BS*a&&&'*Sg

France. Initially confined to the cathedrals and the most

important abbeys of this regin, it was soon to be regarded
as a model for the rest of France and finally for Europe as a
whole. The new style was not solely confined to the sacral
domain, but rather increasingly invaded the secular and
prvate spheres. Gothic is the first arthistorical epoch from
which art wor!s of all genres have survived. "rominent
among these remar!able wor!s are the numerous richly
varied cathedrals, the abbeys and town churches with their
se#uences of sculptures, colorful windows, wall paintings,
gold wor! and boo! illuminations. $longside these, the
diverse town sites, the castles and palaces with their elab
rate and artistic furnishings, continu% to ama&e the modern
viewer.
The present volume describes the development of Gothic in
all its diversity. 'eginning with the initial flourishing of
Gothic architecture in France, the boo! traces its early
reception in neighboring countries. Individual essays are
devoted to the specific formal development of Gothic
architecture in England, the (Germanspea!ing countries,(
Italy, )pain, "ortugal, northern and eastern Europe as well
as te*ts on late Gothic architecture in France and the
+etherlands. The history of Gothic sculpture and painting
with its changing pictorial themes and representational
forms is also presented with reference to specific countries.
)ep,rate contributions on stained glass and gold wor! and
individual studies devoted to special themes to the -athar
heresy, to the "apal "alace in $vignon, to urban
development, to technical !nowledge complete the
period.s overview.
This boo!.s many illustrations match the wide sub/ect range
of the Gothic period0 appro*imately twothirds of the 123
illustrations were especially photographed for this volume.
The various arthistorical contributions were written
e*clusively by e*perts.
F45+T -56E47
Assisi, LJpper Church of San Francesco, 8992:;
Interior view
"hoto7 5 8<<3, "hoto )cala, Floren&
'$-= -56E47
Lausanne, +otre>ame Cathedral
begun last #uarter of the 89th century
"ainted columns and arch
"hoto7 $chim 'ednor&
-56E4 >E)IG+7
-arol )toffel
The $rt of
G5T?I-

