evelope
capitalist states& !or one iscussion, see E& 6& ,yeaka ,ffoile, *Cro(th
an Influence of Tri#al 1nions,+ West African /e-ie" 8August 9:><=: :AID
>9&
82
NAE, 1ist :L9L9L, +Annual $eport 9:>I01i 2ivision&+
55
%en positione their chilren to assu%e positions (ithin the Nigerian
nation& Toay the i%print of their sacrifice an vision is clear in Enugu&
56