El
.
H
11
II
The $rt of
GOTHIC
Ar c h i t e c t u r e Sc u l p t u r e Pa i nt i ng
Edited by 4olf Toman
or@ "hotography by $chim 'ednor&
KONEMANN
sean: The Stainless Steel Cat
F45+TI)"IE-E7 Aells
-athedral )teps to chapter
house
B 933C =5+ED$++E, an imprint of T,ndem 6erlag Gmb?, =nigswinter
"ro/ect coordinator and producer7 4olf Toman, Esp%ra&a0 'irgit
'eyer, -ologne0 'arbara 'orng,sser, "ars "hotography7 $chim
'ednor&, -ologne >iagrams7 "ablo de la 4iestra, Darburg "icture
research7 'arbara Fin&, )ylvia Dayer -over design7 -arol )toffel
5riginal title7 Die Kunst der Gotik
I)'+ ;2;;883;2C
B 933C for the English edition
=5+ED$++E, an imprint of T,ndem 6erlag Gmb?, =nigswinter
Translation from Germ,n7 -hristian von $rnim, "aGl $ston,
?elen $t!ins, "eter 'arton, )andra ?arper
Englishlanguage editor7 -hris Durray
Danaging editor7 'ettina =aufmann
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"rinted in EK
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83 < 2 1 L : C ; 9 8
M IM 6III6II 6I 6I6IIIIII
-ontents
4olf Toman
"ablo de la 4iestra
'runo =lein
'arbara 'orng,sser
Kte Engel
-hristian Freigang
"eter =urmann
-hristian Freigang
"ablo de la 4iestra
"ablo de la 4iestra
Ehrenfried =luc!ert
'arbara 'orng,sser
'arbara 'orng,sser
$lic! DcFean
'arbara 'orng,sser
Kwe Geese
4egine $begg
Ehrenfried =luc!ert
Ehrenfried =luc!ert
Ehrenfried =luc!ert
Ehrenfried =luc!ert
Ehrenfried =luc!ert
Ehrenfried =luc!ert
Ehrenfried =luc!ert
Ehrenfried =luc!ert
'rigitte =urmann)chwar&
Ehrenfried =luc!ert
?arald Aoltervon dem
=nesebec!
Introduction
Elements of 4eligious and )ecular Gothic $rchitecture
The 'eginnings of Gothic $rchitecture in France and its +eighbors
The -athar ?eresy in )outhern France
Gothic $rchitecture in England
Dedieval 'uilding "ractice
Fate Gothic $rchitecture in France and the +etherlands
The "apal "alace in $vignon
Gothic $rchitecture of the (Germ,n Fands(
Gothic $rchitecture in )candinavia and East-entral Europe
Dedieval -astles, =nights, and -ourtly Fove
Gothic $rchitecture in Italy
Florence and )iena7 -ommunal 4ivalry
Dedieval -ities
Fate Gothic $rchitecture in )pain and "ortugal
Gothic )culpture in France, Italy, Germany, and England
Gothic )culpture in )pain and "ortugal
Gothic "ainting
)ub/ectivity, 'eauty and +ature7 Dedieval Theories of $rt
$rchitectural Dotifs in "ainting $round 8C33
+arrative Dotifs in the Aor! of ?ans Demling
6isions of ?eaven and ?ell in the Aor! of ?ieronymus 'osch
Gold, Fight and -olor7 =onrad Dit&
The >epictions of 6isions and 6isual "erception
The "ath to Individualism
Gothic )tained Glass
Dedieval Fearning and the $rts
Gothic Goldwor!
6
18
28
11
6
11
8
15
4
15
6
188
19
0
23
6
24
0
24
2
25
2
26
2
26
6
30
0
37
2 386 394 402 420 424 438 439 454 468 484 486
$ppendi* :38
t
$-
Cbaa!"#t
5""5)ITE7
'ourges, -athedral of )t.Ntienne,
begun late 89th century
$mbulatory
-hartres, -athedral of +otre>ame,
begun after the fire of 88<C 6iew
from the south
4olf
Toman
Introd
uction
($nyone
ma!ing their
way to
-hartres can
see from a
distance of
some thirty
!ilometers,
and with
many hours
of wal!ing
still ahead,
/ust how this
city crowns
the ,rea
solely
through the
great mass
of its
cathedral
with its two
towersOit is
a city
cathedral. It
was a busy
city
throughout
the Diddle
$ges
because of
its cathedral,
and today
the town is
an image of
what a
cathedral
town once
was. $nd
that wasP It
was a world
which lived
through and
with its
cathedral,
where
houses
huddled
below the
cathedral and
where streets
converged at
the
cathedral,
where people
turned from
their fields,
their
meadows, or
their villages
to ga&e at the
cathedral...
The peasant
might inhabit
a lowly hut
and the
!night a
castle, but
both shared
in the life of
the cathedral
to the same
e*tent and
with the
same
feelings
during its
longdrawn
out
construction
over the
centuries,
during its
slow rise...
Everyone
without
e*ception
shared the
common life
of the
cathedral.
+o man was
imprisoned
in his own
poverty at
night
without
being aware
that outside,
whether
near or far,
he too
possessed
riches.(
In this
observation
from his
Open
Diary
199!19"9,
the Italian
writer Elio
6ittorini
e*presses a
common
longing for
an ideal
world, an
intact world
in which
meaning is
implicit.
The 8<th
century
4omantics
Q6ictor
?ugo,
Francois
4ene
-hateaubri
and,
Friedrich
)chlegel,
=arl
Friedrich
)chin!el,
Hohn
4us!in, and
many
others@
were also
deeply
moved by
the sight of
Gothic
cathedrals,
and the
4omantics.
intense
visin of
the
spirituality
and
transcenden
t character
of the vast
and soaring
spaces of
Gothic
cathedrals
has lasted
to the
present day.
It is
apparent,
for
instance, in
the noted
93th
century
scholar of
Gothic
?ans
Hant&en
Qfrom
whose #he
Gothic of
the $est
this
introductor
y #uotation
from
6ittorini
has been
ta!en@, who
is still part
of the
4omantic
tradition.
This is
evident in
such
characterist
ic
assertions
that in
Gothic
architecture
(something
solid is
being
removed
from its
natural
surrounding
s by
something
incorporeal,
divested of
weight and
made to soar
upwards,( as
well as by
his famous
analysis of
the
(diaphanous
structure( of
the Gothic
wall and his
tal! of
(space as a
symbol of
the
spaceless.(
The theme is
always the
transcendent
.
This
aspect of the
Gothic
cathedral
was also
important to
the scholar
?ans
)edlmayr,
who shortly
after Aorld
Aar II
published
his
celebrated
study, #he
%&er'ence
of the
Cathedral
Q8<:3@.
)edlmayr
was
attempting
to offset the
dar!ness of
his own time
with the
shining light
of the
cathedral,
which he
saw as a
comple* and
multifaceted
wor! that
mar!ed a
high point of
European
art. Hust as
Hant&en had
(discovered(
the
diaphanous
wall
structure, so
)edlmayr,
turning his
ga&e
upwards to
the vaults,
identified
what he
called the
(baldachin
system( of
Gothic
cathedrals
Qthe vaults
loo!ing li!e
a canopy
supported by
slender
columns@.
'ut
alongside all
the structural
analysis and
the
metaphysical
interpretatio
n, )edlmayr
added
another
element7
his boo!
on
cathedrals
is closely
lin!ed, in
date and in
philosophy
, with his
ultra
conservati
ve wor! on
cultural
criticism,
Art in
Crisis( #he
Lost
Center
Q8<:1,
original
Germ,n
8<C2@,
whose
dubious
racial and
ideological
underpinni
ngs are
unmista!a
ble.
The
affinity
between
conservativ
e cultural
criticism
and an
inflated
reverence
for Gothic
has a long
tradition in
Germany.
That
Gothic
lends itself
to ideology
in this way
is closely
connected
with the
long
standing
belief that
Gothic, in
contrast to
4omanes#
ue, is the
true
Germ,n
style.
'ased on
an error,
this
appropriati
on of
Gothic
was, in the
final
analysis,
(founded
in the art
theory of
the Italian
4enaissanc
e, which
had
considered
medieval
art in
general to
be an
essentially
.Germ,n. or
Owhich
comes to
the same
thingO
Gothic
style, from
which the
new
4enaissanc
e art of
Italy had
now finally
liberated
itself. $s
late as
around
8233,
e#uating
Gothic
with
Germ,n
was a
topos of
European
culture,
one that
was
scarcely
#ues
tioned.
From this
there arse
in Germany
a national
enthusiasm
for
everything
Gothic, in
which
people
thought they
saw the
greatest
achievement
of their
forebears...
'ut then art
history,
which was
/ust
emerging as
a discipline,
#uic!ly
established
that Gothic,
especially
the Gothic
cathedral,
was one of
the original
achievement
s of
Germany.s
archenemy
of the time,
France. This
bitter
recognition
led to a
change of
attitude in
the
evaluation
of the
Germ,n
Diddle
$ges(
Q)chRt& and
DRller@.
The
reason for
this
disillusionm
ent lay in
thin!ing in
terms of
national
superiority,
an error
from which
even some
art
historians
were not
immune. It
is
astonishing
Oand
important to
rememberO
/ust how
stubbornly
this
brooding
over the
ethnic
origins of
Gothic
persisted.
)uch views
can be
detected
even in
)edlmayr.s
boo! on
cathedrals,
though they
are more
subtle than
the ones in
circulation
)t.>enis, former 'enedictine abbey
church, detail of stainedglass window
with $bbot )uger at the feet of the 6irgin
in +a&i Germany, and seemingly e*pressed in more civili&ed terms. In
)edlmayr.s summary of his deliberations on the origin of the Gothic
cathedral we are told7 (For the complete structure of the cathedral, the
north Germanic Q.+ordic.@ element provided the structural component,
the s!eleton, as it were. The socalled -eltic Q.Aestern.@ element
provided the ."oetic. $nd the Dediterranean Q.)outhern.@ element
provided the fully rounded, human component... ?istorically these
elements did not appear simultaneously during the construction of the
cathedral, but in this se#uence... The third element, however, was
already in play from the beginning but initially superimposed on the
others and largely ineffective. 5nly after 8823 does it flourish,
determining the .classic phase. of the cathedral, but from as early as
89:3 onwards it was firmly suppressed again. The .classic. cathedral is
thus one of the most magnificently successful fusions of the characters
of three peoples. In art it creates .Frenchness,. and in this very fusin is
European in the highest sense.( Today this biological, ethnic, and racial
delving orO as Ailhelm Aorringer named and practiced itOthis
delving into (the psyche of man!ind( in order to e*plain the (essence
of the cathedral( is considered obsolete.
$ ma/or obstacle in our attempt to understand the art and life of the
Diddle $ges is the difficulty of putting ourselves into the intellectual
and emotional world of the men and women of the period. The decisive
barrier to our understanding is presented by medieval -hristianity,
which, embracing every aspect of life, completely determined the
thin!ing and feeling of the period. Today we are even farther away
from this aspect of medieval life than the 4omantics were. This diffi
culty was noted by )edlmayr in his afterword published in 8<1L in a
reprint of his boo! on cathedrals. For )edlmayr there was no point in
saying (Ae must loo! at the cathedral through the eyes of medieval
people( because these people would inevitably be an abstraction.
Instead, he suggested (loo!ing at the cathedral through the eyes of its
builders, with the eyes of )uger and his architects.( This was a clearcut
tas! and methods could be developed to achieve it. Even if )edlmayr.s
optimism is not something we can fully share, it is this approach we
have ta!en here0 and we can begin by turning our attention to the
origins of Gothic and the central role played by $bbot )uger of )t.
>enis. 5n this, at least, art historians are in agreement.
Abbot Suger of St.-Denis: Te Beginnings of Gotic Gothic is of
French origin. It emerged around 88C3 in the small !ingdom, which
already bore the Same Francia, that occupied the ,rea between
-ompi%gne and 'ourges, and that had "aris, the royal city, as its center.
The territory on which the most impressive cathedrals in the new
Gothic style were to be built in #uic! succession was insignificant
compared with presentday France, and the power of the French !ingO
though not the prestigeOwas still slight. ?is political and economic
power too! second place to that of the du!es of +ormandy, who were at
the same time !ings of England, and also to
that of his neighbors to the southwest and east, the counts of -ham
pagne. Ahat distinguished him from the other feudal lords, however,
and gave him greater authority, was the sacred character conferred on
him when, at his coronation, he was anointed with holy oil.
This potential was something which )uger of )t.>enis Qca. 8328
88:8@, one of the leading figures of France in the 89th century, !new
how to e*ploit. $lthough of humble origin, he was a childhood friend
of Fouis 6I from the time of their common monastic upbringing in the
abbey of )t.>enis, and he was a confidant, advisor and diplomat in the
service of both Fouis 6I Q8832;1@ and Fouis 6II Q88;123@. Ahen
Fouis 6II and his #ueen too! part in the )econd -rusade from 88C1 to
88C< he appointed )uger his regent, a role )uger performed e*tremely
well. $s the mon! Aillelmus, )uger.s biographer, reports, from that
time on )uger was !nown as (the father of the fatherland.( ?e made the
strengthening of the French monarchy his life.s wor!. $ware that the
temporal power of the French !ing was greatly restricted, he !new that
it was vital to increase the monarchy.s spiritual prestige. )uger.s efforts
were aimed at e*actly this.
Ahen he became abbot of )t.>enis in 8899, )uger, along with all
his other tas!s, doggedly pursued his dream of restoring the abbey.s
former prestige by renovating the longneglected fabric of the church.
The church had already been a royal burial place under the
$
)t. 'ernard teaching in his monastery, from )ook
of*ours of+tienne Che,alier, ca. 8C:3L3
-hantilly, Dus%e -onde
Derovingian dynasty, and under the -arolingians it had en/oyed the
prestige of being one of the most important churches of the realm.
It was here, at a place important because of its historical signifi
cance, that $bbot )uger, through the wor! on his abbey Q88;1"CC@,
became the initiator of a new spatial order for church building. For the
first time, and along with other innovative measures, he and his
architect closely united elements of 'urgundian architecture Qthe
pointed arch@ and +orman architecture Qrib vaults@. 'y doing so, he
became, in effect, the (creator of Gothic.(
That this act, so important in art history, did not ta!e place in a
political vacuum, and that it was at once religiously, aesthetically, and
politically motivated, is made clear in more detail in the first
contribution in this boo!, on the beginnings of Gothic architecture in
France Qsee pages 9288:@. There 'runo =lein sets out the social,
cultural, economic, and technical conditions that made it possible for
)uger and his architect to cr%ate a new church architectureOan
(architecture of light(Othat was to raise the observer (from the
material to the immaterial.( It made it possible, a little later, for inno
vative architects, developing )uger.s new concept of sacred architec
ture, to cr%ate the great Gothic cathedrals.
'etween 8823 and 8913, the end of ?igh Gothic, about 23 cathe
drals were built in France alone. $nd this was /ust the urban episcopal
buildings, not including the far more numerous restorations of other
types of church such as abbeys and collegiate and parish churches. It
was in these cathedrals and episcopal churches that the new Gothic
architecture found characteristic e*pression. $ppearing first in the
French crown lands Qthe 4oyal >omain centered on "aris@ and then
wider afield, the cathedrals were highly visible demonstrations of
prestige and power. Their spread went hand in hand with the
e*pansionist policy of the French monarchy during the late 89th and
8;th centuries. Indeed some historians believe that the building of
Gothic cathedrals was one of the !ey factors in the ascendancy of
medieval France in Europe, achieved largely under =ing "hilippe
$uguste Q"hilippe II, 8823899;@ and e*tended under Fouis IM Q)t.
Fouis0 899L13@. From the 8993s other countries in Europe Qin England
it had been as early as around 8813@ adopted the (French style(, usually,
but not solely, because it represented the latest in building technology.
Gothic architecture became a European style.
$bbot )uger and )t. 'ernard
$ portrait of $bbot )uger of )t.>enis is provided by the art historian
Erwin "anofs!y, who wrote a fascinating study of the relationship
between medieval art, philosophy, and theology entitled Gothic
Architecture and Scholasticis& Q8<:8@. In most of his writings
"anofs!y is concerned with grounding art history in intellectual history.
This is his approach to $bbot )uger. $ll the same, in his boo! on )uger
and )t.>enis he brings the abbot of )t.>enis to life as an individual7
($ fierce patriot and a good householder0 a little rhetorical and much
enamored of grandeur, yet thoroughly matter
offact in practical affairs and temp%rate in his personal habits0 hard
wor!ing and companionable, full of good nature and -on sens, vain,
witty, and irrepressibly vivacious.( )uger was certainly able to en/oy
life, and was in particular !eenly sensitive to the radiance and wonder
of beautiful things.
In all this, and in particular in his love of beautiful things, )uger
differed greatly from another ma/or figure of his time, )t. 'ernard of
-lairvau* Q83<388:;@. The great -istercian abbot, the fiercest
polemicist and the most powerful and influential mon! of the 89th
century, saw monastic life as one of strict obedience and, as far as
personal comfort, food, and sleep were concerned, of e*treme self
denial. Filled by missionary &eal, he became passionately involved
anywhere monastic life, liturgical practice, or religious attitudes were,
in his opinin, lac!ing either in strictness or in a concentration on
essentials. ?e acted with great severity against the theologically
unorthodo*. Even $bbot )uger, who, though certainly in favor of
discipline and moderation, was decidedly against the (mon!ish virtues(
of ab/ect submissiveness and asceticism, could not be indifferent to the
views )t. 'ernard had about )t.>enis, for )t. 'ernard e*ercised a great
influence on the pope. It had certainly not escaped )t. 'ernard.s
attention that there were times when things at )t.>enis, which was so
closely lin!ed to the French monarchy, were not as they should have
been7 (Aithout hesitation or pretense they render unto
9
-aesar the things which are -aesar.s. 'ut they do not render unto God
the things which are God.s with the same conscientiousness.(
$dmittedly in 8891, in the si*th year of )uger.s office as an abbot,
'ernard congratulated his more worldly confr.re on having success
fully (reformed( the abbey of )t.>enis. 'ut, as "anofs!y observes,
(this .reform,. far from diminishing the $bbey.s political importance,
invested it with an independence, prestige and prosperity that permitted
)uger to tighten and to formali&e its traditional ties with the -rown.(
Ahat caused )t. 'ernard to show more tolerance toward conditions at
)t.>enis than he usually showed toward monasteries that did not meet
his e*acting standardsP Ahat caused him to treat $bbot )uger with far
greater consideration than he usually showed toward those with whom
he disagreedP "anofs!y concludes that there was a tacit agreement of
interests by the two potential opponents7 (4eali&ing how much they
could hurt each other as enemiesOone the advisor of the -rown... the
other the mentor of the ?oly )ee and the greatest spiritual forc% in
EuropeO they decided to be friends.(
The opposition of $bbots )uger and 'ernard can also be seen in the
character of the renovations at the abbey of )t.>enis. $bbot )uger had
a great passion for sacred pictures and for all !inds of church
decoration, for gold, enameling, and precious stones, indeed all !inds of
beautiful gleaming ob/ects, and he was especially fond of stainedglass
windows. 'ernard, on the other hand, condemned such decoration, not
because he was unreceptive to its charm, but because he saw in such
things a distraction from pious thoughts, prayer, and meditation. In the
case of the -istercian monasteries and churches being built in large
numbers everywhere in Europe in the 89th and 8;th centuries, this
meant that the builders had to adopt a style that observed the numerous
rules and regulations inspired by )t. 'ernard.s austere aesthetics.
+evertheless, the e*panding -istercian order played an important role
in the spread of Gothic throughout Europe, for it was receptive to the
technical improvements of Gothic principies of construction, and was
itself often innovative, for e*ample in techni#ues of hydraulic
engineering developed for the monasteries established in remote
valleys.
"eter $belard
In order to counter the view that the people of the Diddle $ges lac! a
distinctive individuality, we can now, in this panorama of medieval
culture, loo! briefly at another of $bbot )uger.s contemporaries, a man
who also endured a problematic relationship with )t. 'ernard, and who
in fact carne into direct conflict with him7 the philosopher "eter
$belard Q831<88C9@.
In his boo! Scholasticis&, a lively introduction to medieval
philosophy, Hosef "ieper gives us a thumbnail s!etch of the scholar.
("eter $belard... was still only a boy when he attended the famous
4oscelin.s school of philosophy. ?e was barely twenty when he went to
"aris and, after two or three years of studying, himself opened a
school of philosophy, at first on the outs!irts of the city. $t the age of
twentynine he mar!ed the success of his school by moving it to "aris
itself, situating it in what is today the university #uarter. In 888: he was
head of the cathedral school of +otre >ameOall of thirtyfive years
od. )hortly afterward he met ?%loise. $belard himself relates in his
autobiographical Story of /y Ad,ersities 0*istoria cala&i!tatu&1 how
out of sensual passion rather than love he set about seducing this girl,
his pupil. $fter she had had a child by him, they were wed in secret.(
The se#uel was the cruel revenge of ?eloi.se.s guardi,n, who had
$belard beaten and then castrated. The famous, confident professor had
to ta!e refuge in a monastery. )t.>enis too! him in. This famous love
storyOwhich cannot be followed up hereO did not end there. ?%loise
went into a convent, but we !now from their letters that the two lovers
preserved a remar!able spiritual friendship for the rest of their lives.
In $belard we meet an early representative of a new type of scholar,
the professional thin!er or intellectual. ?e ma!es his appearance with
the rebirth of the towns in the 89th century, first as a master in the
schools and then, in the 8;th century, as a professor in the universities.
In his study of the early years of the Kniversity of Dodena, which was
founded at the end of the 89th century as one of the earliest Italian
universities, the Italian scholar Giovanni )antini writes7 (The birth of
the .intellectual. as a new sociological type presupposes the divisin of
labor in the town, e*actly as the rise of the university institutions
presupposes a common cultural sphere in which these new .cathedrals
of !nowledge. appear, flourish, and can freely debate with each other.(
$belard played a decisive part in the development of "aris as a
center of lively philosophical and theological debate. ?ere medieval
scholars found ampie opportunity to sharpen their intellectual weapons.
$belard himself was the most important spo!esman of his age in the
perennial debate over universals, one of the main themes of medieval
philosophy, and with his dialectical wor! Sic et non he was, together
with Hohn )cotus Erigena Q<th century@, and Fanfranc and $nselm of
-anterbury Qboth llth century@, one of the founders of scholasticism.
The dominant form of thin!ing and e*position in medieval philosophy
and theology, scholasticism involved reaching conclusions by means of
the lengthy e*position of arguments and counterarguments 2sic et non1,
leading finally to a (determination( by the master. Thus $belard was
one of those who laid the foundation for the later (cathedrals of ideas(
of high scholasticism /ust as $bbot )uger, through the rebuilding of his
abbey church, became the /oint initiator of the construction of Gothic
cathedrals. $s we have already mentioned "anofs!y.s Gothic
Arc-itecture and Scholasticis&, perhaps we should point out here that
such parallels can sometimes be drawn rather too hastily and often do
not survive cise scrutiny.
$belard.s thin!ing, strongly mar!ed by the sep,rate philosophical
discipline of logic, can be understood, in its critical, antidoctrinaire
tendency, as an early attempt at a medieval Enlightenment. It often
83
)ames -reus Q-atalonia, )pain@, -istercian abbey
-loister, 8;3;C8
shows more concern with the human than the theological. $n e*ample of
this is when, on the #uestion of ethics, he emphasi&es that there can be no
sin without a conscious evil intent. In following our own conscience we
may err, but we cannot for that reason be deemed guilty0 we acted in good
faith.
5n the #uestion of the relationship between faith and reason, a vital
issue at the time, $belard adopted a remar!ably progressive position,
arguing that only unpre/udiced scholarly understanding ought to determine
faith. $belard, in other words, was an early representative of the urban
intellectual, his beliefs consistent with -hristian belief, but his mind open
and en#uiring.
The >ominance of Faith over 4eason
For some, however, "aris was the modern 'abylon, a city of reprehensible
pleasures and intellectual pride. )t. 'ernard, the fiercest opponent of
$belard, called out to the "aris teachers and students7 (Flee from the midst
of this 'abylon, flee and save your souls. $ll of you, fly to the cities of
refuge where you can repent for the past, live in grace in the present, and
confidently await the future Tthat is, in the monasteriesU. Vou will find
much more in forests than in boo!s. The woods and the roc!s will teach
you much more than any master.(
?ere an attitude #uite the opposite of $belard.s is being e*pressed. The
abbot of -teau* too! up a very different position in
the frontline of -hristianity. $s Hac#ues Fe Goff writes7 (That rural man,
who remained a medieval and foremost a soldier, was illsuited to
understand the town intelligentsia. ?e saw only one course of action
against the heretic or the infidel7 brute forc%. The champion of the armed
-rusade, he did not believe in an intellectual crusade. Ahen "eter the
6enerable Tthe last great abbot of -luny, who died in 88::U as!ed him to
read the translation of the =oran in order to reply to Dohammed in
writing, 'ernard did not respond... That apostle of the reclusive life was
always prepared to fight against innovations he deemed dangerous. >uring
the last years of his life he essentially governed western -hristian Europe,
dictating his orders to the pope, approving military orders, dreaming of
creating a Aestern cavalry, the militia of -hrist0 he was a great in#uisitor
before his time.(
)t. 'ernard hurled the words #uoted above against the (false teacher(
$belard who, sensing the spirit of -hristianity in Gree! philosophy, saw in
the philosophers )crates and "lato -hristians before -hristianity. 'ernard
was not convinced7 ('y ma!ing "lato into a -hristian you are only
showing that you yourself are a heathen.(
$belard was often prepared to challenge such warriors0 he was even
prepared to enter into a public debate with )t. 'ernard. 'ut though he was
confident enough for such a debate, and considered himself superior to the
great abbot in intellectual astuteness, he was hopelessly inferior to )t.
'ernard in the politics of power. ?e was
88
never given the chance for a confrontation in which he could have
fought with the weapons of his own choice. The night before the
planned debate, 'ernard passed to the assembled bishops a document
representing $belard as a dangerous heretic. 'y so doing, he deftly
transformed the occasion from a debate into a trial in which $belard
had to establish his innocence. $ll $belard could do was challenge the
competence of the assembly and appeal directly to the pope. In the
event, the bishops passed a mild /udgment on the alleged heretic and
sent the case to 4ome. 'ernard learned of this and so was able to
intervene and present his own point of view forcefully. The (dispute(
ended with a condemnation of $belard by the pope, and his boo!s were
burned at )t. "eter.s. $belard sought refuge at -luny, where he was
ta!en in with great !indness by the abbot, "eter the 6enerable. This
abbot succeeded in having the e*communication imposed on $belard in
4ome #uashed, and even brought about a reconciliation between
$belard and 'ernard. $belard died in the monastery of )t.Darcel in
-h,lonssur)ane.
The dispute between $belard and 'ernard can be seen as repre
sentative of a much broader conflict. It was an early s!irmish in the
long war between understanding and faith, reason and authority, science
and the -hurch, a conflict that began in the ?igh Diddle $ges and was
resolved only in the 82th century, when the Germ,n philosopher
Immanuel =ant Q819C823C@ separated belief in God from !nowledge
of the world. The defeat of $belard by the influential abbot, and, above
all, the way the defeat was brought about, illustrates a mar!ed
imbalance of power, an imbalance that began to change only at the
beginnings of the modern period. The e*ample of Galileo Q8:LC8LC9@,
who was summoned before the In#uisition because of his support for
the -opernican theory and there made publicly to deny the theory,
shows how longdrawnout the process of intellectual emancipation
was.
>uring the 8;th century, when the universities emerged as the new
power in the towns and cities, and scholasticism reached its height,
science Qat this early stage still lac!ing both method and ob/ectivity@
was unable to develop a new worldpicture liberated from the bonds of
-hristian dogma. In his 3ntellectuals in the /iddle A'es Q8<:1@, Hac#ues
Fe Goff s!etches the rise of the universities in their early stages. $t first
they had to assert themselves by battling against ecclesiastical forces,
above all against the local bishops, then against secular forces, above all
the royal houses, their ally now being the pope. The final stage was to
win farreaching independence from the papacy. For a long time during
the Diddle $ges the -hurch clamped down on free and independent
thin!ing, and so secured its own position and power for centuries.
A!!roaces to te Inter!retation of Gotic Catedra"s
For a long time the study of Gothic architecture too! little note of
cultural and historical circumstances of the !ind briefly considered
above. Following the adoption of Gothic by the 4omantics, there
)t.>enis, former 'enedictine
abbey church
Aindows in nave and transept clerestory
developed a new line of interpretation inspired by 6iolletle>uc.s ten
volume Dictionnaire raisonn. de l4architecture francaise Q82:CL2@, which
considered the development of the Gothic cathedral from a structural and
technical point of view, an approach encouraged by the development of
iron construction during the 8<th century. Essentially an engineer.s
perspective on Gothic, this approach has been continued by several 93th
century writers Qnotably 6ictor )abouret and "ol $braham@, though
without the creation of such succinct interpretative concepts as Hant&en.s
(diaphanous waR( or )edlmayr.s (baldachin system.( The scholar 5tto
von )imson follows Hant&en.s and )edlmayr.s formal and analytical tradi
tion of interpretation, a tradition pioneered by Fran& =ugler in his studies
of the Gothic cathedral in his *and-ook of Art *istory Q82C9@ and his
*istory of Arc-itecture Q82:L:<@. 'ut von )imson also, more importantly,
draws on "anofs!y.s interpretation of Gothic in terms of intellectual
history. Ta!ing his lead from "anofs!y.s 8<CL lecture on the relationship
between Gothic architecture and scholasticism, in which "anofs!y
discusses $bbot )uger.s understanding of the role light was to play in his
new church, von )imson gives particular emphasis to the way in which the
spiritual concept of light determined the development of the Gothic
cathedral. ?e e*panded his approach in 8<:L, when, as a reaction to
)edlmayr.s #he %&er'ence of the Cathedral, he published #he Gothic
Cathedral( Ori'ins of Gothic Architecture and the /edie,al Concept of
Order5 )ince then there have been many attempts to interpret the precise
significance played in the building of cathedrals by the light streaming in
through their stainedglass windows, all of these interpretations deriving
from remar!s )uger himself made. $ recent e*ample is Dichael -amille.s
chapter (?eavenly Fight( in his boo! Gothic Art Q8<<L@.
$bbot )uger described the rebuilding of his abbey church in two short
wor!s, Li-ellus de consecratione ecclesiae Sancti Dionysii 2A
)riefAccount ofthe Consecration ofthe Church of St5!Denis1 and De re-us
in ad&inistratione sua 'estis 2$ork Done 6nder *is Ad&inistration1,
written about 88C::3, /ustifying his pro/ect as a wor! pleasing to God. It
is in these two accounts that )uger mentions the particular importance of
light, developing an aesthetic of the ascent from the material Qlight from
the windows, and precious stones@ toward the spiritual Qthe light of God@.
)uger spea!s ofthe lu7 &ira-ilis, the wonderful light, and of the
sacratissi&ae ,itrae, the most sacred windows. "anofs!y believed that
these and other statements by )uger were to be interpreted in the spirit of
the neoplatonic philosophy of light. It was clearly this approach that laid
the foundations for von )imson.s interpretation of the (metaphysics of
light.( )everaW art historians followed him. 'ut in recent years, in view of
the wea!ness of other conclusions reached by von )imson, his ideas on
this topic have lost much of their persuasiveness.
Thus GRnther 'inding, for e*ample, who among other things has
closely studied medieval building practice, in his essay (The +ew
-athedral7 4ationality and Illusion( Q8<<:@ considers it misleading
(to understand Gothic architecture as a reflection, or more precisely as the
representation, of a supernatural reality.( Doreover, he does not agree with
von )imson.s view that )uger sought (to lead visitors to the new sanctuary
on to the religious e*perience that art had revealed to )uger himself,( Sor
with his claim that (the design of his church, )uger.s creation of Gothic
form, originated in that TreligiousU e*perience.( 'inding thin!s that such
faulty interpretations stem from the fact that von )imson, and "anofs!y
before him, too! individual statements in the sources out of conte*t, or
interpreted them in ways that were wrong, or at least biased. "ointing to
the fact that a long time before )uger the buildings described in scripture
O+oah.s ar!, the tabernacle of Doses, the temple of )olomon, E&e!iel.s
visin of the new !ingdom of God, and the +ew Herusalem of the
$pocalypseO already possessed symbolic valu% for medieval patrons, he
concludes that (the sources used selectively by 5tto von )imson cannot
establish a .theory. of a new cathedral, namely of the Gothic choir of )t.
>enis. They neither created Sor founded the Gothic cathedral, but are
clearly to be assigned to the realm of the artes Qacademic disciplines@ and
theology, and interpreted in the traditional way !nown long before the
89th century. That also goes for the attempts of Erwin "anofs!y... to
establish an analogy between Gothic architecture and scholasticism.(
8;
>omenico Fen&i
-orn mar!et, from 33 )iadaiolo
8Cth century
Florence, 'iblioteca Fauren&iana
For 'inding the cathedral (is first and foremost the place of the divine
epiphany and of structured ritual.( ?e regards the change in architec
tural construction occurring between 88<3 and 89;: as (dependent on
an economic development in the course of the second half of the 89th
century, and also on the greater number of s!illed and available
wor!ers resulting from that development.( 'inding does not, however,
restrict himself solely to economic and technological conditions, for he
summari&es his analysis with the observation that the Gothic element of
the new church was (a masterly and harmonious blend of construction,
illusion, rationality, and theology.(
)ocial and Economic $spects of the Emergence of Gothic $rchitecture
In the chapter (God is Fight( in his boo! #-e A'e of the Cathedrals, the
French historian Georges >uby e*amines )uger.s architecture as what
he calis the abbot.s (monument of applied theology(. The new
architecture created by )uger, he argRes, is a hymn of praise to the )on
of God. In the boo! as a whole he develops a broadranging approach
to the Gothic cathedral. ?is boo! is essentially a historical sociology of
artistic creation that attempts to set the cathedrals firmly within their
specific social and intellectual conte*t. Ae have already seen that 89th
century towns were developing into cultural centers, and that it was
there that Gothic too! root. The Gothic cathedrals were some of the
most e*#uisite fruits of this emergent urban culture, the universities of
the 8;th century some of its most important institutions.
It is in this conte*t of this rebirth of towns that >uby views the art of
the cathedral7 (Throughout the twelfth and thirteenth centuries TtownsU
grew both larger and more animated, while their outlying districts
stretched alongside the roads. They were lodestones drawing wealth.
$fter a long period of obscurity they became the principal centers,
north of the $lps, of the most advanced culture. 'ut for the time being
virtually all of their vitality still carne from the surrounding fields. Dost
of the manor lords decided at this time to shift their places of residence
to the city. ?enceforth the products of their estates converged in the
cities. In those cities, the most active traders were the wheat, wine, and
wool merchants. Thus, although cathedral art was urban art, it relied on
the nearby countryside for the ma/or factor in its growth, and it was the
efforts of countless pioneers, clearers of land, planters of vinestoc!s,
diggers of ditches, and builders of di!es, all flushed with the successes
of a flourishing agriculture, that brought cathedral art to its fulfillment.(
>uby reminds us that the new cathedrals arse in a society (whose
ideal of sanctity was still a monastic ideal and was to remain so for
some time to come,( a fact illustrated abo ve by the e*amples of the
forceful personality of )t. 'ernard and the energy of the -istercian
order. $longside the -istercians, who in many respects were still
representatives of the od rural order rooted in land ownership, there
appeared in the first third of the 8;th century the mendicant orders, the
Franciscans and the >ominicans. Aith the mendicants a new type of
order arse, one that was clearly distinguished from the older
8C
communities belonging to a monastery, or to the chapter of a cathedral
or seminary0 their members were certainly bound to the order for life by
their vows, but not to a particular monastery. The new orders demanded
not only that individual mon!s should swear a vow of poverty, but also
that their monasteries should be free of all possessions. The Qmale@
members of the order spent their time in wor!, study, and pastoral care,
and survived by begging for alms. $s mendicant and preaching orders,
the Franciscans and >ominicans concentrated on the towns. In the 8;th
century the great churches of the mendicant orders, built in a very
simple style, were usually spacious hall churches, mainly in the Gothic
style. These aisleless churches were intended to hold the largest
possible congregations for the sermons that were such an important part
of the mendicants. approach to their vocation. These churches were to
have a significant impact on the urban development of the Diddle $ges
Qsee page 9C;@. The mendicant orders also played an important role in
combating the numerous heretical sects. From the point of view of
)an Gimignano QTuscany, Italy@ Towers
belonging to different families, built
during the GuelphGhibelline conflict, ca.
8;33
$ndrea da Firen&e
Alle'ory ofthe Do&inican Order, 8;LLL2 >etail
of preaching scene, Florence, )anta Dara
+ovella, -appella degli )pagnuoli
-hristian orthodo*y, the greatest
danger carne from the -athars, who
had spread over a wide ,rea of
southern France Qsee pages 88L
881@. In Fanguedoc, where most of
the -athars lived, )t. 'ernard had
already tried in vain to persuade the
heretics to change their ways.
$ttempts at conversin by forc%,
with -istercian assistance,
followed. >ominican preachers at
first tried to use persuasin rather
than forc% of arms. The Franciscans
and >ominicans, in >uby.s words,
(!new how to ma!e the broadest
spectrums of men listen. They
appealed to what men were most
sensitive to, spo!e in everyday
language, avoided abstract notions,
and made use of stri!ing images.
Into their sermons they wor!ed
different !inds of anecdotes,
depending on the social status of
their public. $lready they had
begun to use the appeal of theatrics
in con/unction with the propaganda
by showing the first miracle plays.
$nd whereas art, until then, had
been a form of prayer and homage,
in praise of the divine glory, the
new urge to persuade and convert
now made it a means of
systematically edifying the laity.(
)o it is not surprising that the
Franciscans and the >ominicans,
who were regularly in dispute with
each other over the most effective
ways of being persuasiveOand
finally engaged each other in philo
sophical and theological
controversies, as well as in
struggles for influential positions
within the -hurchOplayed a
revolutionary role both in the
development of painting and in the
teaching of philosophy and
theology. )ome of the greatest
medieval philosophers were
>ominicans Q$lbertus Dagnus,
Thomas $#uinas@ or Franciscans
Q'onaventura, >uns )cotus@.
'ut it was the >ominicans
who, as a result of their
growing closeness to the
papacy, became the crusading
guardians of -hristian
orthodo*y. They did not shrin!
from the use of forc%. $s the
main agents of the In#uisition,
with its (practice of /ustice,(
they were responsible for one
of the dar!est chapters of
medieval ecclesiastical history.
4ecent wor!s Qin French
and Germ,n@ on Gothic art and
architecture include, to Same
/ust a few, $lain Erlande
'randenburg, Gothic Art
Q8<2;@, >ieter =impel and
4obert )uc!ale, Gothic
Architecture in France 1189!
1:9 Q8<2:@, Aillibald
)auerl,nder, #he Century ofthe
Great Cathedrals 11;9!1<9
Q8<<3@, $lain Erlande
'randenburg, #riu&ph of
Gothic 1<9!18=9 Q8<22@,
$lbert -h,telet and 4oland
4echt, #he %nd ofthe /iddle
A'es 18=9!1"99 Q8<22@ and
the wor!s by GRnther 'inding
and Dichael -amille
mentioned above. 5f course,
all such wor!s rely on
countless studies in formal
analysis, intellectual history,
iconography, and economic
and social history. This is
precisely their advantage over
older wor!s. In the light of the
everincreasing number of
speciali&ed studies, however, it
is becoming more and more
difficult for new studies to
venture an overview of Gothic
art and architecture of the !ind
offered in this boo!.
5f the wor!s mentioned
above we can loo! briefly at
/ust one, a wor! that stresses
the social and economic
aspects of the sub/ect7
8:
=impel and )uc!ale.s Gothic Architecture in #rance 1189!1:9, which
has succeeded in establishing itself as a standard wor! on Early and
?igh Gothic architecture in France. The authors base their wor! on the
thesis that (the ,rea where Gothic began and e*panded until 8933
corresponds e*actly to the crown lands of France. $s late as 8913 the
masons. lodges of the crown lands are the real centers of innovation.(
They write of (the dynamic character of the style and of the social
system supporting it,( and thus indicate that they consider political and
social factors to have been e#ually important in the rise and spread of
Gothic. It is typical of their approach that they also loo! closely at the
first 9: chapters of $bbot )uger.s account boo!s for his building wor!,
in which he mentions several historical and economic aspects of his
architectural pro/ects that have until now been largely ignored by art
historians Qsee page 92@.
The multifaceted nature of the approach used by =impel and
)uc!ale becomes clear in their first chapter, where they use the
cathedral of $miens as an (introduction to the study of the Gothic
cathedral.( $longside the architectural history and the detailed des
criptions of form and function, they attempt a reconstruction of the
original appearance of the building, e*amine the early stages of
building wor!, and discuss the building.s patrons and its functions.
In this connection they analy&e the comple* web of relationships
between the bishop Qwho too! the initiative for the new building@, the
cathedral chapter, the people Qthe citi&ens@, and the !ing Qand other
founders@, and consider the role of each of them in the new building of
the cathedral. In brief, they see both the politics and the building wor!
as motivated by the shared interest of the !ing, the bishop, and the
citi&ens (in !eeping down the tyranny of the feudal nobility. In model
form we have before us the coalition that determined this epoch and its
architecture.(
Further cise studies of the master builders, the stonemasons, their
tools and their lodges, the constructional !nowledge of the architects,
and so on strengthen the impression that the authors are essentially
concerned with the elucidation of the social and economic factors in the
building of the cathedrals. $t the beginning of the 8<23s there was
certainly a need for an emphasis on such facets of medieval building,
though it cannot be denied that the authors are also governed by a
specific ideology. $ll the same, they also pay attention to formal,
aesthetic, and iconographic factors. 5n the ageold controversy as to
whether the building technology or the (idea( carne first in the building
of the cathedrals, the authors ta!e up a middle position. (Ae would li!e
to admit openly that in our opinin Gothic form would never have
arisen without technical and constructional innovations0 but we do not
by any means regard Gothic architecture as merely an early form of
engineering. It can be fully understood only in terms of the dialectical
relationship of aesthetic and constructional, political and religious,
economic and intellectual trends.(
This manysided approach is also the approach ta!en in the present
volume. It is a reflection of changing fashion in art history,
however, that in this volume there is no discussion of (dialectics,( and
that the perspectives used, in contrast to those of =impel and )uc!ale,
have again shifted firmly in the direction of a comparative analysis of
form.
Gothic and 4enaissance
(The Gothic cathedral of the 8;th century can clearly be seen to differ
from the 4omanes#ue of the 89th in many respects7 pointed arch
instead of round arch, buttress system instead of wall mass, diaphanous,
spacedefining walls instead of thic! walls pierced by windows,
openwor! tracery instead of walls with stepped and niched surfaces,
and above all the creation of one unified space rather than the mere
addition of spatial units which had been usual until that time.( GRnther
'inding describes these characteristics in detail, and adds to the list
more elements which as a whole ma!e up the medieval masons.
repertoire, including the elements which contribute to the brea!ingup
of the e*terior of the building such as gables, pinnacles, finials, and
croc!ets. QThe reader can find these and other elements belonging to the
vocabulary of the Gothic cathedral illustrated on pages 8291. Terms
not e*plained there can be found in the glossary.@
5n the sub/ect of the relationship of the Gothic cathedral to other
types of Gothic church, such as the -istercian monasteries partly
mar!ed by Gothic, the churches of the mendicant orders, and the Gothic
hall churches of "oitou, )edlmayr has shown that their participation in
Gothic (morphology( can be traced bac! to a confrontation with the
Gothic cathedral. (From the Gothic cathedral these .Gothics. Qif we can
use this term@ adopt individual forms li!e the pointed arch, the shape of
the vault, the clusters of shafts, the rose window, and the radiating
chap%is in the choir, but give them a new meaning each time in their
new setting... It is not .the. Gothic, therefore, which produces the
Gothic cathedral, but the cathedral that produces the Gothic.(
$fter discussing the beginnings of Gothic, we can conclude by
briefly loo!ing at the relationship between Gothic and 4enaissance.
)ince Gothic is identified with the end of the Diddle $ges, and
4enaissance with the beginning of the modern age, it is not surprising
that there is such e*tensive debate over the precise point of transition
between the periods. $t the heart of the discussion was Qand still is@ the
very concept of the 4enaissance, for it is according to a particular
concept of the 4enaissance that the suggested transition dates stand and
fall. ($fter the threshold of the new age had been lin!ed for a long time
Qand unalterably, as it seemed, to the age of the great discoveries around
8:33@, there finally emerged in history and literary studies a genteel
.revolt of the medievalists,. helped along by constant research into
specific details, which was directed against the antithetical separation of
the two ages. DRch that is generally seen as characteri&ing the
4enaissance can already be seen in the late Diddle $ges, and li!ewise
some medieval phenomena could be pursued far
8L
Enguerrand Xuarton
Coronation ofthe >ir'in, 8C:; "ainting on
wood, height 82; cm 6illeneuvel%s$vignon,
Dus%e de l.?ospice
into the modern age... )o today we understand by the threshold of the
modern age not so much a sharp dividing line around 8:33, but rather a
gradual transition which too! place between the outside dates of 8;33 and
8L33( Q+orbert +ussbaum, 8<<C@.
$rt history can also provide convincing ob/ections to the idea of a clear
dividing line between the Diddle $ges and the 4enaissance. $ century
passed before Gothic established itself as a style across the whole of
Europe0 it was a gradual process. The same could be argued for the end of
the Diddle $ges. Features which are today considered characteristic of the
4enaissance are already heralded here and there in late medieval art,
sometimes in isolation, earlier in some regions, later in others. In
Germany, where 4enaissance art developed e*ceptionally late and not
nearly as distinctively as in Italy, the Gothic art of the Diddle $ges lived
on into the 8Lth century. E#ually, the depictions of architecture
suggesting spatial depth in the wor!s of Giotto, widely seen as a seminal
figure in the development of the 4enaissance, do not ma!e him a
(4enaissance( artist. Even Han van Eyc!, for all that is new in his painting,
does not immediately leave all traces of the Diddle $ges behind. It was
with good reason that the >utch historian Hohan ?ui&inga, in his great
cultural and historical wor! #he $anin' of the /iddle A'es Q8<8<@,
challenged the overhasty classification as (4enaissance( everything in
late medieval art
that showed signs of novelty. In his essay (The "roblem of the
4enaissance( Q8<93@ ?ui&inga outlined the development of the
4enaissance way of thin!ing from 6asari to 6oltaire, Dichelet,
'urc!hardt, and others, concluding that (the contrast between the Diddle
$ges and the 4enaissance, still a basic postGlate, was not sufficiently
defined.( Ariters and scholars, he argued, had based themselves again and
again on a vague conception of medieval culture and had referred to this
as a crude contrasting bac!drop to the 4enaissance. The concept of the
4enaissance, identified with individualism and worldliness, was finally
e*hausted by an all too broad e*tensin of its meaning7 (There was not a
single cultural phenomenon of the Diddle $ges that did not fall under the
concept of the 4enaissance in at least one of its aspects.(
5ne of these aspects, in the sculpture and painting of the closing years
of the 8Cth and 8:th centuries, is the realism that is often seen as the
hallmar! of 4enaissance art. Flemish realism, for e*ample, was
emphasi&ed in 8<3: by the 'elgian art historian Gevaert as the principal
characteristic of the 4enaissance in the north. This emphasis appeared
again more recently in ?einrich =lot&.s #he Style of the ?e@ Q8<<1@. For
=lot&, the 4enaissance began in >i/on in 'urgundy7 (The first great
monument of the early 4enaissance is the sculpture portal of the
-arthusian monastery of -hampmol. The wor! created by -laus )luter
was so incisively new that its date, 8;<38C33, seems hardly credible.(
+evertheless, )luter.s sculptured portal has been included in the present
volume Qsee page ;93@, alongside other wor!s which some art historians
ascribe to the early 4enaissance. This is e#ually the case with the paintings
of Hean Fou#uet, +icol,s Froment, Han van Eyc!, and early +etherlandish
painters up to ?ieronymus 'osch. Fi!e the Coronation of the >ir'in by
Enguerrand Xuarton Qsee left@, they are regarded here as wor!s on the
threshold between Gothic and 4enaissance.
Xuarton, in the mar!edly different scale of his figures, shows himself
to be clearly indebted to the Diddle $ges. 5n the other hand, in his
details, such as in the small figures of the /udgment scene at the lower
edge of the picture, and in the views of the town, we can detect a !een
pleasure in realistic representation that ma!es it entirely appropriate to
present his wor! again in a forthcoming boo! on the +orthern European
4enaissance, to be published in this series.
81
"ablo de la 4iestra
Elements of 4eligious and
)ecular Gothic $rchitecture
'aslica
The baslica type of church is constructed with
a nave and at least two side aisles, the nave and
aisles being separated by arcades. The nave is
higher than the aisles so that it can be lit by its
own source of light, the clerestory. If a high
nave is not lit with upper windows in this way,
the church is referred to as a pseudobasilica.
The considerable height of the Gothic basilica
nave is as a rule supported on the outside by
buttressing Q4eims@, though not always
QDagdeburg@. 'asilicas can have up to si*
aisles Q$ntwerp@.
Triforiu
m
-leresto
ry
)tairs
"ier
buttress
Flying
buttress
4idge
turret
-hoir
polygon
-ross
section
-rosssection of
basilica with
buttressing
Q4eims@
-rosssection of
basilica without
buttressing
QDagdeburg@
#$
-utaway of
basilica
Twocelled church Qhall
construction@,
Q+uremberg, )t. =lara@
The singleaisle church is a noncentrally
planned singlespace church
-rosssection of hall church
Ha"" Curc
This type of church has aisles that are as high,
or nearly as high, as the nave. The hall church
usually has a nave and two aisles, the nave
receiving its light indirectly from large
windows in the aisle walls. If the nave is
higher than the side aisles, the church is
referred to as a stepped hall church. ?all
churches can have as many as two aisles on
each side of the nave Q)t. "eter.s, FRbec!@.
)ince the aisles support one another, there is
no need for e*ternal buttresses.
#%
-utaway of hall church
Centra""& '"anned Curc In contrast to
basilicas and hall churches, which are
constructed along a hori&ontal a*is, centrally
planned churches are designed around a single
central point. -entrally planned churches are
round or polygonal Qfrom he*agonal to any
number of angles@. $ church built on a Gree!
cross plan Qwith four e#ual arms@ is also
considered to be centrally planned.
-hoir
4otunda
$mbulatory
Curc

Facade
QDarbu
rg, )t.
Elisabe
th@
$r
chivolt
+orthwest tower
Hamb
'lind window
)outhwest tower
%&
Aeather vane )pire
Gable
"innacle
Aaterspout 5ffset Dain gable
Tracery parapet
Tracery window
"ier buttress
5ffset
'ase
)acristy
(#
+orthwest view
QDarburg, )t. Elisabeth@
)outh
transept
O )piral
stairs
?alf
decagon
Tracery parapet
Y 5ffset
Gallery
-hoir
Qhere triconchform@
Gallery
"latform
+orth
transept
)au"t
$ vault is a curved ceiling or roof made of
stone or bric!. In Gothic architecture ribs were
used in place of roof hips. The ribs can be part
of the loadbearing structure or purely
decorative. In terms of their form, a distinction
is made between cross rib and reticulated or
stellar vaults Qsee below@.
-ross Qor diagonal@ rib Aall
arch Transverse arch
=eystone
$rcade or wave arch
4espond
-rosssection
'ay
The height of the pointed arch can be !ept
constant at various widths
9

; a Z b
*
"
c
8
4etic
ulate
d
vault
a@
Eleva
tion
b@
"lan
9
)
t
e
l
l
a
r

v
a
u
l
t

a
@

E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
;
)tella
r
vault
Qwoo
den@
Q$rr,
b@ "lan
s
a
%%
: a Z b
L a Z b 1a Z b
C -ell vault
a@ Elevation b@ "lan
: Kmbrella vault
a@ Elevation b@ "lan
L ?anging !eystone
a@ Early Gothic b@ Fate Gothic
1 >ome vault
a@ Elevation b@ "lan
T
r
T
r
-r
ow
n
8;
th
ce
nt
ur
y
1
4
-
u
23
4ose window
)pherical #uadrangle
cusp
"innacle
>ecorative Elements
Tabernacle
Qbelow pinnacle@
'ranch tracery
*+,S
1) Aallpassage
2) )houldered
arch Qtypical arch
shape of a wall
passage@
)
t
o
n
e

)
p
i
r
e
s

8

a
n
d

9

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r
a
c
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y

s
p
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e

8

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w
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h
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r
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e
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p
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-orbel

w
i
t
h

(
c
r
o
w
.
s

n
e
s
t
(
A
a
t
e
r
s
p
o
u
t

a
@

F
o
n
g
i
t
u
d
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n
a
l

c
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
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o
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a

p
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r

b
u
t
t
r
e
s
s

b
@

G
a
r
g
o
y
l
e
%'
Aooden )pires
Qwith associated gables@
3) 5ctagonal spire on four
triangular gables
4) 5ctagonal needle spire on
four triangular Qoffset@ gables
5) 5ctagonal spire on three
inverted triangle and four
trape&oids
6) 5ctagonal spire on four
trape&oid gables
7) 5ctagonal spire with four
crner spirelets
8) Twisted octagonal spire
9) 5ctagonal spire with
onion dome
10) Aooden structure of a
spire
(
-
4ood )creen and -hoir )creen The rood
screen is a dividing wall between the choir
and the nave, its purpose being to
sep,rate the mon!s and clergy in the
choir from the laity in the nave. In many
cases the rood screen is e*tended by
arcades placed in front of it so that a low
(transverse building( arises in front of the
presbytery. 'elow rood screens there are
sometimes altars. The top of the rood
screens could serve as a platform, for
singers for e*ample, usually set behind a
tracery parapet.
-hoir screens are low walls that
sep,rate the choir from the ambulatory. In
polygonal choir screens these walls are
occasionally pierced or even constructed
with railings.
-hoir screen
4ood [
O
(.
^
Timberframe
-onstruction
'race
=ey for '
)ill
"ost
Infill plan!
'reast rail
'race
-ross timber
'rac!et ?ead rail
Framing post
Transverse gable
>ormer window
)tone plinth
c
r
r
r
^
n
m
rivj
iv
|
-ollar beam 4after
)uspended gable
-ross
rail
Framing
"yramid roof
structure
4after
Eaves board
Floor beam
$butment
piece
( $ngle brace
sz
EE\ a( =99
Q
-
'runo =lein
The 'eginnings of Gothic
$rchitecture in France and its
+eighbors
Te 'o"itica" and Arcitectura" Bac/ground
It can be argued that the foundation stone of Gothic architecture was
laid on Huly 8C, 88C3. For it was on that day, a few !ilometers to the
north of "aris, that the rebuilding of the choir of the 'enedictine church
of )t.>enis was begun at the instigation of $bbot )uger. $ wor! of the
highest artistic achievement, the choir harmoniously integrates the
elements and motifs we now consider characteristically Gothic, and
thus effectively established the basis for the emergence of the style. The
choir.s importance in this respect is undisputed. 'ut the building of the
choir should not be seen in isolation. It was part of social, political, and
philosophical developments that had begun several decades earlier.
Doreover, it owes its preeminence in architectural history to the energy
and s!ills of its patrn, $bbot )uger of )t.>enis Qca. 832888:8@, the
man whose remar!able ambition and visin led to its creation.
In considering the significance of )t.>enis it is necessary to bear in
mind two important historical factors. First, since the l5th century this
regin of northern France had, li!e others, witnessed a gradual
improvement in trade and commerce which led to a steady growth in
both population and prosperity. )econd, by the time )t.>enis was
begun, in the early part of the 89th century, the French monarchy, at
least within the 4oyal >omain around "aris, had become far more
secure. $ friend and advisor to both Fouis 6I Q8832;1@ and Fouis 6II
Q88;123@, $bbot )uger played a decisive role in this consolidation of
royal power. This allowed him to reclaim, either through negotiation or
through forc%, the monastic lands that had been appropriated by local
barons. It was when he had accomplished this, as he writes in his own
record of his achievements, $ork Done 6nder *is Ad&inistration, that
the abbot began to restore the abbey church. This church not only
formed the center of the monastery and its estates, but also, as we shall
see, played a !ey role in the establishment of the French monarchy.
It is important to remember that the rebuilding of the choir of )t.
>enis would never have become so significant in the history of
architecture had it not drawn upon the recent architectural innovations
in the IledeFrance, the regin around "aris controlled directly by the
monarchy. $dmittedly the 4omanes#ue architecture of the regin was
not as rich and varied as that of 'urgundy or +ormandy, but neverthe
less during the second #uarter of the 89th century new and distinctive
architectural trends had begun to emerge. )uger himself had already
started a new fa]ade for the western end of the church of )t.>enis.
Though not strictly Gothic, this fagade fits perfectly into the conte*t of
architectural renovations ta!ing place at the time in "aris and the
surrounding ,reas. )o the choir of )t.>enis should be seen not as the
entirely novel starting point of Gothic, but rather as the ma/or catalyst
for a movement that had begun a few years earlier.
This can clearly be seen in the use of rib vaults, which were to
become one of the most important features of Gothic architecture. The
technical and aesthetic possibilities of this vaulting system
($
)t.GermerdeFly Q5ise@, former
'enedictine abbey church, second
third of 89th century E*terior from
the southeast Qbelow@ -hoir
Qbottom@
appear to have been recogni&ed shortly after 8833 in several parts of Europe, notably in north Italy, in )peyer in the Kpper 4hine, and also in >urham in
England, from where it found its way into +ormandy. The architects of the IledeFrance learned of it there and used it around 88C3, for e*ample in the
church of )t.Ntienne in 'eauvais, on the border with +ormandy. $t about the same time the interior space immediately behind the facade of the -luniac
priory at )t.Feud.Esserent on the 5ise was given rib vaults. $nd in the abbey church of +otre>ame in Dorienval, which was probably renovated
shortly after the reception of the relies of )t. $nnobertus in 8899, this new style of vaulting was installed in a particularly original way. ?ere the e*terior
wall of the apse is split into two layers, between which is a narrow space spanned by rib vaults. This space is much too narrow to form a lin!ed choir and
ambulatory, li!e the later one in )t.>enis. Dodeled on the doublelayered wall of a +orman apse, this split wall may well have been constructed simply
to strengthen the apse, which stands on sloping ground. Ahatever the reason, the important point is that even before )t.>enis was built there had been
e*periments with ribvaulted choirs. This is significant because it shows that builders in the IledeFrance were more willing to e*periment than builders
in +ormandy, where until that time rib vaults had been constructed e*clusively for rectangular ,reas. The use of rib vaults in choirs with comple* ground
plans and irregular bays opened up undreamedof possibilities in the articulation of architectural space.
$n early e*ample of this can be seen in the 'enedictine abbey church of )t.GermerdeFly, on the border between the IledeFrance and +ormandy.
In 88;9 the mon!s had succeeded in regaining the relies of )t. Germarus, an event that led to an increase in the number of pilgrims visiting the church,
and that even moved the English !ing, ?enry I, to dnate timber for the building wor!. >uring this period the power of the local barons was being
curtailed by the French !ings, who thereby strengthened not only their position, but also that of abbeys li!e )t.Germer, which had large ,reas of land at
their disposal. 'y the 89;3s therefore, the 'enedictines of )t.Germer felt confident enough to have their church magnificently restored. They built a
galleried basilica that has a nave with two side aisles, an aisleless transept, and a choir with an ambulatory and radiating chap%is Qsee right@. The e*terior
of the buildings boasts no lavish decoration, yet the overall architectural conception is all the more subtle for that. )ometimes lin!ed and sometimes
sep,rate, the stories have their own individual character, a character determined mainly by the relationship between window and walls and by the
different !inds of buttresses. The radiating chap%is, with their rhythmic succession of closely aligned windows, clearly dictate the motifs of the ne*t
story7 the smaller windows reappear in the gallery story, the larger ones in the nave. The result is that light streams onto the high altar both from the sides
and from above, and the e*tensive choir, with its tight aureole of chap%is, confirms the belief that a religious service held here should be celebrated with
great solemnity.
9<
"aris, former -luniac priory
of )t.Dartindes-hamps, before the mid
89th century
-hoir Qleft@
$mbulatory Qright@
)t.Dartindes-hamps, Ground plan Qtop@ Elevation of choir Qabove@
The interior demonstrates more clearly than the e*terior /ust how
much this building is indebted to the architecture of nearby +ormandy.
Dotifs such as the &ig&ag arches in the arcades, the continuous shafts,
and the rib vaulting clearly derive from there. Vet no church in
+ormandy at this period would have displayed such a sharp contrast
between the boldly protruding clusters of shafts and the deeply recessed
wall between them, or between the supporting framewor! and the panel
walls. ?ere and there it seems as if the master builder responsible was
handing this contrast almost playfully. The profiles of the arcade arches,
which are part of the wall, seem to disappear behind the shafts, and the
open passage in front of the clerestory indicates that the wall there has
been reduced to a thin membrane. There are passages in the same
position in 4omanes#ue +ormandy, but they are always situated inside
an e*tremely thic! wall, never in front of it, open to the air.
The calculated play of opposing shapes can also be seen at many
other points in )t.GermerdeFly, for instance in the arcade arches of
the apse, where a round profile appears to stretch between &ig&ag
curtains, or in the clerestory, where roundarched windows are set in
niches with pointed arches. Ta!en as a whole, then, the architecture of
this church demonstrates a newfound freedom in the use of the
traditional repertoire of forms. Indeed, the innovative way in which this
repertoire is handled suggests that the master builder consciously
distanced himself from it in order to cr%ate something completely new.
This striving for innovation, this willingness to e*periment, is
characteristic of the beginnings of Gothic.
$part from the buildings already mentioned, which all lie to the
north of "aris, the architecture of the capital city itself was also
responding to these new ideas. This can be seen, for e*ample, in the
choir of the important -luniac church of )t.Dartindes-hamps Qsee
above@, which was begun under "rior ?ugo, who held office between
88;3 and 88C9. $t first sight the ground plan of )t.Dartindes-hamps
is difficult to understand, since it lac!s any symmetry or clear
geometrical structure. There was an attempt to combine two different
forms, a choir with diagonally arranged chap%is whose apses increase in
length, and a choir with an ambulatory. Thus this building consists of a
semicircular apse surrounded by an irregular ambulatory with a
succession of chap%is. These, on the south side at least, protrude in
telescopic fashion farther and farther eastwards, and in so doing seem to
overlap. The chap%is are arranged not around a common central a*is, as
was usual, but staggered one behind the other in a parallel line. This
pattern, which was started on the south side, was meant to be carried out
on the north side as well but there radiating chap%is were constructed
instead and the symmetry of the building was destroyed.
$ glance at the vaults indicates that this choir was designed to be
longitudinal rather than centrali&ed. 4ib vaults, which always mar! the
most important ,reas, are found only along the central a*is over the
inner choir, over the a*ial chapel, and over the bays between them. The
remaining ,reas are spanned by groin vaults or domes. The a*ial chapel
is also given special consideration. It is bigger than
)&
)t.>enis Q)eine)t.>enis@,
former 'enedictine abbey church
Aestwor!, before 88C3
all the rest and its e*ternal walls spread out to ma!e a cloverleaf
ground plan. Inside, this chapel loo!s li!e a domed room with a modern
rib vault, though the rib vaulting is used for decorative rather than
structural reasons. ?ere the technical possibilities of the vaulting
system remain almost deliberately une*ploited, for the windows do not,
as at )t.GermerdeFly, stand up high in the vault webs, so that they
almost disappear into the vaulting. Instead, situated lower down, they
encircle the chapel li!e a uniform ribbon of light underneath the huge
web of the vault. 'oth )t.Germer and )t.Dartin show a greater
emphasis on the windows, with the walls between the windows and the
wall supports beginning, as it were, to dissolve. In )t.Dartin the
windows, along with their deeply profiled surrounds, are arranged li!e
pieces of /ewelry midway between the base of the wall and the vault.
$ll in all then, in )t.Dartin there is no uniform design, but an
enrichment of the repertoire of forms through the accentuation of one
single motif, the window. $nd as at )t.GermerdeFly, it was through
the choir once again that the desire for innovation was e*pressed, the
highest architectural subtlety achieved.
The abbey church of )t."ierredeDontmartre in "aris, probably
rebuilt after the conversin of the monastery into a 'enedictine convent
in 88;;, still demonstrates, in spite of considerable later alterations, the
separation of loadbearing piers and thin (s!eletoni&ed( walls that was
very modern at the time. Even so, the building is less important
architecturally than politically. For )t."ierre stands on (Dartyrs.
Dount( QDontmartre@, on which, according to legend, )t. >ionysius
Q>enis@ and his companions were e*ecuted. Thus the building became
the martyrium of )t. >ionysius, one of the places which, for the
medieval mind, was the site of an important event in the story of
salvation. $delaide, the wife of =ing Fouis 6I, wished it to be her last
resting place. This decisin was the real reason for the reform of the
monastery and the rebuilding of the church. In this she was following
the e*ample of her husband.s family, for French !ings were
traditionally buried at >ionysius. burial place, the abbey church of )t.
>enis. >ionysius was the patrn saint of the -apetians, the French
royal family. This development, which the -hurch was forced to accept
from 88;; at the place of his martyrdom, was something it could not
refuse to accept at his grave only a little later.
Inno0ation Troug )ariation: The 1renc 2onarc&3 St.-Denis3 and
Abbot Suger
In the early 89th century the French !ings were, compared to other
rulers, at best only moderately important. Their inherited lands, more
over, were surrounded by the territories of much more powerful French
rulers. They were distinguished, however, by their grandiose ambitions7
they saw themselves as the rulers of all France, their claim based on
their inheritance of the imperial authority of -harlemagne who had
been crowned Fran!ish !ing in )t.>enis in 1:C. ?is grandson,
Emperor -harles the 'ald, was later buried there. Hust how important
the maintenance of this -arolingian tradition was is clearly
shown in $bbot )uger.s decisin to begin the renovation of )t.>enis
with the restoration of the memorial to -harles the 'ald. It was not only
the French and Derovingian !ings who were buried there7 )t.>enis
also housed the tomb of the patrn saint of France, >ionysius Q>enis@.
>uring the Diddle $ges this supposed first bishop of "aris was
confused with >ionysius the $reopagite, a follower of the apostle "aGl,
to whom the e*tremely important writings of "seudo>ionysius
Qprobably written in )yria about :33 $>@ were attributed. It was in
these influential writings that the theory of celestial hierarchies was
e*pounded, according to which a !ing was to be seen as God.s
representative on Earth. For the advocates of this theory the restoration
of royaW power was not an end in itself, but an integral part of God.s
divine plan of salvation, in which the !ings of France had an important
role to play. Hust how cise a lin! was sought between sacred tradition
and the French monarchy at this time became clear when at the
dedication of )uger.s new choir Fouis 6II himself carried the remains
of )t. >ionysius from the od crypt to the new upper choir.
;8
5""5)ITE7
)t.>enis Q)eine)t.>enis@,
former 'enedictine abbey church
$mbulatory, 88C3CC
The
abbey
church of
)t.>enis
therefore
played a
comple*
and
important
role for the
French
monarchy
in terms of
national
policy. The
architectur
e of the
church was
an
e*pression
of the two
ideolog
ical
strategies
pursued for
the
restoration
of the
monarchy
in the 89th
century.
The first
involved
reaffirming
ancient
traditions
in order for
the French
monarchs
to establish
themselves
as direct
descendant
s of the
legitmate
royal
house, and
prove
themselves
worthy
successors
of that line.
The second
involved
introducing
new ideas
in order to
supercede
the events
of the
immediate
past. In
other
words, the
new
Qpolitically
and
architectur
ally@ was
seen as a
means of
ac!nowl
edging and
restoring
the past.
Gothic
architectur
e, as it
began at
)t.>enis,
was to
provide a
tangible
e*pression
of this
concept.
)uger
did not
rebuild the
whole of
his abbey
church at
once. ?e
started with
the
westwor!
Qsee page
;8@.
Though
this
suffered
consid
erably in
the 82th
and 8<th
centuries
Qthe north
tower had
to be
demolished
after being
unsuccessf
ully
restored@, it
still bears
witness to
the feeling
of a new
departure
in the
88;3s. It
stands on a
ground
plan two
bays deep
and three
bays wide.
Its three
new port,is
provide an
easy
entrance
into the od
church, and
in addition
conceal
several
chap%is
deep in its
upper
stories.
This new
front, the
narthe* of
which is
fitted with
thic!
clustered
piers and a
newstyle
cross
ribbed
vault, gives
the clear
impression
from the
outside that
its
architectur
e was seen
as
symbolic.
Aith
battlements
topping the
facade,
which is
given
rhythmic
and
sculptural
emphasis
by mighty
buttresses,
the
building
loo!s as if
it could be
a triumphal
gate or a
castle. It
can be read
both as a
clear
e*pression
of the
worldly
power of
the abbot
of )t.
>enis, and
as a
triumphant
symbol of
the newly
strengthene
d
monarchy.
The rich
sculptural
decoration
of the
port,is,
together
with the
original
bron&e
doors
provided
by )uger
himself,
e*planator
y
inscriptions
, and the
constantly
reappearin
g motif of
the number
three on
the wall of
the facade,
ma!e this
westwor!
the portal
of the
?eavenly
Herusalem.
'roadly
similar
features
can be seen
on the od
facade of
the abbey
of )t.
Ntienne in
-aen, the
burial
place of
the du!es
of
+ormandy
and of the
English
!ing
Ailliam
the
-on#ueror,
whose
successors
were the
chief
enemies of
the French
monarchy.
'ut at )t.
>enis this
older style
is
surpassed
both as
architectur
e and as
symbolism
. )uger.s
new west
facade was
more than
/ust an
improveme
nt of a
+orman
model0 it
was also a
recreation
of a
-arolingia
n
westwor!,
by means
of which
an
important
local
tradition
was
ac!nowled
ged.
Even
before the
completion
of this west
end, )uger
felt
(carried
away( Qto
use his
own
words@ to
start wor!
on the
restoration
of the choir
of his
church.
This he
was able to
reali&e in
the very
short space
of time of
88C3 to
88CC Qsee
opposite@.
The direct
symbolic
references
are less
evident
here than
in the
facade, but
on the
other hand
the
architectur
e is of a far
higher
#uality. If
the new
crypt and
ambu
latory,
within
which the
crypt of the
earlier
building is
enclosed,
still
display
simple
4omanes#
ue shapes,
then the
new choir
above
them is so
highly
filigreed
that the
upper parts
threatened
to collapse
in 89;8
and had to
be
replaced.
There is
hardly any
wall
surface to
be seen in
the
ambulatory
, where
slender
columns
bear the
weight of
the vaults.
'y
contrast,
the ,rea
occupied
by the
windows,
which
reach
almost to
the floor, is
all the
larger,
flooding
the ,rea
with ^ght.
Instead of
the earlier
simple
ambulatory
there is
now a
double
ambulatory
in which
both aisles
are
separated
by elegant
monolithic
columns
that
support the
rib vault as
if it were
weightless.
The vaults
of the outer
ambulatory
are
integrated
into the
chapel
vaults, so
that a
single,
unified
space is
created.
The
elements
used in this
choir, such
as the
'urgundia
n pointed
arches and
the
+orman
rib
vaulting,
are not
new. Ahat
is so
stri!ing is
their
combinatio
n. )uger
and his
un!nown
architect
used them
in order to
cr%ate a
sanctuary
that is the
crowning
glory of
the whole
church, a
sanctuary
that spo!e
as
forcefully
to the
simple,
uneducated
visitor as it
did to the
abbot, who
could bring
to it a
sophisticat
ed alle
gorical
interpretati
on. The
fact that
$bbot
)uger had
wanted to
bring
ancient
columns
from 4ome
to build his
new choir,
which
ad/oined
an od nave
that
according
to tradition
had been
dedicated
by -hrist
himself,
allows us
to see the
beginnings
of Gothic
architectur
e, a style
widely
regarded as
new and
non
classical,
in a new
^ght, as an
attempt to
restore
older
traditions.
$t the
same time,
the new
choir and
facade had
to
contribute
to the
contempor
ary
relevance
of the
historie
nave.
)olely in
terms of
political
intention,
the od and
the new
mutually
strengthene
d one
another
and, in the
words of
the abbot,
(were
brought
together
into one
greater
unified
whole.(
In
carrying
through his
plans for
the
rebuilding
of )t.
>enis, it is
clear that
$bbot
)uger drew
upon
classical
theories of
rhetoric in
which he
found both
theoretical
/ustificatio
n and
practical
implica
tions for
his
rebuilding.
Thus
,ariatio
Qvariety@,
one of the
basic s!ills
of rhetoric,
was
achieved
through
combining
different
building
parts. The
theory that
there are
different
styles
appropriate
for
different
sub/eets
could have
been a
stimulus
for the
difference
in styles
between
the crypt
underneath
and the
choir
above.
)imilarly,
aetnu!latio
Qemulation
@ was
understood
to involve
the
creation of
something
new from
some
highly
respected
model
from the
past Qin
this case
the od
nave of )t.
>enis with
its
columns@,
a worthy
e*emplar
that
provided
the
measure of
the new.
The
Gothic
architectur
e of )t.
>enis was
not simply
a
developme
nt of
4omanes#
ue. It was,
rather, the
result of
ambitious
attempts to
cr%ate
something
new
through a
critical
e*aminatio
n of the
past.
$dmittedly
the
innovative
architectur
e of the
88;3s was
a
preconditio
n for these
developme
nts. Vet the
abbey of
)t.>enis
alone, so
important
for the
French
!ings, and
dominated
by the
intelligent
and
energetic
$bbot
)uger, was
the place
where all
the
conditions
seem to
have been
met for
ta!ing the
decisive
step in the
creation of
the Gothic
style.
$rchitectur
e in the
French
"rovinces
The
practice of
combining
the od and
new in
architectur
e was of
course
much
older. Fi!e
$bbot
)uger,
-arolingia
n and
5ttonian
builders
had
already
made use
of classical
architectur
al in their
buildings.
In
)%
addition, among religious buildings almost contemporary with the
newly built sections of )t.>enis there were several that also used
modern +orman rib vaulting. The cathedral of )t.Daurice in $ngers
Qsee above@ was renovated in this way under 'ishop Dormand de >ou%
Q88C<:;@. Its internal walls remained the same but disappeared almost
completely behind new blind arcades that have pointed arches and huge
piers. ?ere the vaults stretch over mighty transverse arches and
diagonal ribs that rise up so high that the !eystone does not lie at the
same height as the ape*es of the transverse and blind arches, as was
usual, but considerably above them. )o the od type of aisleless church,
widely !nown in southwest France, with rows of domes set one behind
the other, was transformed into a ribvaulted frame with bays in the
+orman style. 5ne could argRe whether this is enough to ma!e $ngers
a truly Gothic building, particularly as its basic structure remains
traditional. 'ut the issue of how to categori&e the cathedral stylistically
is less important than the
5""5)ITE7
Fe Dans Q)arthe@,
-athedral of )t.Hulien,
+ave wall, late 8 lth century and vault,
ca. 88;1:2
fact that it was in $ngers, in the middle of the 89th century, that the
religious architecture of the regin began to e*periment with rib
vaulting, a form previously un!nown there. It was no coincidence that
this too! place against the political bac!ground of the unification of
Toulouse in the south of France and +ormandy on the -hannel through
the marriage in 88:9 of Eleanor of $#uitaine and ?enry "lantagenet of
$ngers.
$t )t.>enis and $ngers the od and the new were boldly /u*ta
posed. In various forms of regional architecture, by contrast, they were
combined in such a way that the reuse of the od alongside the new was
almost impossible to detect. In the cathedral of Fe Dans, also situated
in "lantagenet territory, a third way was followed. ?ere there was an
attempt to int%grate the od into the new in a way that was at once
visible but not too bold Qsee opposite@.
5riginally built in the late llth century with a fat roof, the church
had burnt down several times, the last time being in 88;1, when it was
decided to vault the nave in stone. In the course of this wor! the whole
clerestory of the nave was rebuilt, while the od arcade ,rea below was
largely left alone as it carried the weight of the e*isting aisle vaults. The
uniformity of the row of arches was destroyed by the installation of the
new responds to support the nave vault, for these heavy responds rise
from every second columnar pier. The remaining piers were also
renewed, but largely in their original form. Ae can clearly see above the
new, pointed, rhythmic arcade the od round arches still running along
the wall, behind the new piers. $ slight difference in the color of the
stone emphasi&es the contrast between the older and the newer parts.
The building of a stone vault to withstand fire does not in itself
e*plain why such an e*pense was incurred at Fe Dans. Totally
demolishing the od parts of the central nave would certainly have been
cheaper than the technically complicated approach of retaining the
arcade where the piers were replaced. This leads us to suppose that at
Fe Dans they did not want to remove the evidence of restoration, but,
on the contrary, almost wanted to display it in order to ma!e the history
of the building more evident and comprehensible. The solution is
intelligent and aesthetically convincing. If we loo! upwards along the
length of the nave from the side aisles, we see a cathedral that has
ac#uired a more modern appearance. The huge canopyli!e rib vaulting
installed, perfectly supported by its new piers, is a symbol of
architectural lu*ury, as are the blind triforium and the deep windows
with their many columns. The reason for this considerable e*travagance
could be that for the princes of the house of "lantagenet the cathedral of
Fe DansOli!e )t.>enis for the French !ingsOwas to become a
dynastic monument. $mong its most important supporters was =ing
?enry II of England, who had been bapti&ed in this cathedral in 88;;.
?is parents, Datilda, heir to the English throne, and Geoffrey
"lantagenet, -ount of $n/ou and founder of the house of "lantagenet,
had married there in 8892, and it was there, in 88:8, that Geoffrey had
been buried. In 88:9, as we
)'
have already seen, ?enry married Eleanor of $#uitaine, the divorced
wife of the French !ing Fouis 6II, which made the "lantagenets the
greatest territorial lords in France. Two years later, in 88:C, ?enry
could finally ascend the English throne. $ll this happened during the
years when the cathedral of Fe Dans was being rebuilt Qit was
finishedin 88:2@.
Thus Fe Dans, li!e )t.>enis, shows that the architectural traces of
the past could be considered valuable, and that reviving the past could
cr%ate new perspectives for the future. The comparison of the two
buildings also e*plains why )t.>enis would subse#uently become the
more attractive of the two. For apart from the fact that it was easier to
e*tend the e*isting parts of )t.>enis than it was to carry out the
restoration wor! at Fe Dans, the choir of )ti>enis did not have the
enormously thic! walls Fe Dans had. This meant that it was easier for
$bbot )uger and his architect to use the columnar piers
of the od nave as a motif for the new building. In other words the
character of the new choir of )t.>enis was determined solely by
slender elements such as columns, shafts, and ribs. In the restoration of
Fe Dans, by contrast, the massive 4omanes#ue walls were the starting
point for the innovations, so that everything became even more heavy
and massive.
Te I4!act of St.-Denis
In the early 88:3s, not long after the choir of )t.>enis had been
completed, the little cathedral of )enlis, also to the north of "aris, was
begun Qsee page ;L@. Its style clearly shows the influence of the
innovations at )t.>enis. Though the interior, which has been rebuilt
several times after being gutted by fire, is now overwhelmingly in the
Fate Gothic style, the building still possesses its original ambulatory
and choir with monolithic columns and radiating chap%is. Its ground
;:
plan clearly reve,is a style founded upon that of )t.>enis, even if the
chap%is are sep,rate and not merged with the vaults of the ambulatory.
$lthough this cathedral was constructed in one stage, its creators did
not ta!e the opportunity to build a more modern facade, one which
would stylistically match the choir. Instead they built a copy of the west
fagade of )t.>enis. )o the west end of )enlis is two bays deep, /ust as
if it ought to be /oined to an older nave, as at )t.>enis. In other words,
the cathedral of )enlis, though a completely new building, simply
adopts some of the /u*tapositions of different styles found at )t.>enis,
even though at )t.>enis these had been the result of a changing
approach to the building.s design.
$t about this time the 'enedictines of the abbey of )t.Germaindes
"r%s in "aris rebuilt their church. The llthcentury nave was retained, as
was the od west tower, though this was given a modern sculptured
portal. $s at )t.>enis, at )t.Germaindes"r%s only the choir with its
radiating chap%is was completely rebuilt Qsee opposite, left and top
right@0 this was consecrated by "ope $le*ander III in 88L;. In the apse,
instead of the normal slender monolithic piers,
;L
)enlis Q5ise@, former
-athedral of +otre>ame,
ca. 88:8<8 Ground plan
Qright@
sturdy columns with tall capitals were used. -lassical in their propor
tions, they had both an aesthetic and a practical function, being usable
in all parts of the inner choir. This meant that there was no longer the
aw!ward gap between the structure of the straight side walls and the
rounded apse of the choir. In addition, this stylistic unity of the choir is
strengthened by identical clusters of tall responds that stretch from the
piers to the vaults. 'ecause of this unity, visitors often fail to notice that
the outside responds in the choir.s apse and on the straight walls support
#uite different arches and ribs0 they see only the harmony and structural
logic of the choir, which at the time must have made a highly effective
contrast with the roof of the nave, which was still fat.
The inside elevation of the choir of )t.Germaindes"r%s has three
stories7 in contrast with the twostoried nave, it was given an e*tra
story, the triforium. The triforium arches were sacrificed in the 8;th
century when the clerestory windows were lengthened in order to ma!e
the church lighter. This modification can still be seen on the e*terior
because the roof above the side aisle is flatter today than it was
originally, so that now the od lower sill of the window /ambs appears
to hang in the middle of the wall. The flying buttresses were never
changed, however, so that )t.Germaindes"r%s today possesses the
oldest surviving flying buttresses on a Gothic church.
The interior of the building also shows how well the architect was
able to give formal e*pression to the significance of different parts of
the church. If the walls of the side aisle are still largely smooth and
fitted only with roundarched windows, then the windows of the choir.s
chap%is have pointed arches, which are then emphasi&ed in the
clerestory by responds and decorated archivolts. )imilarly, there is a
gradation in the si&e in different parts of the church. Therefore even in
"aris itself, as in )t.>enis, the rhetorical theory of different styles
appropriate for different sub/ects must have been ta!en into considera
tion. In fact )t.Germaindes"r%s cannot be understood at all if it is not
seen as a reflection of )t.>enis. For here too the fact that only parts of
the church were rebuilt can hardly be put down to mere thriftiness, but
must be seen as part of a wellthoughtout underta!ing. $t that time the
monastery was trying, alongside )t.>enis, to assert itself as the
traditional royal burial place by renewing the memorial foundations and
gravestones of the Derovingian !ings who were buried there.
Tradition and Innovation in the -hurches of 4eims
It was clearly in those buildings that had cise lin!s with the French
monarchy that there was a characteristic merging of od and new. This
is well illustrated by the cathedral of 4eims, in which the French !ings
were crowned and anointed. There too an od nave had been provided
with both a facade and a choir in the new style. Knfortunately nothing
remains of this today for the cathedral was replaced in the 8;th century
by a completely new building.
'y contrast, the abbey church of )t.4emi in 4eims, despite being
badly damaged during Aorld Aar I, is still one of the most impressive
'EF5A $+> T5" 4IG?T7 '5TT5D 4IG?T7
"aris Q)eine@, former 'enedictine 4eims QDarne@, former 'enedictine
abbey church of )t.Germaindes"r%s abbey church of )t.4emi
-hoir, dedicated in 88L; -hoir, begun under "ierre de -elles
Qabbot 88L829@
e*amples of this characteristic
combination of architectural
styles from different ages. It was
in this church that the mon!s !ept
the holy oil, supposedly delivered
by angels, that was used to anoint
French !ings. In addition, the
church housed the tomb of )t.
4emigius Q4emi@, who had used
this angelbrought oil to bapti&e
-o vis I, the !ing who thereby
became the founder of the
!ingdom of France. 4emigius and
>ionysius played a similarly
important role in the development
of the French monarchy.
The rebuilding of the abbey
church began in the second half
of the 88L3s with the west AaBade
Qsee page ;2, right@. The original
upper part no longer e*ists, but
the surviving two lower stories
provide us with a clear idea of the
new fagade of the 88L3s, which
was built between two older side
towers. From these outer towers
inwards there is an increase in the
wealth of the motif s, the depth of
relief, and the light provided by
windows. -haracteristically, the
main portal is framed by two
classical columns from which
slender shafts rise, a motif that
reappears in the interior of the
church. Donolithic columns were
also placed in front of the piers of
the llthcentury
nave in order to receive the
clusters of slender responds that
support the newly installed
Gothic vault. Hust as at Fe Dans,
the impression created is that of
being in a church that has been
built inside a much older one. In
the completely new choir the
motifs of the nave are adopted
again, particularly in the wide
arcades and the tall gallery
openings, which are divided into
two arches. $s at )t.Germain
des"r%s, a continuous row of
mighty piers surrounds the whole
inner choir. 5ut of them rise
clusters of shafts, which /oin
those between the gallery
arcading to cr%ate a virtual forest
of round slender shafts. The
triforium and clerestory are lin!ed
with the help of slender mullions,
the clerestory becoming a light
filigree. Even the number of
arches increases from bottom to
top in characteristic se#uence7
one arch in each bay of the
arcade, two in the gallery, and
three in both the triforium and
clerestory.
The lin! between the
ambulatory and radiating chap%is
is a particularly original
achievement Qsee page ;2, top
left@. ?ere at 4eims the chap%is
are laid out in a circular pattern
so that they /ust touch the
ambulatory, #uite the opposite of
the arrangement at )t.>enis,
)*
4eims QDarne@, former 'enedictine
abbey church of )t.4emi
'EF5A7
$mbulatory and chap%is of the choir,
begun under $bbot "ierre de -elles
Q88L829@
'5TT5D7
+ave, llthcentury, rebuilt and
vaulted in the second half of the
89th century
Ground plan of choir Qleft@
Fagade Qbelow@, first half of
8 lth and second half of
89th century
)$
-h,lonssurDarne QDarne@,
former collegiate church of
+otre>ameen6au*
-hoir Qbottom@, late 89th century
where both are drawn together under one vault. Ahere these two spatial
elements meet, slender monolithic columns, the familiar motif of the
church, rise up and support the vaults of the ambulatory and the chap%is.
5n the remaining sides, the chapel vaults are supported by even more
slender monolithic responds which stand in front of the wall. The
impression created is that the chapel vaults are canopies that stand
independently.
The e*terior of the choir Qsee page ;1, bottom right@ puts all older
buildings into the shade. ?ere we can see the already familiar decorative
gradation from top to bottom. Ae can also clearly see that this
monumental construction is composed almost solely of windows set
between minimal sections of wall. The choir is supported by thin yet
strong buttresses and flying buttresses which, leaving a clear view of all
the windows, stand li!e proud witnesses of an elegant mastery of the
balance of forces.
The choir of the collegiate church of +otre>ameen6au* in -h,lons
surDarne Qsee right@, about C3 !ilometers Q9: miles@ southeast of 4eims,
shows considerable affinity with )t.4emi, notably in its elevation and in
the arrangement of its radiating chap%is. The precise chronological
relationship of the two buildings has not been completely determined, but
)t.4emi may well have supplied the model for +otre>ameen6au*.
-ertainly the combination of different building styles, demonstrated in
such e*emplary fashion at )t.4emi, was attractive to the builders of the
smaller collegiate church because there had been continuous building
there during the 89th century, always to different plans. +ot until the
successful integration of the ambitious 4eims pattern, in which
inconsistency of style was the order of the day, could this lac! of
uniformity finally be accepted in a building characteri&ed by constant
changes of plan. In addition, the canons of +otre>ameen6au* had only
/ust become wealthy, and so the idea of documenting the venerable history
of their church by preserving its various styles could not have come at a
better time.
$s a result, +otre>ameen6au* can be seen as an imitation of those
churches in which differences of architectural style were used to
demnstrate a venerable past. 'ut it also mar!s the end of the devel
opment of this stylistically heterogeneous Early Gothic type of church, in
which the new had been developed out of a critical reappraisal of the od.
$dmittedly, there were later (composite( churches of this !ind, but on the
whole during the second half of the 89th century there was a mar!ed shift
towards stylistically more uniform churches, though of course these had
had always e*isted alongside the (composite( type.
The Gothic -athedral
The Emergence of a +ew Form
>uring the 89th century, the cathedral of )ens, situated to the southeast of
"aris, was the seat of the archbishop who was ("rimate of Gaul( and to
whom even the bishop of "aris was subordnate.
#
.
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Though built at around the same time as )t.>enis, the cathedral of )ens is
of great simplicity, particularly as it originally had no transept and only a
single rectangular chapel at the ape* of the ambulatory. The threestoried
elevation Qsee page C3, left@ is similar to that of Fe Dans, but the walls are
considerably thinner. This can be seen clearly at the capitals of the double
columns that sep,rate the huge bays beneath the se*partite vaults. $bove
each pair of columns a single
;<
)ens QVonne@, -athedral of )t.Ntienne,
begunllC3
+ave and choir
+oyon Q5ise@, -athedral of +otre>ame
-hoir
broad abacus
protrudes far
into the nave,
seemingly
without
anything to
support it,
while the wall
of the nave
stands
s#uarely over
the free space
between the
double
columns,
almost as if
the architect,
with a touch
of playfulness,
wanted to
show off /ust
how light and
thin his nave
wall was.
4ising from
these double
columns, and
stretching
right up to the
vaults, are
slender shafts
that do not
engage with
the wall
behind.
'ecause of
this, the main
piers are all
the stronger,
and bear the
burden of the
vaults.
weight. The
lateral webs
of these
vaults origi
nally carne
much lower,
as the
windows
beneath were
smaller than
those that
e*ist today.
The vaults
must once
have loo!ed
li!e canopies
on poles.
Though
lac!ing the
subtlety of
the much
smaller )t.
>enis, the
cathedral of
)ens
provided an
elegant
alternative to
the architec
tural
e*travagance
of Fe Dans.
The choir
of the od
cathedral of
+oyon Qsee
above, right@
was built
after a fire
had caused
e*tensive
damage to
the church in
88;8.
Ahether it
was begun
before or
after )ens
cannot be
clearly estab
lished. It may
well be that
the e*ternal
walls of its
radiating
chap%is
'&
were
constructed
even before
those of the
choir of )t.
>enis, in other
words before
a change of
plan led to the
creation of a
new wealth of
shapes.
+evertheless,
it can be
assumed that
there is some
connection
between a
transfer of
relies carried
out in 88:1
and the
completion of
the inner
choir, since it
displays some
similarities
with the choir
of )t.
Germaindes
"r%s in "aris,
which was
consecrated in
88L;. The
cathedral
possesses four
stories Qsee
page C8, left@,
an
arrangement
that had
already been
accepted in
older
churches,
above all in
the cathedral
of Tournai,
which had
long had cise
lin!s with
+oyon. $
succession of
slender
monolithic
columns
surrounds the
apse, as at
)enlis and at
)t.>enis. The
arcade arches
loo! as if they
are carved out
of the wall,
while in the
gallery story
they are much
more richly
profiled. For
the decoration
of the building
in general, and
in particular
for the
construction
of the
responds,
shaft rings
play a more
important part
here than in
any other
church built
before this
date. The
lowest rings
divides the
section of
respond
between the
capitals and
the first
stringcourse
roughly in the
middle0 the
ne*t rings lie
e*actly at the
same height as
+oyon Q5ise@, -athedral of +otre>ame
-hoir, probably begun mid 89th century
+oyon Q5ise@, -athedral of +otre>ame
)outh transept
this
stringcourse.
?igher up
still, the shaft
ring occurs
#uite indepen
dently of
other features,
which ma!es
the responds
seem as if
they are rising
up completely
detached from
the wall.
This
tendency to
sep,rate wall
and vertical
supports, only
hinted at in the
choir, is
developed
more fully in
the transepts
which,
unusually,
terminate in
an apse Qsee
above, right@.
There the wall
consists of
several layers.
In front of this
hollowedout
wall stand
simple
responds
which, rising
with a
rhythmical
movement
through the
shaft rings and
capitals,
become
increasingly
free of the
walls. In
addition, the
capitals
supporting the
vault are so
low that the
pointed
windows of
the second tier
loo! as if they
are being
drawn up into
the vaults.
This subtle
delicacy in the
layering of the
wall is ta!en
up again in the
nave of the
cathedral,
though the
main
architectural
decoration
was clearly
reserved for
the liturgically
more
important
eastern parts.
+evertheless,
though the
individual
elements are
arranged
harmoni
ously, the
cathedral of
+oyon does
not form a
unified whole,
as the various
changes to the
design can be
clearly seen.
$ closeto
perfect unity
of the whole
emerges only
with the
cathedral of
Faon, whose
architect
borrowed a
great many
forms from
+oyon. The
building was
started in 88L3
and the most
important
parts were
completed
shortly after
8933. The
cathedral, an
important
pilgrimage
center, was
originally a
galleried
basilica with
an ambula
tory and a
long transept.
'oth the west
fa]ade and
transept
farades were
to be
accentuated
by double
towers, but
this plan was
e*ecuted fully
only on the
main, west,
fadade0 a
further tower
rises up over
the crossing.
The result is
that the
building.s
distinctive
silhouette is
visible from
far away,
since the
-athedral of
+otre>ame
at Faon stands
on a hill
overloo!ing a
broad plain.
$lternating
clusters of
five and three
responds are
placed in front
of the four
storied
internal main
walls Qsee
page C9@, each
shaft of a
respond
corresponding
to a rib of the
se*partite
vault. These
responds,
unli!e those at
+oyon,
intersect the
stringcourses
at regular
intervals,
dividing the
responds into
sections that
seem to be
uniform
modules. Two
of these
sections of the
respond lie
between
C8
Faon Q$isne@, -athedral of
+otre>ame
+ave and choir, begun ca. 88L3,
e*tensin to choir completed
ca. 8993
Ground plan Qright@
5""5)ITE7
Faon Q$isne@, -athedral of +otre>ame
Aest front, begun before 8933
the pier
capital and
the
stringcourse
of the gallery.
Three more
are needed to
reach the
triforium,
whose height
is e#ual to one
further section
of respond.
5n two pairs
of piers west
of the
crossing the
responds are
even ta!en
right down to
floor level, so
that the
building in
this section is
constructed
entirely in
(respond
modules.(
The many
monolithic
respond shafts
correspond to
the large
number of
small
columnar
shafts in the
gallery,
triforium, and
clerestory,
even to the
ribs of the
vault. $s a
result, the
interior seems
richly but not
e*cessively
decorated.
Instead of
running out of
control, the
decoration,
being a
logical and
coherent
articulation of
the
architectural
space,
integrates
fully with the
building.s
structure.
Knli!e )t.
>enis in "aris
and )t.4emi
in 4eims, the
cathedral of
Faon gains its
dignity not
through the
contrast of
differing
parts, but
through the
creation of a
building that
forms a
coherent
whole both in
structure and
in decoration.
The builders
and the
architect in
Faon
remained
loyal to this
principie
when shortly
after 8933 the
short choir,
started C3
years earlier,
was pulled
down again in
order to build
a final, much
larger and
longer, choir.
Its style
matches that
of
the older
parts of
the church
perfectly.
In other
words, an
architec
tural style
already
decades
od was
repeated,
despite the
fact that in
the
meantime
architectur
al styles
had long
since ta!en
a different
course. Ae
can only
speculate
on the
reasons for
the
demolition
and
rebuilding
of the
choir. >id
the rich
and
distinguish
ed
cathedral
chapter of
Faon
consider
the od
choir too
smallP 5r
did it
worry that
pilgrims,
high up in
its gallery,
were able
to wal!
around
their
e*clusive
meeting
placeP
-ertainly
in the new
choir the
gallery
that once
ran along the
east wall has
been bloc!ed
off.
There may
well have
been aesthetic
reasons for
the
rebuilding,
since the
length of the
e*tended
choir
corresponds
appro*imately
to that of the
nave, so that
both parts of
the building
now e*tend
almost
symmetrically
from the
crossing. In
addition, the
large rose
window
above the
three lancets
in the new
east fagade is
a mirror
image of the
rose window
of the west
facade. $s
both transept
farades
already had
rose windows
before the
new building
wor! began,
the addition
of this rose
window on
the east
fadade meant
that from the
crossing a
huge circular
window could
now be seen
in all four
directions. In
other words,
the alterations
to the choir
greatly
increased the
unity of the
interior of the
building.
The west
front of Faon
Qsee
opposite@,
built in the
last years of
the 89th
century,
represents a
remar!able
achievement
in Gothic
architecture.
?ere the
structure of
the older two
tower facade
is consis
tently
reflected
inside the
building with
the result that,
for the first
time, a fagade
is integrated
into the body
of the
building, no
longer
standing in
front of it as
an
independent
bloc!. $t the
same time, the
west front
e*hibits a
strong sense
of rhythm and
three
dimensional
form7 the
port,is /ut out
li!e triumphal
arches, and
the windows
above the
port,is,
dominated by
the rose
window in the
center, are
deeply set
bac!.
Doreover, the
towers
develop
logically
from the
lower part
of the
building,
and no
longer
appear to
be merely
added on,
as at )t.
>enis.
This was
possible
because
the
architect
of Faon.s
west front
concealed
the front
buttresses
so
s!illfully
that it is
hard to see
that they
begin by
the port,is
and
continu%
upwards
between
the
windows.
$nd so at
Faon a
completely
different
picture
emerges
from
)enlis,
where the
buttresses
domnate
the facade
from the
ground up
to the
towers.
The west
front of
Faon was
so highly
valued by
contempor
aries that it
was
imitated
over and
over again.
The
medieval
artist
6illard de
?onnecour
t included
it in his
famous
s!etchboo
! as early
as the
8993s,
claiming it
had the
most
beautiful
towers he
had ever
seen.
To the
buildings
with four
storied
elevations
we have
already
loo!ed at
Q)t.4emi
in 4eims
and the
cathedrals
of +oyon
and Faon@,
we can
now add,
as the
youngest
member,
the
cathedral
of
)oissons
Qsee page
CC@, where
a four
storied
south
transept
was built
soon after
building
land was
donated in
8811. It is
here that
filigree
wor! reached
its height, for
instead of the
groundfloor
arcade having
a single arch
per bay and
the gallery
two Qthe usual
arrangement@,
both lev%is
have three
e*tremely
slender arches
set between
the main
piers.
'%
1 -f
i
<
i i i
+1
,
1
1
-l 1 1
-
.SSSSS/
0
l
"
3
3
1
#
\ \ ;; ; #
+
t # II II
)oissons Q$isne@, -athedral of )t.Gervaiset"rotais
)outh transept, ca. 8823<3
This resulted in a considerable reduction of wall surface in the span
drels of the arches, so that the building appears to consist only of
responds and arches. The increase in the number of triforium arches to
si* per bay, and of the clerestory windows to three, as at )t.4emi, also
contributes to the disappearance of the walls. ?ere it was easy to do
without responds having rhythmically placed shaft rings Qas at Faon@,
since with this fragileloo!ing architecture the concern is not with the
structural function of the decorative scheme, but with the articulation of
spaces that flow into one another. In addition, piercing e*ternal walls
with windows, a feature pursued to an e*treme here, opened up the
building.s space by pushing its boundaries outwards.
)oissons represents one of the high points of Early Gothic archi
tecture, but it would be wrong to regard this building as the conscious
goal of a delib%rate stylistic development. -ontemporary pro/ects
included buildings that reflect trends completely at variance with those
of )oissons. The leading e*ample is the -athedral of +otre>ame in
"aris. $fter a lengthy period of planning, during which time individual
parts of the od structure may already have
''
been rebuilt, "ope $le*ander III could officially lay the foundation
stone for a completely new building, a building which can in a sense be
regarded as the prototype Gothic cathedral. This is not because it was
the first cathedral in the Gothic style Q)ens and )enlis are earlier@ but
because here for the first time there was an attempt to construct, in the
new style, a monumental building that was characteristic of its type and
yet uni#ue. Aith a length of 8;3 meters QC9L feet@ and a height of ;:
meters Q88: feet@ to the vaults, +otre>ame in "aris far e*ceeds the
usual si&e of a Gothic cathedral. +o wonder that in order to reali&e the
pro/ect, the building control regulations of an entire district had to be
changedW Vet for the cathedral of a capital city, situated cise to the
residence of the increasingly powerful !ings, all this was not considered
e*cessive.
+otre>ame is a basilica with galleries and double side aisles, an
arrangement previously found only in such eminent buildings as the
abbey church in -luny and )t. "eter.s in 4ome. This alone indicates the
privileged position of +otre>ame, particularly as Gothic churches with
double side aisles were the e*ception later. )eparated by huge columns,
the double aisles of the nave become a double ambulatory in the apse.
The problem of the ambulatory spreading out in an everincreasing
radius was solved by doubling the number of columns and by setting
triangular vaults against each other, with the result that the whole
ambulatory of +otre>ame displays an even regularity of shape.
)imilarly, the arcades in the main nave also have a series of uniform
columns, as at )t.Germaindes"r%s, resulting in the rhythm between
the straight and rounded parts of the choir remaining unchanged. This is
all the more astonishing as the nave of +otre>ame has se*partite
vaults, which elsewhere are always lin!ed by stronger or slender piers
in alternation, according to the changing number of vault ribs. $bove
the piers rise uniform clusters of slender responds, always in threes,
ma!ing no allowance for the fact that each cluster has to correspond to
a different vault profile. This irregularity is disguised in a way similar
to that used at the start of the choir apse at )t.Germaindes"r%s7 the
three responds of one cluster support two wall ribs and a transverse rib0
the three responds of the ne*t cluster support two diagonal ribs and a
transverse rib, and also Qout of view@ two wall ribs. 5nly in this way
was it possible to build a row of completely uniform arches, galleries,
and windows, and it was only in this way that the most elegant
proportions could be achieved.
The huge webs of the se*partite vaults, which are much larger than
the more closely spaced ones of a #uadripartite vault, correspond to
large ,reas of wall. In other words, the builders of +otre>ame did not
aim for a total opening up of the wall surface Qas in the south transept of
)oissons@, but for an effective contrast between a recogni&ably thin and
flatter wall on the one hand, and slender responds Qwithout shaft rings@
and vault ribs on the other. 5riginally this effect was even more stri!ing
since the wall surface above the gallery was larger, the ,rea above being
bro!en only by rose windows
'EF5A7
"aris, -athedral of +otre>ame,
begun 88L;
+ave Qleft@
Aest front Qright@, begun ca. 8933
with
modest
si&ed
openings.
This
arrangemen
t was not to
last
because the
cathedral
was too
dar!0 as
early as the
8;th
century the
windows
were
enlarged
and in the
8<th
century
6iolletle
>uc
remodeled
them
around the
crossing.
In the
nave of
+otre
>ame a
new
architect
added some
variations
to the
contrasting
system of
wall and
supports.
The
galleries,
which now
possess
three
openings,
are no
longer
supported
at the sides
by round
shafts but
by fat
pilasters.
These
contrast
with the
responds in
the nave,
which,
even more
slender
than those
in the choir,
consist of
tall,
monolithic
shafts no
longer
flush with
the wall.
The
theme of
the fat wall
is adopted
again in the
west front
of +otre
>ame Qsee
below,
right@,
which goes
bac! to the
type used at
Faon, but
with a #uite
different
character.
'ecause
the towers
at +otre
>ame,
unli!e
those at
Faon, stand
above
double side
aisles, they
are wider
and more
stable, so
that the
buttresses
do not have
to protrude
very far.
Doreover,
they almost
sin! into
the wall of
the first
story,
which was
pulled
forward so
far that the
port,is are
set deeply
into them
and do not
protrude, as
at Faon. It
creates the
impression
of
loo!ing at a
triumphal
arch with a
royal
gallery, a
line of
statues
representin
g all the
French
!ings,
which
demonstrat
es the
historical
continuity
and
authority of
the
monarchy.
+owhere
else in
medieval
architecture
does a
royal
gallery
display a
succession
of
monarchs,
here shown
in cise
array, #uite
so
impressivel
y. This
effect could
be achieved
only
because the
builders of
+otre
>ame,
unli!e the
builders of
Faon,
avoided the
rhythmic
intensificati
on of the
facade
decoration
as it moves
towards the
center.
5nly in the
upper
stories and
towers,
where
delicate
shapes
appear,
does the
impact
decrease
without
detracting
from the
sublime
overall
impression.
?ow
powerful
an
impression
+otre
>ame in
"aris made
can be seen
from the
collegiate
church of
+otre
>ame in
Dant%s,
situated
almost on
the border
between
the French
4oyal
>omain
and
+ormandy,
which then
belonged to
England,
and for this
reason was
particularly
important
for the
French
!ing. It was
probably
begun
around
88L3,
according
to an od
design,
with
slender
monolithic
piers in the
apse and
alternating
supports.
This plan
was soon
modified to
reflect the
architecture
of +otre
>ame in
"aris. Thus
we
C:
ir*
<
= z*
r,
5""5)ITE7
"aris, -athedral of +otre>ame,
begun 88L;
-hoir
"aris, -athedral of +otre>ame
+ave vault
'*
'EF5A7
Dant%s QVvelines@, former collegiate
church of +otre>ame
.6iew from northwest, begun
towards 8933
-E+TE4 7
+ave and choir, ca. last third of
89th century
4lG?T7
'raine Q$isne@, former "remonstratensian
abbey church of )t.Vved, begun towards 88<3
Ground plan Qright@
-hoir and crossing Qbelow, right@
find here once
again the thin
membraneli!e
e*panse of fat
wall, an
elevation with
no triforium, and
giant vault webs
Qsee above,
center@, while
slender clusters
of responds rise
up to contrast
with the wall
surface. 5n the
west front of
Dant%s Qsee
above, left@
plans from Faon
and "aris appear
to have become
confused since
this facade,
though less
powerful than
the facade of
+otre>ame in
"aris Qthrough
the influence of
Faon@, ta!es its
consistent
hori&ontal
emphasis from
"arisOthough it
is not clear
whether +otre
>ame of "aris
preceded +otre
>ame in Dant%s
or vice versa.
Dant%s is an
e*ample of the
growing
acceptance, after
the last third of
the 89th century,
of several
specific types of
church building,
evidently
considered
e*emplary.
?ighly
individual
designs did not
disappear as a
result, yet Gothic
architecture at
this time seems
to have become
increasingly
systematic, even
standardi&ed. $n
e*ample of this
trend is the
abbey church of
)t.Vved in
'raine.
)ituated
near Faon
and
)oissons,
'raine was
the royal
seat of the
du!e of
>reu*, the
brother of
the French
!ing, whose
future wife
must have
encouraged
the building
of the
church
shortly
before 8933.
The church,
which since
that time has
served as a
burial place
for the du!es
of >reu*, is
certainly not
a building in
the same
class as a
cathedral. It
was not the
resting place
of the first
family of the
land, and for
this very
reason it was
built in a
style that is
impressive
in its
simplicity, a
style
reached by
simplifying
the rich
vocabulary
of forms
found in
Faon
cathedral.
Thus instead
of four
stories there
are only
three, the
gallery being
omitted. The
nave does
not have the
subtlety of
alternating
clusters of
responds,
and these
responds are
not divided
into
rhythmic
lengths by
shaft rings.
In place of
an
ambulatory,
as e*isted in
Faon at the
time, 'raine
possesses an
original
choir with
diago
nally placed side
chap%is Qsee
above, right@.
Fi!e Faon, the
church also has
an open crossing
tower and, until
its destruction in
the 8<th century,
a west end that
was very li!e
that of its model.
$ comparison
of the cathedral
of Faon and the
abbey church of
'raine is
particularly
instructive
because it
demonstrates
how medieval
architects could
adapt a great
model purely by
simplifying it,
and in doing so
reshape it into
something new.
)ince there are
in this regin
other churches in
which similar
features are to be
foundO 'raine
has a virtual
twin in the
abbey church of
)t.Dichelen
Thi%racheO
Faon appears to
have functioned
as a lifesi&e
(modelbuilding
!it( during the
last years of the
89th century.
Te St&"istic
Di0ersit& of
Gotic
Catedra"s
Around #(>>
$round 8933 a
series of very
different
versions
emerged out of
this model
building !it.
Aith the
rebuilding of the
choir at Faon
there was a
return to the
older style of
architecture we
have already
mentioned, with
all its wealth of
detail. E*actly
the opposite
happened at
)oissons. Instead
of continuing
with the
rebuilding of the
cathedral in the
subtle style of
the e*isting four
storied transept,
the patrons too!
another path and
built the new
choir and nave
in the style used
in the abbey
church of
'raine, with its
threestoried
elevation and
fewer responds
Qsee opposite,
bottom@. In spite
of this, the
stories of
)oissons
-athedral are
higher on the
whole than those
in Faon
-athedral,
higher even than
those in its own
former transept.
$ reduced
number of
stories on the
whole meant a
considerable
gain in height.
For the first time
in Gothic
architecture the
arcade and
clerestory have
appro*imately
the same
dimensions, a
feat achieved by
e*tending
the window
,rea and
raising the
vault.
'$
)oissons Q$isne@, -athedral
of )t.Gervaiset"rotais
-hoir, ca. 88<38989 Qbelow@
+ave and choir Qbottom@
Ground plan Qleft@
The trend towards
simplicity can be seen
on the e*terior too Qsee
right, top@, a fact which
becomes particularly
clear when it is
compared to )t.4emi
in 4eims Qsee page ;1,
bottom right@. Aith
their rhythmically
ordered arrays of
buttresses, the e*teriors
of both choirs are
largely ali!e, even if
)oissons has one story
less. Vet at )oissons
there is not the dynamic
relationship between
window openings and
buttresses that there is
at 4eims, /ust as there is
little variety in the
ornamental decoration
from floor to floor. It
was not the subtle
addition of detail that
was to cr%ate such an
effect in )oissons, but
the standardi&ed,
sculpturally modeled
mass of its masonry.
The new aesthetic of
simplicity and
monumentality apparent
in the choir at )oissons
was radically different
from the aesthetic of
detail and subtlety
illustrated by the older
transept Qsee page CC@.
There is a good deal of
evidence to show that
when the choir was
being built, those in
charge of the rebuilding
intended to tear down
the od transept in order
to rebuild it in the new,
more monumental style.
That it is still standing,
even though its pendant
on the north side was
replaced during the
rebuilding, is due solely
to a lac! of funds. $s a
result, )oissons repre
sents the e*act opposite
of Faon. Instead of
e*panding the cathedral
of )oissons in the od
style, as had happened
at Faon, those in charge
decided to throw out the
od in favor of the new.
Though the medieval
restorers of both
cathedrals employed
very different means,
their intentions were
the same7 to cr%ate
completely uniform
buildings, buildings,
moreover, whose past
was not easy to read.
In -hartres, the most
significant Darian
shrine in France, a
monumental building in
the new style of
)oissons was begun
after a fire in the od
cathedral in 88<C. Even
if the crypt and west
front of the earlier
church had survived
and could be used
again, they were not
conspicuously
cherished as venerable
(relies.( 'y the end of
the 89th century there
was a growing desire to
build completely new
buildings rather than to
preserve as much of the
od as possible. This is
made clear in the stories
and legends that grew
up around the
devastating fire and the
rebuilding it brought
about. Initially the fire
was seen as a
catastrophe, largely
because it was thought
that the precious Darian
relies had been lost
along with the church.
Ahen these relies were
discovered unharmed,
the mood changed
completely, and the fire
was interpreted as an
e*pression of the
6irgin.s desire for a new
and more beautiful
church. Ahen we
consider that $bbot
)uger, some :3 years
earlier, had had so many
scruples about
rebuilding his od
church, and had had
such a deep respect for
its stones that, to use his
own words, he (buried
them as true relies,( it is
all the more surprising
to see that in -hartres
the Dother of God was
seen as the destryer of
her own church. -an it
be concluded from this
that the new Gothic
architecture of the
French 4oyal >omain
had become so highly
respected in the
meantime that using it
no longer needed any
/ustificationP
In its basic structure,
the interior of -hartres
-athedral is difficult to
distinguish from that of
)oissons. Aith their
huge increase in height,
the arcades and
clerestories, separated
by the triforium, are
appro*imately the
same height Qsee page
:3@. Vet )oissons and
-hartres, in
5""5)ITE7
-hartres QEureetFoir@,
-athedral of +otre>ame
+ave
Ground plan Qleft@
spite of this
similarity, are
unmista!ably
different. This can
be seen in almost
every single
comparison of
motifs. For e*ample,
the columnar piers at
)oissons, in spite of
their great height,
are nearly as slender
as those at Faon, and
they are
accompanied by
only one slender
respond. In -hartres,
by contrast, the piers
are more than twice
as thic! and are
surrounded by four
responds, which are
themselves almost
the average si&e of
the main piers in
)oissons. $ pier in
-hartres is a
m,*imum of ;.13
meters Q89 feet@
thic!0 a pier in
)oissons is barely
8.C3 meters QC.L
feet@ thic!. This
great difference in
the piers cannot be
put down to a
difference in the
height of the
buildings7 -hartres
is only a little taller
than )oissons. The
e*planacin lies in
the fact that the
builder of )oissons,
in order to ma!e it
taller than other
cathedrals, merely
lengthened the piers.
The builder of
-hartres, on the
other hand, made
them far larger, and
therefore stronger.
?ere we touch on an
essential feature of
the innovations at
-hartres7 this
cathedral was not
only the largest
Gothic cathedral
built up to then, but
also the most awe
inspiring, even in its
smallest detail. $nd
so -hartres, in spite
of the height of the
vault, which is even
higher than that of
+otre>ame in
"aris, appears
neither too immense
Sor even too airy,
but heavy and very
powerful. $t the
same time, it is not
without subtlety7 the
shape of the piers
alternates between
octagonal and round,
with round responds
attached to
octagonal pier core
and vice versa. )ince
these differences
continu% in the
clusters of responds
leading right up to
the vault, the whole
wall of the main
nave has a subtle,
almost imperceptible
rhythm.
From the outside,
too, -hartres loo!s
li!e an incarnation of
monumental
architecture Qsee
bottom, left@. The
enormous buttresses
of the nave primarily
demnstrate strength
and only secondarily
serve to stabili&e the
building and support
the vault. In the
choir Qsee page :C,
right@ this
buttressing becomes
somewhat lighter,
though it does not
change its basic
structure. It is clear
that the architect
!new that he was
doing more than was
structurally
necessary, otherwise
he would not have
tunneled so
thoroughly into the
inner buttresses of
the ambulatory with
wallpassages that
are invisible to the
observer, and that
ma!e a moc!ery of
the massive si&e that
is put on show.
-hartres is so full
of architectural
#uotations that it is
almost a synthesis of
older types of Gothic
buildings. $s in
+otre>ame in "aris,
for e*ample, there is
a double ambulatory
in which, as at )t.
>enis, every other
chapel that ad/oins it
is combined under
one common vault
with the ambulatory
bay Qsee ground plan
above@. Vet the si&e
of the ambulatory at
-hartres, with its
mighty columns,
ma!es it difficult to
recall the width and
ease of the
ambulatories in
+otre>ame in "aris
and at )t.>enis. In
the same way, the
motif of the front at
Faon cathedral
appears twice at
-hartres, not
however in the west,
where the od facade
had to be only
slightly modified
when it was rebuilt,
but in the transepts.
?ere the wall
surfaces dissolve
almost completely
into lancets and
enormous rose
windows Qsee pages
:9:;@. )imilarly,
the porch above the
west portal was
turned into a richly
shaped and richly
sculptured triumphal
arch.
+
*
< Lfi-
y*.
.
!
/
1
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7
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HiC
H
r
"4E6I5K) "$GE)7 -hartres
QEureetFoir@, -athedral of
+otre>ame +orth rose
window Qpage :9@ )outh rose
window Qpage :;@
'EF5A7
-hartres QEureetFoir@,
-athedral of +otre>ame, built
after the fire of 88<C
$mbulatory Qleft@
-hoir Qright@
-astle
$rchitectu
re and
-hartres
There can
be no
#uestion
that the
architect
of
-hartres
had an
e*cellent
!nowledge
of
contempor
ary church
architectur
e,
especially
that found
in the ,rea
around
Faon. Vet
the
innovation
s in the
distinctive
military
architectur
e of the
day could
not have
escaped
his
attention,
for it was
an
architectu
re in
which
massiven
essO
stressed
again and
again at
-hartres
Owas an
integral
feature.
Even
individual
motifs
seem to
have been
inspired
by it, too.
5ne
e*ample
is the
strange
passage
at the
base of
the
-hartres
choir
connectin
g the
polygonal
,rea
formed
by the
chap%is to
the
semicircu
lar inner
structure,
a passage
which is
structu
rally
superfluo
us Qsee
above,
left@. This
motif,
which
gives the
impres
sion that
it has
been
carved
out of the
solid
mass of
stone,
only
serves the
purpose
of
drawing
one.s
attention
to the
enormous
strength
of the
walls. It
had a
practical
function
only in
fortified
towersO
and that
is
precisely
where it
comes
from. The
towers of
the castle
of F%re
en
Tardenois
, built in
8933,
demnstr
ate a
similar
comparab
le change
in style
between
its lower
,reas and
upper
floors
Qsee page
:1@.
The
motif of
enormousl
y strong
walls was
not the
only lin!
between
+otre
>ame and
the castles
of the
period,
some of
the most
important
and
innovative
pro/ects
built under
the French
!ing
"hilippe
$uguste
Q8823
899;@.
Duch
more
important
was the
fact that
these
castles,
li!e the
cathedrals
and abbey
churches,
had a
symbolic
as well as
practical
function7
often their
apparent
strength
was far
greater
than their
real ability
to defend.
The best
e*ample
of this is at
-h,teau
Gaillard
Qsee page
:L@, a
fortress
that the
English
!ing
4ichard
the
Fionheart
Q882<<<@
had built
to bloc!
the )eine
on the
border
between
+ormandy,
which then
belonged
to
England,
and the
French
4oyal
>omain.
This
powerful,
and above
all very
e*pen
sive,
constructio
n was
begun in
88<L and
completed
in the very
short time
of one
year, yet
as early as
893C it
was
captured
by
"hilippe
$uguste
after a
long siege.
'ehind an
outer
castle,
which
bloc!s off
the only
natural
entrance,
the
circular
main
castle rises
up,
appearing
to consist
solely of a
row of
closely
aligned
towers. It
is
dominate
d by the
!eep with
several
floors
from
which, on
the
outside,
spurli!e
:C
-oucyle-h,teau Q$isne@, castle, '5TT5D7
ca. 899:OC9 Qtop@ $ngers QDaineetFoire@, castle, second
>rawing of !eep Qcenter@ #uarter of 8;th century, from west
Ground plan Qleft@
-ross section Qfar left@
brac!ets protruded to support the battlemented parapet above, whose
shapes contrasted dramatically with those of the main castle. The
design was of course determined above all by military needs, but it is
clear that the design was also meant to demnstrate the supposed
strength of the fortress.
The structure of the castle of -oucy Qsee right, top and center@,
built around 899:]C9 and situated centrally between the three epis
copal towns of +oyon, Faon, and )oissons, is somewhat more
comple*, as is that of the enormous castle in $ngers, built at roughly
the same time Qsee right, bottom@. -oucyle-h,teau was not a purely
defensive building. It was also the seat, closely connected with a
small town, of the powerful du!es of -oucy. Enguerrand III, who had
it built, was trying to increase his power by e*ploiting the unstable
political situation at the beginning of the reign of Fouis IM Q899L13@.
The !ing was still a minor and so his mother, 'lanche of -astile, was
acting as regent. The castle is an e*pression of the du!e.s ambition. In
contrast to -h,teau Gaillard, at -oucy the !eep stands not on the
outermost point of a cliff but on the line between the main and the
outer castle. It therefore loo!s both into the far distance and towards
the inhabitants of the town, who had to ta!e their tribute payments
there. $s the !eep was to provide living accommodation for the
family, it had three large, heated rooms lying one above the other.
Aith their ribbed vaults, these rooms loo! li!e chap%is, but they must
have been very dar! because of the tiny windows. The !eep at -oucy,
in other words, combines church and military architecture.
In $ngers, by contrast, the military function dominates entirely.
?ere it was 'lanche of -astile who ordered the building of the castle,
in order to be able to defend the royal family against ambitious
barons such as Enguerrand. The fortress was originally even more
impressive since its towers, which now rise to over :3 meters Q8L:
feet@ above the moat, originally stood even higher. The absence of a
!eep shows that this comple* was meant as a fortification to house a
garrison, and not as a royal residence.
$s the e*amples of -h,teau Gaillard and -oucy show, castle
architecture during this period was often less practical than poetic
Qif we can use this word in connection with their military function@.
Their builders, such as 4ichard the Fionheart in the case of -h,teau
Gaillard, often did not !now how to distinguish clearly between
practical function and symbolic valu%. From a modern pragmatic
point of view this may seem astonishing. 'ut medieval wars and
battles were themselves in large part rituali&ed and symbolic events.
+evertheless, the comparison of castle and church architecture can
clearly demnstrate that a purely rational account of sacred architec
ture, in general or in detail, is totally inappropriate, since even the
very practical military architecture of the period was sometimes not
entirely (rational.( i
+ow to return to -hartres. The architect of the cathedral was not
necessarily a military architect, yet he clearly !new that this form of
architecture offered a range of ideas with which he could bring about
""
-h,teau Gaillard QEure@,
castle, 88<L<1, captured and
destroyed 893C, from west
-.
F%reenTardenois Q$isne@,
castle, ca. 8933
&D&E
(
57
)t.Xuentin Q$isne@, former
collegiate chuch of )t.Xuentin
+ave and choir
what he wanted to achieveOor at
least what he had been commis
sioned to carry out. $nd since
-hartres, as the most important
French place of pilgrimage, was
more significant than )oissons,
he had to surpass )oissons. $
simple increase in si&e was not
enough7 he chose a (grander(
style that bore a cise affinity to
castle architecture.
)oissons and -hartres are thus
to be perceived as alternative
forms of the Gothic cathedral
with very different styles. The
fact that the architect of -hartres
departed from the guidelines
)oissons had supplied does not
detract from his achievement in
the least. 5ut of these guidelines
he created something #uite new
that surpassed everything that
had gone before it. ?e could
simply have built a cathedral li!e
the roughly contemporary
collegiate church of )t.Xuentin,
in the diocese of )oissons Qsee
above@. $K the possible types of
building and stylistic elements of
earlier architecture are combined
in this collegiate church, and it is
the imaginative combination of
these, rather than the overall
impression, that was innovative.
)o at )t.Xuentin Qa collegiate
church could be as big as a
cathedral@ there is an ambulatory
with sep,rate chap%is, as at )t.
4emi in 4eims, that ends with
diagonally
placed chap%is, as at )t.Vved in
'raine. +ot only these models,
from before 8933, were adopted.
$t )t.Xuentin the builders
appear to have carefuKy
considered the latest architectural
trends so that they were able to
int%grate into their designs
innovations of a much later date
such as those of the cathedrals of
$miens and 'eauvais. For this
reason the architecture in )t.
Xuentin is not poor0 it too! good
ideas from several sources. For us
the valu% of )t.Xuentin is that it
provides a clear and instructive
e*ample of a contemporary
alternative to -hartres, created at
the very moment when a certain
standardi&ation in Gothic
architecture was being reached. In
)t.Xuentin the builders were
happy simply to combine familiar
architectural forms and motifs. It
was at -hartres that a new
greatness was achieved through
the creative refashioning of the
familiar.
The Impact of -hartres and the
>evelopment of $lternatives
-hartres set a high standard in
Gothic church architecture, a
standard that, it must have
seemed, could not be surpassed.
$ll the same, Gothic architecture
had by no means reached its
pea!0 it is probably
:2
4eims QDame@, -athedral of
+otre>ame
Aest front, after 89:C
only because the building of the cathedral proved to be so lavish and costly that it could not be
outdone. The only way to surpass -hartres, using its own methods as it were, was to restore the
cathedral of 4eims. This fitted in well with current political needs, for it was here that the
archbishops of 4eims consecrated the French !ings, and the current archbishop had to decide
what could be done to ma!e the cathedral measure up to the importance of a ma/or occasion so
steeped in tradition. Ahen the od cathedral burnt down in 8983, it had to be rebuilt with great
speed. =ing "hilippe$uguste was already in his late forties, so the coronation of his successor
had to be rec!oned with Qpeople at that time rarely lived past :3@. $nd in fact the successive
coronations of Fouis 6III in 899; and Fouis IM in 899L too! place in the middle of a building
site.
Hust
how great
an
impression
the
cathedral at
-hartres
had made
can be
gauged
from the
fact that
the new
cathedral
of 4eims
bro!e away
from some
local
architectur
al
traditions.
Fi!e the
church of
)t.4emi in
the same
town, the
od
cathedral
had
incorporate
d several
buildings
from
various
ages. The
new
cathedral
was to be
more
uniform.
4eminders
of local
architectur
al tradition
find
e*pression
mainly in
the
unusually
short choir,
which had
the effect
of ma!ing
the new
nave seem
even
longer Qsee
page L3@.
?owev
er, the
coronation
ceremony
may also
have been
a decisive
factor in
this, for
the largely
unchanged
distributio
n of space
meant that
the
coronation
could
unfold
with the
same
elabrate
ceremonia
l. )o,
instead of
becoming
involved
in the
comple*
architectur
al
portrayal
of history,
as had
been usual
in 4eims
until that
time, the
builders of
the new
cathedral
followed
the pattern
of
-hartres.
The achievement of
-hartres is not diminished at
4eims, since the -hartres
pattern is further enriched
by details ta!en from local
architectural tradition, for
e*ample, the building of an
interior passage in front of
the windows on the ground
floor and the lin!ing of the
triforium and clerestory in
the chevet by means of a
continuous mullion. The
use of such #uotations, to
which more could be added
from churches nearby or
farther afield, is really
nothing more than an
embellishment of the overall
character of -hartres. $t
most they e*press,
somewhat aw!wardly, the
builders. desire for some
historical references, for the
architectural traditions
employed in their new
cathedral could not be
e*actly the same as those
used in -hartres -athedral.
'ut there are also
important and visually
stri!ing motifs that outstrip
those of -hartres. The
intricate rose windows on
the clerestory windows in
-hartres, for e*ample, are
replaced in 4eims by a form
of tracery that here ma!es
its triumphant entrance into
Gothic architecture. For this
fine bar tracery in the
window openings permitted
an increase in the surface of
stained glass and, along with
that, its decoration. Tracery
was also technically much
easier and therefore #uic!er
to ma!e than the
individually shaped rose
windows of -hartres Qsee
pages :9:;@, as it could be prepared piece by piece with the aid of templates. This planning
method was new at the time
I

110
'\f
1i#,
112
w
1
1
1 m
1
11
ni i
11 i
1
11 3
m
mm
01i
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5""5)ITE7
4eims QDarne@, -athedral of
+otre>ame, begun 8988
-hoir
FEFT7
4eims QDarne@, -athedral of
+otre>ame
+ave and choir
" !v"viv
"6eD.
4eims -athedral, ground plan
and it is
certainly
no
coinciden
ce that the
oldest
precise
architectu
ral
s!etches
that have
come
down to
us, in
6illard de
?onnecou
rt.s so
called
stonemas
ons. lodge
boo!, are
of 4eims
-athedral
itself and
the other
churches
in the
,rea.
The
4eims
architect
also bro!e
away
from
-hartres
in the
constructi
on of the
choir.
This was
made
considera
bly easier
since at
-hartres
the crypt
of the
earlier
building
had been
integrated
into the
foundatio
ns, which
was not
necessary
at 4eims.
Instead, a
building
emerged
with a
solid
outline
similar to
that of
)oissons,
yet with
considera
bly more
lavish
decoratio
n. Tall
arcading
with
pointed
arches
crowns
the
radiating
chap%is,
and at the
top of the
buttresses
tower
mighty
tabernacle
s with
giant
carved
angels.
This motif
is
continued
on the
entire
e*terior of
the
cathedral,
which
appears to
be
guarded
by the
heavenly
hosts Qsee
opposite@.
?ere too
the model
was
-hartres
-athedral,
where
there are
niches
with
statues in
the
mighty
buttresses
of the
nave, but
in
-hartres
they are
much too
small to
transform
the
buttresses
into
sculptural
niches
and so
disguise
their true
structural
function.
Ahere
-hartres
supplies
only
technical
solutions,
4eims
displays a
great
wealth of
motifs in
its detail.
For
e*ample,
in the
uniform
decoratio
n of the
capitals,
4eims
uses
highly
individual
decorative
designs
that
attempt to
imitate
natural
foliage as
closely as
possible.
$s a
result, the
principie
that the
height of
capitals is
determine
d by the
diameter
of the
shafts, a
principie
that goes
bac! to
classical
times, is
here
ignored
for the
first time
in Gothic
architectu
re. )o at
-hartres
the
mighty
arcade
piers are
topped by
high
capitals,
and the
thinner
shafts at
the side
by
consistent
ly lower
ones. In
the oldest
parts of
4eims, by
contrast,
the
capitals of
the
slender
columns
are made
as high as
those of
the
massive
pier cores
until
finally, in
the later
part of the
cathedral,
the
capitals
are li!e
continuou
s frie&es
that run
uniformly
across the
pier cores
and
responds.
4eims.
attempt to
surpass
-hartres
had
finally to
remain an
unfin
ished
e*perime
nt, for the
e*pense
of further
improvem
ents was
too great.
The
architectu
ral future
was not to
be based
on the
lu*ury
buildings
of
-hartres
and
4eims,
even
though
their
motifs
had
already
passed
into the
general
repertoire
of Gothic
architectu
re. It
L3
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5""5)ITE7
$miens Q)omme@, -athedral of +otre>ame, begun 8993 +ave and
choir
$miens Q)omme@, -athedral of +otre>ame Aest front Qbelow@
Ground plan Qleft@
was to be based on the technically much more elegant and less costly model of
)oissons, to which -hartres and 4eims themselves had indeed been indebted.
Thus the first architect of $miens -athedral did not attempt to match the
e*travagance of -hartres and 4eims. $ fire in the od cathedral, consecrated in
88:9, had provided the opportunity for a completely new building, which was
begun in 8993 under 'ishop Evrard de Fouilloy. 4obert de Fu&arches is !nown
to have been the first architect and master builder, followed by Thomas de
-ormont and his son 4enaud, who in 8922 completed the first ma&e on the
cathedral floor, of which only a copy remains today. This ma&e was made to
remind people of the most important people and dates in the building.s history.
The succession of spar!ling architectural achievements in $miens must have
begun with the drawing up of a precise building plan establishing the future
development of the building, since the od cathedral only covered the site of the
new nave. East of that, where the future choir was to be built, was the city wall,
to the west stood )t. Hohn.s ?ospital, and on the site of the planned north
transept stood the church of )t.Firmen. Therefore, when the foundation stone
was laid, the land to be built on was not yet available, and did not even belong
to the patrn.
This situation was not uni#ue in medieval building, but it was unusual, as at
$miens, to have to start in the middle of the cathedral, in the south transept to
be precise, in order to be able to construct the facade, choir, and north transept
at some uncertain date in the future. +evertheless, the huge building was
erected #uic!ly between 8993 and 8922. $s a result of this rapid progress, the
course the building was to ta!e remained unclear for several years, largely
because it was being reconstructed on the basis of differences in the decoration
of the nave and choir. In the event, these differences turned out to be the result
of a uniform plan that assigned differing styles to these parts of the building.
5nly as a result of this perfect planning, which went hand in hand with a
rationali&ation of building techni#ues, was it possible for Fu&arches to build in
$miens a cathedral even larger than those of -hartres and 4eims. The !ey
factor here was his decisin to avoid simply stac!ing large bloc!s of masonry
one on top of the other. Instead of imitating the enormous pier masses of 4eims
and -hartres, he chose the slender )oissons piers, which structurally were
completely ade#uate, and yet at the same time he adopted the system of four
slender shafts used at -hartres Qsee opposite@. Ahat the $miens supports lac!ed
in volume they gained in height, so the total e*pense cannot have been much
more than in the older cathedrals. In the choir the architects of $miens even
dispensed with the rear wall of the triforium, until then an integral part of this
feature, so that this story, which had always been dar!, now seems to be
brightly lit, and visually merges with the richly designed tracery of the
clerestory windows.
The arcades and clerestories at $miens, in contrast to those at )oissons,
-hartres, and 4eims, are not of the same height, for the
arcade alone e#uals the combined height of the triforium and clerestory. $s a
result, hardly any fi*ed points are offered at eye level to anyone entering
through the west portal. The slender supports carry the walls of the nave, which
are divided above the arcades by a strongly pronounced leafpatterned
stringcourse, into seemingly inaccessible regions. $t the same time the long,
sheer, and tunnelli!e nave appears to push the choir into the far distance so
that the interior of $miens loo!s its most impressive from the main portal. This
can be regarded as a remar!able achievement, as the building was begun at a
#uite different place.
Ahat is more, the first architect of $miens must have incorporated the
observer.s viewpoint into his plans in a way previously un!nown. The west
front Qsee above@, in front of which during the Diddle $ges the houses were
pac!ed together so closely that the facade could not be seen as a whole, is really
no more than a thin wall in front of the church, #uite lac!ing the heavy
monumentality of Faon, "aris, and -hartres. Even more impressive is the
perfectly situated portal, which at eye level offers only small reli%is, the
characters
L;
$miens Q)omme@, -athedral of
+otre>ame, begun 8993
-hoir
5""5)ITE7
'ourges Q-her@, -athedral of )t.Ntienne,
begun late 89th century
6iew from southeast Qtop@
+ave Qbottom left@
)ide aisle Qbottom right@
Ground plan Qleft@
and scenes
from the story
of salvation
above it being
much more
deeply
recessed than
in the earlier
buildings.
They forc% the
faithful
observing the
portal from
below to use
the same
worm.s eye
view that they
will have to
adopt in the
interior when
viewing the
architecture.
5n the
e*terior of the
choir Qsee
above@, as at
4eims, the
wealth of
forms
intensifies
considerably
from bottom
to top. The
simple
buttresses
higher up
between the
chap%is
become richly
decorated,
finely
fashioned
constructions,
out of which
flying
buttresses
with
openwor!
arches leap up
to the wall of
the main nave.
There deco
rated gables
Qone for each
bay@ intersect
the sill of the
eaves,
creating a
cluster of
pointed gables
that seem to
imitate the
farades of the
?oly -ity.
This gable
motif also
appears in the
interior of the
choir above
the triforium
arches, where
it ma!es
absolutely
clear that this
is the high
altar before
which the
bishop
and
chapter
gather.
Even
though the
citi&ens of
the rich
city of
$miens
played an
important
role in the
rebuilding
of the
cathedral,
its
architectu
re does
nothing to
malee
them feel
included
Oin fact,
the
opposite.
The
cathedral
of
'ourges
is a
possible
model for
the
opening
up of
space at
$miens.
$rchitect
urally
'ourges,
begun at
the same
time as
)oissons
and
-hartres,
presents a
radical
alternativ
e to these
buildings.
First,
there is no
transept,
so that
both the
interior
and the
e*terior offer a
completely
uniform view
Qsee opposite@.
This
impression is
heightened by
the use of
steep flying
buttresses,
which, being
very thin, do
not conceal
the main body
of the
building. In
addition,
'ourges has
double side
aisles, li!e
+otre>ame
in "aris and
the
4omanes#ue
abbey church
of -luny, from
where it also
borrows the
staggered
height of the
side aisles as
they move
toward the
nave. The
outer side
aisles are the
usual height,
but the inner
ones soar
above them
and have their
own window
story Qsee
opposite,
bottom right@.
Their monu
mental
arcades
correspond
with those of
the nave and
bear the
weight of the
triforium and
the nave
clerestory.
Thus the
building at
groundfloor
level is of an
enormous
width, while
the triforium
and clerestory,
as at $miens,
are transponed
upwards into
inaccessible
heights.
The
structure of
the piers in
'ourges is
highly
original, since
it negates the
elassie theory
of support and
load. The piers
do not end at
the capital, but
run on up into
the vault, a
segment of
their round
core
protruding
from the wall.
This creates
the impression
that the
cathedral
consists
essentially of
rows of
gigantic
cylindrical
piers onto
which the
walls and the
vault have
been placed.
This
impression is
strengthened
by the fact
that the shafts
at 'ourges are
particularly
slender, so
that much of
the pier core
remains
visible
between them.
In the apse,
moreover, the
vault webs are
forced down
between the
windows,
suggestin
g that the
whole
vault is a
thin
membrane
.
$lthou
gh the
proportion
s of
'ourges
are
untypical
of the
Gothic
architectu
re of
northern
France,
'ourges
-athedral
#uic!ly
became
influential
there,
particularl
y in
"icardy.
The
increased
spatial
effect in
$miens
-athedral
is li!ely to
have been
inspired
by
'ourges,
though it
is
impossibl
e to be
certain
about this.
?owev
er, we can
be sure
that this is
the case
with the
cathedral
of
'eauvais,
begun in
899L. The
town was
once one
of the
richest in
France
Qthis is
difficult to
imagine
now
because of
the
e*tensive
damage
caused
during
Aorld
Aar II@,
though the
growing
impor
tance of
"aris was
ma!ing
'eauvais
an
increasing
ly
provincial
center. In
spite of
this, one
of the
most
ambitious
of all
Gothic
cathedrals
was to be
built
there, one
that was
based,
moreover,
on the
most
magnifice
nt models.
For this
reason the
spatial
structure
of
'ourges
was
adopted,
with its
staggered
aisles,
which
increase
sharply in
height as
they move
toward the
center. $s we
have already
seen, this was
also the case
at the
collegiate
church of )t.
Xuentin in
"icardy.
$t the
same time, the
building has
such a cise
affinity to
$miens,
begun only a
few years
before, that it
is sometimes
difficult to
establish
which
cathedral
influenced the
other. )ince
the height
both of the
ambulatory
and of the
inner side
aisles of
'eauvais
e*ceeds that
of the chap%is
and the outer
aisles, it was
still possible
to build a
triforium and
a low window
story Qsee
page <<,
right@, as at
'ourges.
'ecause of
this, a vault of
unusual height
for northern
France was
built in the
inner
ambulatory,
resulting in
the arcades of
the choir
being much
steeper than
they would
otherwise
have been.
This effect is
heightened
through the
arches in the
chevet being
narrower than
those at
'ourges. This
was originally
different at the
sides of the
choir
LC
k
##CiDl E
- !" F, -
P-ll# -
-Hr!
'eauvais Q5ise@, -athedral of )t."ierre
-hoir, begun 899:, restored 892C and
8:1; after collapse
of 'eauvais, where the arcades adopted the same width as the 'ourges
modelOin fact, even wider. ?ow the clerestory of 'eauvais loo!ed in
the past is not !nown, for around the middle of the 8;th century, when
the building was far enough advanced for these parts to be begun, there
was a change of plan. $ filigreed, lightfilled triforium with e*tremely
elongated windows above it was erected, so that the interior space
finally reached the record height of over C2 meters Q8:1 feet@. In 8919
this choir was ready for use but twelve years later, in 892C, it collapsed.
The reasons for this catastrophe are not entirely clear. -ertainly it
was not /ust the height. Dista!es may have been made in the
construction of the buttresses. The building has still not settled down
even today, resulting in more and more costly methods of support being
necessary, even though during the rebuilding after 892C the number of
piers was doubled. )ince the choir polygon itself had survived the
collapse with no damage, the pattern of its closely aligned arches could
be applied to the rest of the building, and a new
pier was placed in the center of each side arcade. $dmittedly this meant
that the cathedral lost the original openness of its interior, but it gained
an even greater impression of height because of the tighter se#uence of
bays.
In the 8Lth century, after the completion of the transept, wor! was
started not on the nave but on a monumental crossing tower. This too
was to prove catastrophic. In 8:1;, after its completion, the tower
collapsed and caused e*tensive damage. In the choir.s first vault you
can read the date 8:1:, the year in which this vault was rebuilt for the
second time. $fter that it was never completed and the building has
remained unfinished to this day.
Even if the precise technical reasons for the first collapse are not
!nown, it has nevertheless been established that it would not have
happened without the change of plan /ust mentioned, whereby 'eauvais
was to become a cathedral with an enormous clerestory in the style of
)oissons, -hartres, 4eims, and $miens. The building would have
conformed to the standard designs popular in northern France for
66
"rovins Q)eineetDarne@, former
collegiate church of )t.Xuiriace,
afterll:1 -hoir
churches of this si&e, and the spatial disposition borrowed from
'ourges would have been made far less significant. Thus the lofty,
subtly merging spaces above the ambulatory and chap%is finally acted
only as a bac!drop for raising the inner choir to colossal heights.
There are numerous reasons as to why around the year 8933
'ourges Qsee page <"1 was the only cathedral that demonstrated such an
unusual style of French Gothic. -ertainly, as the church of a large and
eminent archbishopric in the center of France, it was an e*tremely
important building politically, for which the best was only /ust good
enough. $s we have already seen, it also adopts a succession of
architectural themes from such important buildings as +otre>ame in
"aris and the abbey church at -luny. Dany details indicate that the
architect carne from that ,rea of northern France around Faon and
)oissons in which there was a highly developed architectural culture.
'ut all this does not really e*plain why 'ourges loo!s so different in
every respect from the Gothic churches not only of the IledeFrance,
the regin so central to the origins of Gothic style, but also the churches
in the neighboring regions of -hampagne and "icardy. -ould the
uni#ue character of 'ourges -athedral be e*plained by the fact that
'ourges lies some distance from the political and architectural center of
the regin, and so the architect was free to e*periment more freelyP
This #uestion will always invite speculation, without there ever being
any clear answer. Vet it allows us to turn our attention finally to those
Gothic buildings that were constructed at the end of the 89th century
and the beginning of the 8;th century outside the confines of the
heartland of the birth and development of Gothic, where, as we have
seen, the great abbey churches and cathedrals had set the standard over
and over again.
Gotic Arcitecture in -hampagne and Burgund&
The dioceses of 4eims in -hampagne and of )ens, which e*tends into
'urgundy, belong, for geographical and political reasons, to the
heartland of Gothic. $round these centers, which, seen from "aris, lay
on the periphery of the 4oyal >omain, architectural originality was
apparent from an early date. For from here the builders loo!ed not only
to the Early Gothic of the IledeFrance, but also to the contemporary
4omanes#ue architecture of 'urgundy. ?ere churches could be built
whose architecture, though at times highly original, would later also
ac!nowledge the wellspring of Gothic.
$n e*ample of this is the church of )t.Xuiriace in "rovins Qsee
above@, founded in 88:1 by the -ount of -hampagne. "rovins was one
of the four towns famous for their champagne fairs, where European
merchants gathered regularly. )ituated within the diocese of )ens, the
building echoes certain basic characteristics of the cathedral of )ens,
notably a threestoried elevation and the contrast between boldly
protruding main piers, which bear the weight of the vault, and very
slender columnar supports. 'ut the architect of "rovins went further7 he
fitted the triforium of his church with many more shafts
than )ens -athedral had, and he decoratively reshaped the heavy
transverse arches with the help of a bold &ig&ag motif. For the
impression of space, however, the alteration to the vault is especially
important. In "rovins the vault is not si*part, as at )ens, but eightpart,
resulting in a construction that is far more decorative because of the
correspondingly greater number of ribs. )ince the church in "rovins is
much smaller than the cathedral in )ens, the decorative elements of the
architecture have a much greater impact in the church than in the
cathedral, where their effect is subdued by the vast space of the
cathedral interior.
The abbey church of the -istercian monastery of "ontigny lies
about the same distance from )ens as "rovins, but in a southeasterly
direction, and is thus almost in 'urgundy. 5f the five mother abbeys
that were once the center of an order active throughout the whole of
Europe, "ontigny is the only one surviving today. $ll the others
Q-iteau*, -lairvau*, Dorimond, and Fa Fert%@ were victims of the
French 4evolution and its aftermath. >uring the whole of the second
half of the 89th century "ontigny was a building site, for soon after the
whole church was completed, the east choir, only a few decades
L1
I)8 7
W ?s *.
5""5)ITE7
"ontigny QVonne@, former
-istercian abbey church of +otre>ame,
last third of 89th century
E*terior Qtop@
-hoir Qbottom left@
$mbulatory Qbottom right@
Ground plan Qright@
od, was pulled down in order to ma!e way for a larger new building
Qsee opposite@. This was necessary to give the increased number of
priestmon!s the opportunity to read the daily mass, a rule prescribed
by the -istercian order.
The date the choir was built is un!nown, yet from its style it is
thought to have been constructed in the last #uarter of the 89th century.
It displays unusual lu*ury for a church of the -istercian order, in which
e*cessive e*penditure on architecture was prohibited. 'ecause of the
regularity of the ground plan, the seven radiating chap%is correspond
to the seven sides of a polygon. The high number of chap%is, necessary
because of -istercian practice, meant that the church has more chap%is
than any cathedral of the day. "ontigny.s apse is composed of seven
sides of a fourteensided polygon and an additional halfbay Qfive sides
of a tensided polygon was standard@. $s a result, there are more
columns and windows, whose profiles, along with the ribs of the choir.s
vault, ma!e the high choir an e*tremely elabrate construction. In
architectural terms, all this was necessary because there were elabrate
rib formations in the ambulatory and flying buttresses on the outside,
but theologically the building can hardly be described as an e*pression
of -istercian modesty.
It is evident how rich the mon!s of "ontigny, despite their vow of
poverty, actually were, since they were able to complete their church in
the course of a few decades, and then immediately rebuild it, while the
much smaller church of )t.Xuiriace, by contrast, was never completed.
$t around the same time "ontigny was being built, a new choir was
being built in the church of )te.Dadeleine in 6%&elay in 'urgundy.
6%&elay was at that time a much visited pilgrimage town, where the
relies of )t. Dary Dagdalene were !ept. +ot until 8913, when other
Dagdalene relies were found in )t.Da*imin in "rovence, and declared
authentic by the pope, did the pilgrimage to this church decline, causing
6%&elay to sin! into a deep sleep.
The Gothic choir in 6%&elay Qsee right@, /ust li!e the choirs at )t.
>enis and )t.4emi in 4eims, contrasts with an older, and in this case
4omanes#ue, nave whose lightfilled goal the choir appears to be. The
choir not only defines the interior space but also contributes to the
impressive outline of the church as a whole, which, because it stands on
the highest point of a hill overloo!ing 6%&elay, is visible from far away.
The interior is so subtly designed that it re#uires detailed analysis. First,
6%&elay.s choir, li!e that at "rovins, adopts the threestoried elevation
of )ens -athedral, even down to the subdivisin of the shafts by shaft
rings. The motif of the double piers also appears again, though only
once, on the north side, while opposite there is only a single slender
column. This characteristic asymmetry is as playful as it is disturbing in
its ability to direct the visitor.s ga&e toward a specific point. )lender
double columns are the thinnest supports of this choir, and they stand in
the very place where in most other churches the strongest piers are to be
found, that is, between the straight side walls and the polygon. 'y
doing this, the architect of 6%&elay solved the problem of the transition
between these various parts of the east end of a church, a difficult
6%&elay QVonne@, former 'enedictine
abbey church of )te.Dadeleine, last third
of 89th century Ground plan of choir
Qright@
problem to overeme architecturally. ?is solution was not only novel
but also contrary to every design that had been used up till then, partic
ularly those used at )ens and "rovins.
In addition, the problem in 6%&elay is thought through from the
vault, which is designed as a succession not of similar constructions,
but of compartments of the same si&e. )e*partite, #uadripartite, and
polygonal vaults follow each other in succession over the chevet
without the dissimilarity of their structure being obvious since they all
have the same narrow webs. The transverse arches are /ust as strong as
the ribs and no thic!er, as they would otherwise be, and so they do not
visibly sep,rate the individual vaults from each other, but, together
with the ribs, loo! li!e part of one uniform threedimensional
architectural decoration.
$long with several other effeets, the architect of 6%&elay height
ened the impact of this richly structured vault ,rea even more. ?e did
not lift the ape* of the wall arches above the windows to the height of
the vault !eystone, as was usual. $lso against common practice, he
started the vault at the upper stringcourse of the triforium. 'oth of
,/S
5""5)ITE7
$u*erre QVonne@, -athedral of )t.Ntienne,
begun 898:
E*terior Qtop@
+ave and choir Qbottom left@
$*ial chapel of choir Qbottom right@
these devices help to transform the vault from a dominant architectural
structure resting s#uarely on the walls into a magnificent canopy. Ahen
the setting of the vault is ta!en into account, the function that is served
by the strange pair of slender double and single piers becomes clear for
it can now be seen that they mar! the actual boundary of the bay, while
one would e*pect this to be the function of the much stronger piers
cise by. In other words, the construction of the bays in the arcade ,rea
and vault do not match, a notable deviation from the common structural
principies to date of Gothic architecture.
$t 6%&elay much greater emphasis was placed on visual than on
logical consistency. This is also illustrated by the fact that the wide
interval between the ad/acent piers is divided with the help of slim
supports, so that the arches rising above them become as thin, and
above all as low, as those in the actual chevet, whose construction is
e*tended out to the side walls as a result.
It is apparent from the ambulatory and the radiating chap%is that the
architect of 6%&elay in effect designed the ground plan and the upper
,reas as two sep,rate entities. $t ground level there is a simple
ambulatory with deep individual chap%is. $t window height, however,
their dividing walls fall away and they open onto each other at the sides
so that a plan of 6%&elay at this level is similar to that of )t.>enis,
where #uite shallow chap%is ad/oin a double ambulatory and where
they are incorporated under the same vaults as the outer ambulatory.
Thus at 6%&elay the two most important alternative designs current at
that time Qa double ambulatory with shallow chap%is, and a single
ambulatory with deep chap%is@ e*ist both alongside and overlapping
each other. The choir provides a good e*ample of how in the last years
of the 89th century, even with a good !nowledge of IledeFrance
Gothic, it was possible to build in very different styles.
Hust as the architect of 6%&elay found a solution for the structural
unity of wall arcading and vault, so his colleague in $u*erre a few
decades later separated the wall and the structural elements. The
restoration of the cathedral choir, begun in 898:, essentially echoes the
pattern of -hartres with its threestoried wall elevation Qsee opposite@,
though it is smaller than its model. $dmittedly the same scale was not
even attemptedO#uite the opposite, since the loadbearing elements
Qpiers, responds, and triforium shafts@ were made far more slender. The
columnar piers of $u*erre, even in comparison with those of )oissons,
in turn much more delicately constructed than those of -hartres, are
mar!edly thin. In order to prevent the individual clusters of shafts
from protruding too far Qand not solely because of their large number@,
the shafts of the wall ribs stand not in front of the wall, but in bo*li!e
niches set within the wall. This idea was not essentially new, of course,
since the a*ial chapel at )t.4emi in 4eims was designed in the same
way, but it was only at $u*erre that this system was used consistently
throughout the building.
In addition, at $u*erre, the top of the window niches end in such a
way that they form independent bo*shaped voids between the
*&
vault and the glass of the windows. The technical finesse and inten
tional delicacy of the design find their best e*pression in the a*ial
chapel of the choir Qstill unchanged today@, where the vault is installed
li!e a freestanding canopy Qsee opposite, bottom right@. The two
columns in the opening of this chapel give the impression of being two
of the canopy.s poles.
The nave of the parish church of +otre>ame in >i/on Qsee page 19,
right@, which was constructed mainly in the second #uarter of the 8;th
century, displays an acceptance of the architectural forms of $u*erre
-athedral that fall short of a precise imitation of the building type. Thus
the dimensions are considerably smaller, as is normal for a parish
church, and conse#uently the clerestory is shorter. In additionOand
unli!e $u*erreOthe building has uniform columnar piers that are
combined with a rhythmically constructed se*partite vault. +otre>ame
in "aris provides the foremost e*ample of this contradictory piervault
combination. There, uniform clusters of three responds, climbing to the
semidar!ness of the vault ,rea, merge with alternating rib formations.
The architect at >i/on solved the problem of matching responds and
vault ribs in e*actly the opposite way. 'ecause the number of ribs
changes at the springing of the vaults, the number of corresponding
responds below also changes. 5ne pier has three responds, the ne*t one,
and so on along the length of the nave. $s a result, both vaults and
responds lend a rhythmic structure to the space. This is emphasi&ed by
the row of uniform columnar piers, the triforium arcades, and the
clerestory windows, which, as at $u*erre, are set in niches. Thus two
different se#uences overlap here. To accentuate this, the architect set the
groups of three responds below the transverse rib of the vault so far
apart that the wall between them is still visible. This feature can be seen
especially clearly at the springing of arcade arches, whose profiles
continu% behind the responds.
In addition, the motif of the side aisle walls of $u*erre is ta!en up
again, with several windows of e#ual height aligned within each bay.
Grouped together in threes, they refer to the triforium, which is simi
larly divided into three, and allow the whole clerestory to appear to be
bro!en up by a series of small, e#ually si&ed lancet windows. This
motif also emphasi&es the uniformity and closely spaced se#uence of
the nave wall, which heightens the contrast with the wide wall arches of
the vault.
5n the facade Qsee page 19, left@, uni#ue in French Gothic archi
tecture, the motif of rows of arches superimposed on each other is ta!en
up again. This highly impressive showpiece wall, decorated with relief
galleries and tight rows of carvings which pro/ect hori&ontally, towers
up over finely constructed port,is.
Even if the buildings in the southeast of the IledeFrance, that is to
say, mainly in 'urgundy, were built with some !nowledge of that
central region.s cathedral architecture, it nevertheless seems that its
architects maintained a certain independence. The elegant solutions that
they foundOseparating the ground and upper stories at 6%&elay,
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>i/on Q-ted.5r@, parish church of +otre>ame,
second #uarter of 8;th century Facade
>i/on Q-ted5r@, parish church of +otre>ame
+ave and choir
slimming down
the loadbearing
structures in
$u*erre, and
varying the
rhythm between
the various layers
of wall in >i/on
Owere to have a
mar!ed influence
on the
architecture of
"aris from the
mid 8;th century
onwards.
Gothic
$rchitecture in
+ormandy
)urprisingly,
scholars and
historians have
not given the
Gothic archi
tecture of
+ormandy
anything li!e the
same attention the
contemporary
architecture of the
IledeFrance or
'urgundy has
received, despite
the un#uestioned
#uality of
buildings there.
The !nowledge of
Early Gothic in
the IledeFrance
had #uic!ly
spread throughout
+ormandy and
the surrounding
,reas. The Gothic
style was already
being used when
+ormandy still
belonged to the
English crown,
before it was
con#uered by the
French !ing
"hilippe$uguste
in 893C. )o in
Fisieu*, for
e*ample,
rebuilding of the
cathedral had
begun in the
88:3s, imitating
the elevation of
Faon fairly
closely, but
without the
triforium.
The
architecture of the
choir in )t.
Ntienne in -aen,
the burial place of
Ailliam the
-on#ueror, is
#uite different and
far more original.
$t the end of the
89th century the
od apse was
replaced by a
modern choir with
an ambulatory
Qsee opposite,
top@. The epitaph
inscribed in the
new building tells
us the Same of the
architect,
Guillelmus. Ahile
the ground plan
obviously refers
to that of )t.
>enis, since the
chap%is added to
the ambulatory
open into each
other, the
decorative
elements appear
to derive chiefly
from -anterbury
-athedral. 'ut the
architecture of the
od church also
played an
important role,
since the structure
of its stories
Qarcade, gallery,
and clerestory@
was preserved in
the new choir.
Ahat is perhaps
even more
important, the
&ur .pais, the
thic!
4omanes#ue
walls so typical of
+ormandy, was
also retained.
'ecause of this,
the piers and
arches irE )t.
Ntienne are much
stronger than
those in
contemporary
churches of the
IledeFrance,
and so can be
decorated with
large numbers of
shafts and
profiles.
$
characteristic of
this &ur .pais
was the potential
to split the wall
into several layers
one behind the
other. Guillelmus
was clearly
*%
T5" 4IG?T7
-aen Q-alvados@, former 'enedictine
abbey church of )t.Ntienne -hoir,
begun around 8933, Ground plan of
choir Qleft@
!een to e*ploit this feature,
for he pierced the spandrels
of the arcades with rosettes
that seem to open up a view
into the core of the wall, and
in front of the clerestory
windows he built a stepped
arcade. The construction of
walls conceived as layers
becomes particularly clear at
the piers in the chevet. ?ere
the piers are made up of two
columns placed one behind
the other, with one appearing
to carry the inner layer of the
main nave wall, the other
carrying the bac! wall.
This motif goes bac! to
the Early Gothic cathedral of
)ens and buildings based on
it, such as -anterbury. ?ere,
however, this (double
+orman column( is much
more decorative, perhaps
even more playful, than its
forerunners. The rounded
abaci above the capitals,
which ma!e each one of the
double columns appear
detached, are characteristic of
this arrangement. $t )ens
they are drawn together under
one common, rectangular
abacus.
$long with round bases
and abaci on the capitals, the
double columns in the chevet
of )t.Ntienne were favorite
motifs of +orman Gothic.
They are found again in the
choir of -outances -athedral,
and after about 8823 were
gradually renewed from west
to east Qsee right, bottom@. In
contrast to the facade, which
was only slightly altered, the
nave was so e*tensively
restored that it is hardly
possible to see that a large
part of the 4omanes#ue walls
have been retained there. The
elevation is similar to that of
the choir of )t.Ntienne in
-aen, yet a more logical
connection between the
disposition of the walls and
vault was arrived at through
the three powerful responds
rising up right from ground
level and lin!ing with the
diagonal and transverse ribs.
In -aen this pier motif
appears only at the start of the
choir.s apse. 5n the other
hand, on the straight side
walls this pattern begins
above ground level as slender
responds, then becomes more
pronounced at the height of
the stringcourse beneath the
gallery until it finally turns
into the richly profiled cluster
of ribs in the vault.
The choir of -outances,
probably begun around 8993,
presents a completely new
building. Its side aisles were
transformed into a double
ambulatory and its chap%is
made less deep, and
constructed so that they share
a common vault with the
outer ambulatory, as at )t.
>enis, -aen, and -hartres.
Vet at -outances Qbut not in
these other three buildings@
the side aisles are not of e#ual
height, but increase in height
as they move toward the
nave, as at 'ourges. $ three
storied elevation appropriate
to a nave Qwith arcade,
tribune gallery with blind
arcading, and clerestory@ is
found only in the inner side
aisle of the choir, while the
central nave, with /ust an
arcade and a clerestory, is
almost spacious in its
simplicity. The traditional
+orman &ur .pais is split
into layers right through, so
that the structural devices
inside are completely sep,rate
from the e*ternal walls and
windows.
In the apse, the familiar
motif of the double columns,
ta!en from )t.Ntienne in
-aen, is employed with this
divisin of the walls, so that
even the clustered piers in the
straight parts of the choir are
split. In conse#uence, it loo!s
as if they consist of two
supports fused
I
l
\
H
iA
I

^
&
5""5)ITE7
-outances QDanche@, -athedral of
+otre>ame
E*terior view from the east,
building restored ca. 8823
'ayeu* Q-alvados@, -athedral of
+otre>ame
-hoir, ca. 89;3C:
together, the front arcade
supporting the nave vault,
and the bac! arcade
supporting the vault of the
side aisle.
The e*terior of the
choir at -outances Qsee
opposite@ is characteri&ed
by a sharp contrast
between the protruding
stories and the huge
buttresses, which in effect
are gabled walls. $long
with some stairway towers
topped by stone turrets,
they lead the eye up to the
crossing tower, which not
only dominates the
e*terior of the cathedral
but creates a uni#ue
impression when seen
from the inside. It rises
above the richly profiled
crossing arches li!e a
huge, yet delicately
constructed, lightfilled
lantern. $fter this crossing
tower was built, the
towers of the fa]ade were
made higher. In other
words, the restoration
which was carried out
during the mid 8;th
century ended at the west
end of the cathedral,
where it had begun about
13 years before.
'ayeu* -athedral Qsee
right@ can be described as
the younger sister of
-outances, since in style
they both follow the
e*tensin to the choir at
)t.Ntienne in -aen. The
rebuilding of 'ayeu*
began with the choir
Qabout 89;3C:@, whose
rich architectural
decoration stands in
mar!ed contrast to that of
-outances. $K the piers,
with the e*ception of the
double columns in the
chevet, which were ta!en
from the church of )t.
Ntienne in -aen, are
surrounded by a host of
filigree shafts, and the
soffits of the arches develop
into a variety of profiles. $n
,rea of capitals with s#uare,
octagonal, or round abaci
forms the lin! between
piers, arches, and vaults in a
way which had never been
used before.
5n the transept facades,
which were constructed in
the third #uarter of the 89th
century, this pleasure in rich
decoration /oins forces with
a formal vocabulary
borrowed from
contemporary 4ayonnant
architecture of the Ilede
France. $ comparison of the
e*teriors of 'ayeu* and
-outances demonstrates
that the architect of one
cathedral was wor!ing, in
essence, with an array of
decorative details while his
colleague, by contrast, was
trying to achieve his effect
through the contrast of
massive bloc!s of masonry.
$t the Derveille Qthe
marvelous@, built between
8983 and 8992 on Dont)t.
Dichel Qsee page 1L@, both
trends can be seen. $fter the
con#uest of +ormandy by
the French !ing "hilippe
$uguste, Dont)t.Dichel
was no longer merely an
abbey situated in the middle
of the $nglo+orman
!ingdom. It was now a
French outpost on the
border with England formed
by the -hannel. It was
rebuilt at the time in an
e*travagant way.
)torerooms,
accommodation for the
various guests to the abbey,
and a cloister had all to be
integrated into one building,
for which there was really
no more space on the steep
cliff alongside the church.
Therefore strong
substructures were built,
which lend a fortressli!e
appearance to the building.
'ehind this e*ternal view,
a series of rooms are
hidden away, increasing in
elegance from the lower
level to the top level.
The cloister at the very
top is Dont)t.Dichel.s
masterpiece Qsee page 1L,
right@. From the unvaulted
ambulatory visitors loo!
into the
1:
Dont)t.Dichel QDanche@,
Derveille from the north
Aatercolor by E. )agot, between
82L9 and 82L< Qbelow@
-ross section of the ($umnerie(
of the Derveille Qright@
base of a side aisle vault
which had already been
built but had then been
abandoned after a change
of plan. $t any rate, the
rich profiling of the central
nave piers and the arcade
arches can be seen as
typical of the regin, since
these would have been
impossible without the
tradional tnur .pais5
'y contrast, the
architecture of the choir,
with its repertoire of motifs
borrowed from (French(
Gothic, is much more
severe. $s in the choir of
)t.Ntienne in -aen, there
is no trace of the desire to
decrate wall surfaces and
profiles. Vet there is an
even greater affinity with
IledeFrance Gothic, since
the choir shows a three
storied elevation, unusual
for +ormandy, with an
arcade, triforium, and
clerestory.
)imilarly, the passage in
front of the main nave
windows, which is found
everywhere else in this
,rea, is missing. ?owever,
some consideration is
given to the older parts of
the church, for the
separation of the stories
lifts the height of the
stringcourses in the nave.
The ambulatory too, with
its three protruding chap%is
Qthe middle one was rebuilt
from 8;39@, must be seen
as a repetition of the
corresponding structure of
the earlier llthcentury
building.
inner courtyard through
two arcades set against
each other. The narrow
space between these rows
of arches is spanned by a
slender vault whose rib
profiles cross over each
other in parts li!e
interwoven branches.
"erhaps this was an
attempt to imitate nature,
for the many rosettes of
leaves in +orman
architecture found in the
spandrels of the arcades are
unusually rich in their
variety and in their carving.
)ince the capitals of the
thin columns, which would
normally carry some leaf
decoration, have remained
undecorated, there is here a
delib%rate contrast between
the (pur%( architecture of
the columns and the
arcades on the one hand
and the architecture of the
vault ,reas, with their
naturalistic motifs, on the
other.
If the buildings already
mentioned represent the
independence of Gothic
architecture in +ormandy,
then others reveal a
fluctuating relationship of
cise affinity to, and
distance from, (French(
Gothic. 5ne of these is the
archiepiscopal cathedral of
4ouen, which had already
been continually e*tended
and rebuilt in the 89th
century. There are still
traces from this period to
be seen on the fa]ade.
Ahen a fire ravaged the
town and cathedral in 8933
and made a new building
necessary, things did not
progress in a logical way.
'efore the nave was
finished in 89;1, to a plan
by Hean d.$ndeli, a much
more modernloo!ing choir
was consecrated, which is
lin!ed to the architect
Enguerran.
The nave Qsee opposite@
gives the illusion of having
four stories, but in the side
aisles it is clear that there is
no vault between the
arcades and the gallery.
Ahere the vault springing
would have come in a
standard design, there is
only an unusual formation
of detached shafts. There is
some dispute as to whether
the function of these shafts
is purely to add a
decorative feature or to
conceal the
1L
4ouen Q)eineDaritime@, -athedral of
+otre>ame
+ave and choir, begun after
fire of 8933
Fe Dans Q)arthe@, former -athedral of
)t.Hulien,
-hoir, built between 8981 and 89:C
Qcentre and below@
The
crossing
tower Qwhose
roof was
destroyed by
lightning in
8299, and as
a result was
renewed in
cast iron up
until 821L@ is
once again
typical of
buildings in
+ormandy of
the 89th and
8;th centu
ries. The
closeness to
characteristic
forms of the
regin
becomes
even clearer
in the facades
of both
transepts,
even though
from 8923 a
completely
new !ind of
decoration, in
the "arisian
4ayonnant
style, was
incorporated.
In 4ouen,
therefore,
styles of
different
provenance
were
combined in
a uni#ue way.
$dditionally,
traditional
and modern
types of
architecture
were
employed, so
that the
cathedral is,
in essence,
characteristic
of +ormandy.
Ahile
patrons in the
,reas where
Gothic first
emerged
wanted either
to /u*tapose
the od
against the
new or to
build
uniform
churches in a
(pur% style,(
their +orman
colleagues
obviously
too! delight
in
permanently
Oand in fact
often
unneces
sarilyO
modifying
building
plans,
without
sparing too
much
thought for
uniformity or
purity of
style. The
results were
highly
original
buildings that
are never
monotonous.
$
particularly
noteworthy
e*ample of
this is the
choir of the
cathedral of
Fe Dans,
whose nave
has already
been
mentioned in
connection
with Early
Gothic Qsee
above, center
and right@.
Fi!e
+ormandy
on its
northern
border, the
city of Fe
Dans, in the
department
of Daine,
had fallen
into the
hands of the
French
monarchy in
893C, along
with the rest
of the
English
!ing.s French
possessions.
$ few years
later, in
8981, =ing
"hilippe
$uguste
allowed the
cathedral
chapter to
pul down
the city wall
in the place
where it
wanted to
build a
particularly
large new
choir.
'ecause the
ground
sloped away
at that point,
some costly
foundation
wor! was
needed at
first, but the
choir was
nevertheless
ready to be
started in
89:C.
It follows
the pattern of
the choir of
'ourges
-athedral,
whose aisles
increase in
height from
the outside to
the center,
but instead of
the tiny
chap%is of its
model, a
circle of large
and
particularly
deep chap%is
ad/oins the
outer
ambulatory
of the choir
Qsee above@.
These belong
to the older
parts of the
cathedral
e*tensin.
'ecause of
their
angularity
and their
strongly
constructed
buttresses,
they demn
strate a
number of
similarities
with the
architecture
of )oissons.
$s a
conse#uence,
it has now
been widely
accepted that
the original
architect of
Fe Dans
carne from
there.
?is
successor Qto
whom the
remaining
parts beneath
the clerestory
of the central
nave have
been
ascribed@
must have
been brought
from nearby
+ormandy.
For not only
did he
employ a
succession of
motifs typical
of that
regin, such
as the twin
columns in
the chevet
and the richly
profiled
arches, but he
also designed
the elevation
of the inner
choir
ambulatory
in a way
similar to the
choir
ambulatory
in 'ayeu*,
with arcades,
gallery, and
clerestory.
The d%cor in
the span
drels of the
gallery
arches
appears to
have been
produced by
those same
sculptors
who had /ust
finished wor!
on Dont)t.
Dichel Qsee
page 1L@ in
8992.
The upper
story of the
nave was
begun before
the middle of
the century
by yet
another
architect,
who brought
with him the
ledeFrance
style, which
at that time
was modern.
This can be
seen partic
ularly clearly
in the
window
tracery,
which once
again ta!es
up the forms
of the )te.
-hapelle and
the chap%is
built onto the
north side of
+otre>ame
in "aris.
'ut in
spite of all
these
differences in
style, the
original choir
of Fe Dans
seems on the
whole far
more unified,
largely
because the
overall plan
was
obviously
always
respected and
variety was
loo!ed
**
for only in the details. $dmittedly the choir, simply because of its
dimensions, differs from the 89thcentury nave, but without dis
regarding it. 6isitors entering the west portal are greeted by an
impressive view, one that steadily increases in splendor as they move
along the nave.
Fe Dans is perhaps the perfect e*ample of a Gothic cathedral that
combines not only styles from different periods, and different regional
styles, but in addition various building types without loo!ing
completely heterogeneous and confused as a result. It is no coincidence
that from the middle of the 8;th century onward the style emerging in
this cathedral carne to be seen as e*emplary throughout Europe.
Gotic Arcitecture in te Aest of 1rance
"atrons and architects in the west of France, in contrast to those in
other regions, operated not only independently of the architectural
developments of the IledeFrance, but largely in ignorance of them.
Even though individual forms might be adopted, for e*ample in the
tracery of the windows, no attempt was made to imtate the (classic(
Gothic cathedral, with its basilicali!e elevation, ambulatory, and
radiating chap%is.
In "oitiers, a town that had several 4omanes#ue churches possessing
an ambulatory, the cathedral remains a cuboid in which the nave and its
two side aisles end in the east at the same height Qsee opposite, left@.
"robably begun as early as the 88:3s, construction was advanced in
88L9 by an endowment from the English !ing ?enry II and his wife,
Eleanor of $#uitaine. Three parallel, e*tremely shallow apses are cut
into the straight continuous east wall, so that not only are ambulatory
and radiating chap%is missing but there is no real hint of a chevet.
Instead, the dominant impression, inside and outside, is of great unity of
structure and space, especially as it is a hall church, its nave and side
aisles being of appro*imately e#ual height.
This design resists any strong differentiation between the different
parts of the building, a feature which in other regions was an important
aspect of Gothic architecture. Even the older hall churches, fre#uently
found in the west of France, which had provided the model for "oitiers,
do not e*hibit such e#ual naves and side aisles as does the -athedral of
)t."ierre.
The interior walls copy an elevation traditional in "oitou, with tall
wallarcading above which rise shallow wall niches with large
windows. $s in the cathedral of $ngers, the vaults rise up domeli!e
towards the center, but west of the two choir baysOfrom which point
on the cathedral nave is also made higherOthey are divided only by
very slender ribs. These ribs divide each vault into eight parts, since not
only do they stretch across diagonally Qas is normal@, but they also run
between the ape*es of the transverse ribs and wall arches. This means
that only half of the ribs can be e*tended downward by responds.
Thus a curious discrepancy arises between the piers, whose powerful
halfshafts correspond to the arches between the vaults, and the vaults
themselves, which are stretched between them li!e narrow sails. The
structural connection between piers and vault thereby becomes
relatively wea!. This can be interpreted as another negation of the then
current principies of Gothic architecture. In the course of construction,
which lasted far into the 8;th century, building wor! underwent several
changes of plan. 'ut it was only right at the end of this period, during
the building of the west facade, that the cathedral of "oitiers managed
to respond to yet another style of Gothic architecture.
Thus the portal ,rea has a similar structure to the one in 'ourges,
while the rose window, which dates from as late as the second half of
the 8;th century, is modeled on that of +otre>ame in "aris. In
+ormandy, which became French in 893C along with "oitiers, the
Gothic style of the 4oyal >omain had arrived long before that date. Its
significance in the west of France, by contrast, remained slight, even for
#uite a long time afterwards.
This is also true of )t.)erge in $ngers, where the architect
constructed a doubleaisled rectangular choir with a protruding a*ial
chapel Qsee opposite, right@. Thin vault webs rising up to the center
12
"oitiers Q6ienne@, -athedral of )t."ierre,
second half of 89th century Ground plan
Qright@
$ngers QDaineetFoire@, former
'enedictine abbey of )t.)erge
-hoir, early 8;th century
Ground plan Qright@
s
6illard de ?onnecourt /asons4
Sketch-ook >rawings of
stonewor! for piers and windows
"aris, 'iblioth%#ue +ationale,
Ds. fr. 8<32;
4ayonnant Gothic
+ew Bui"ding 'ractices and St&"istic Inno0ation Kp to the beginning
of the 8993s, a large number of Gothic ecclesiastical buildings, from
cathedrals to parish churches, had been constructed in the 4oyal
>omain and the ad/oining regions. This lively building activity had also
led to technical progress. The (dismembering( of the wall and support
system in a building such as +otre>ame in "ars is therefore not only
the result of aesthetic considerations, but also the product of advances in
building technology. In this respect, the architects of the 8;th century
had at their disposal a much greater wealth of e*perience than their
older colleagues had had. 'uilding methods were also rationali&ed to a
greater e*tent7 shaped stones were no longer individually carved but
were produced in series, which reduced costs and speeded up the
building wor!. The whole building process could now be better
planned, something which affected not only the general organi&ation of
wor!, but also the architecture itself Qsee pages 8:C8::@.
The most important tool in this advance was the architectural s!etch,
which improved greatly in only a short time. >eveloping from large
grid plans sta!ed out on the building plot with the help of ropes and
posts, which could offer only general indications about the plan of the
church, the first smallscale plans appeared about 8993, drawings
scratched with a compass and straightedge onto a plaster base or walls.
Even if at first these plans showed only individual, easily drawn
geometrically details li!e rose windows, before long they began to
illustrate complete ground plans.
$bout 8993;3, builders and architects too! the decisive step of
ma!ing smallscale s!etches on parchment. Aith this method, all the
larger and smaller shapes could be copied and reproduced in order to
give precise advance details to sculptors and masons. The celebrated
(lodgeboo!( of 6illard de ?onnecourt dating from this time Qsee right@
gives an overview of the various functions and types of architectural
drafts. 6illard, it is true, was probably not an architect, but his
manuscript, which shows people, anim,is, machines, furnishings,
carvings, and many more things apart from churches, demonstrates that
in the great cathedral lodges of the period plans and details must have
been of great interest. ?e himself drew s!etches in -ambrai, Faon,
4eims, -hartres, and Fausanne, and even in ?ungary.
This new architectural practice of drawing on parchment also made
it possible to ma!e a provisional s!etch on a sheet of parchment, and
thus to e*periment with new ideas by illustrating them. Doreover, these
s!etches were simple to transport, so that architects, without having to
travel themselves, could !eep abreast of developments elsewhere.
Ahatever was currently being built in "aris, for e*ample, could #uic!ly
become !nown elsewhere and so influence developments far and wide.
The od limitations, determined largely by the mobility of the
individual architect or masn, were being overeme. Vet another
conse#uence of the development of architectural
23
drawings was that the buildings, at least partially, conformed to what
could be represented by a draftsman. Gothic architecture after the final
#uarter of the 8;th century often loo!s as if a series of different plans
have been laid on top of one another li!e stagesets.
The Gothic architecture built after the 8993s in France is called
4ayonnant, after the sunburst rays of the delicate rose windows of the
period. Than!s to technical innovations, the shapes in window tracery
had become richer and more filigreed, the complicated designs for them
being s!etched beforehand on parchment. +evertheless, despite their
increasingly comple* structure, they still appear twodimensional.
Throughout Europe there were attempts to imtate these rose
windows. They appear on buildings that otherwise have nothing at all to
do with French architecture. This touches upon another important point.
In the whole of west and central Europe during the 8;th century, even
outside the French crown.s domains, which had grown considerably in
the course of time, people were beginning to regard French culture, and
especially the "arisian court style of )t. Fouis QFouis IM@, as a model.
They were trying to imtate not only the fashion, ceremonial, and poetry
of France, but also its architecture. Gothic was thus a European style by
the middle of the 8;th century at the latest. $dmittedly, it was not every
style of Gothic that was favored in this way0 it was largely the "arisian
variety. The fame of this style of Gothic was such that an architect
could be appointed
)t.>enis Q)eine)t.>enis@,
former 'enedictine abbey church
+ave with choir and transept
)t.>enis Q)eine)t.>enis@, former
'enedictine abbey church 4ose
window of transept, after 89;8
master
masn on a
pro/ect
solely on the
basis of his
claim to
have studied
the latest
architecture
in the
French
capital, even
if he was at
best an
average
product of
the school
of "arisian
Gothic.
+aturally
there is no
precise point
at which
4ayonnant
can be said
to have
begun. Even
Early Gothic
had not
begun all at
once, but
had
developed
gradually
until it
became a
phenomenon
that could be
perceived by
contemporar
ies as
something
distinctive.
For that
reason,
many
characteris
tics of
4ayonnant
Gothic can
already be
observed
in the
cathedral
of $miens,
which
integrates
the od and
the new in
e#ual
measure.
Te
1renc
Court and
Its 2i"ieu
"erhaps it
is no
coincidenc
e that once
again one
of the first
buildings
in the new
style was
the abbey
church of
)t.>enis,
which as
early as the
89th
century,
under
$bbot
)uger, had
played
such an
important
role in the
developme
nt of
Gothic. In
89;8
$bbot
Eudes
-l%ment
ordered a
further
reconstruct
ion,
perhaps
because the
upper parts
of the
)uger
building
were
already in
danger of
collapse,
but perhaps
also simply
to ac#uire at
long last a
completely
modern
church Qsee
above@. $t
any rate, the
ancient and
hitherto
spared
-arolingian
nave was
now
sacrificed,
though the
ambulatory
of $bbot
)uger.s choir
was
preserved.
The
un!nown
architect
first
strengthened
the series of
the choir.s
inner piers,
which he
replaced, in
a
complicated
procedure,
without
affecting the
arcades and
vaults
resting on
them. In
doing so he
too! into
consideratio
n the older
parts of the
choir not
only
stylistically
but also
aesthetically,
retaining in
principie the
shape of the
od
columnar
piers and
merely
placing
some shafts
in front of
them. In the
rest of the
church,
supports
with a
cruciform
ground plan
were used
e*clusively.
Their core,
however, is
hardly
visible
because it
almost
completely
disappears
behind the
shafts. In
this way the
earlier round
piers in the
arcades of
the nave
were
dispensed
with for the
first time in
)t.>enis.
"reviously
they had
been either
single
columns or
piliers
cantonn.s
Qcolumns
with
individual
engaged
shafts@.
$bandoning
these had
farreaching
conse#uence
s, since until
then the
capital had
bro!en up
the pier.
+ow the
clusters of
shafts
28
Troyes Q$ube@, -athedral of )t."ierre
-hoir, begun before8932, clerestory
renewed after the collapse of 8992
could run continuously from ground to vault. In addition it had become
superfluous to ma!e a structural distinction between the piers of the
arcade and those of the crossing or tower, which had always been
powerful cruciform piers with continuous clusters of shafts. This new
type of support system therefore served the unifying trend vertically as
well as hori&ontally, in the succession of bays. Its development mar!ed
a radical departure in architecture, for it signified a re/ection of the
system of the columnar arcade which ultimately goes bac! to anti#uity.
In once again using the od columnar piers in the choir, the archi
tect of )t.>enis was respecting the unity of )uger.s ambulatory and
radiating chap%is. $t the same time, he was indicating that this was an
older part of the building, to be clearly distinguished from the modern
parts. It is a matter of speculation whether the new pier structure was in
fact devised precisely to illustrate this contrast.
The merging of the piers into their ad/acent responds allowed an
appropriate structure for the upper parts of the nave. Thus the delicate
lit triforium and the clerestory windows are lin!ed by continuous
mullions. In this way the relief form of this ,rea develops logically from
the clusters of responds. The unity of form in the upper story is further
enhanced in the later parts, in the nave completed in 8928 Qsee page 28,
left@. ?ere the mullions of the clerestory windows are lengthened,
pushing the crowns higher and causing the ape* of the windows to
reach the same height as the capitals of the vault alongside them. This
also means that in the clerestory the responds and the mullions reach the
same height. Though this solution is aesthetically convincing, it
contradicts the architectural principie that had previously applied to the
windows of the transept and choir. ?ere in )t.>enis it was not the
upright lancets in the lower ,rea of the windows that are the important
parts of the tracery, but the crowns above them, with their powerful
se*foil tracery, in which the larger pattern of the enormous transept rose
windows is continued. The center point of the transept rose window
therefore also lies at about the same height as the lower se*foils in the
crowns of the clerestory windows. It is in fact the rose windows of the
transept facades Qsee page 28, right@ that set the standard for the whole
of the church.s clerestory, since they completely fill the space between
the triforium and the ape* of the vault, which, because of this, could not
be higher or lower anywhere else. 'ut since the diameter of the rose
windows also coincides with the width of the transept, the transept is
therefore responsible for the overall proportions in the other parts of the
church. This is no coincidence7 it is precisely there, in the transept, that
the burial place of the French !ings was to be established. +ew statues
for the tombs were carved in the 89L3s. The new, or rather remodeled,
)t.>enis was intended to underline the significance of the church as a
royal burial place. For this purpose the transept was widened and
provided with double side aisles, something which had never happened
before. $bove the outer side aisle bays, towers were intended to rise up
in order to ma!e the position of the tombs recogni&able even from the
outside Qthese, however, were never finished@. The rose windows lin!
the e*terior with the interior space, which they dominate completely.
The style of )t.>enis is evident in the upper parts of the choir of
Troyes -athedral Qsee left@. This had to be renewed after a storm in
8992 severely damaged the church, which had been under construction
since the early years of the century. The dates for )t.>enis and Troyes
cannot be far apart as the buildings are very similar in places0 it is hard
to decide which church preceded the other. 'ut the logic of internal
building suggests that )t.>enis, in which the tas! of planning was
much more comple* than in Troyes, carne first. Doreover, before the
remodeling of )t.>enis there had already been initial attempts at
restoring the architecture in the ,rea around the abbey church, while
this was not the case in Troyes.
The newstyle architecture of )t.>enis, in which the richness and
elegance of construction is combined with 'urgundian wall structure,
was transferred during the 89; 5s to a smaller building, the royal
chapel of )t.GermainenFaye situated to the west of "aris Qsee
opposite@. ?ere all the walls are split into layers. The base of the
$%
)t.GermainenFaye QVvelines@,
former royal palace chapel of
+otre>ame, begun 89;2
walls recedes behind a delicately profiled arcade, and all the windows, including the west rose window Qwhich has since been filled in@, are set in niches
that are finished off at the top in a straight line and gla&ed in the spandrels, which lie /ust behind the vault webs. The separation of inner and outer layers
is thus stri!ingly displayed. Finally, the architect has even devised a stylistic difference between the gla&ed e*terior shell and the inside shaft and vaulting
system. The window tracery, because of its large number of rnate crowns, contrasts with the smooth shafts in the interior. 5f course this sort of thing
only made sense in a small chapel, where the windows are nearer to the observer than is the clerestory in a baslica. $t that time, the architect could
rec!on on an attentive observer who was in a position to perceive and appreciate such subtleties.
The patrn of )t.GermainenFaye, =ing Fouis IM, will have noticed these subtleties, but he probably considered them too e*travagant for his most
important church building, the )te.-hapelle in "aris Qsee pages 2C2:@. -onsecrated in 89C2, it must have been mainly constructed in the first half of the
89C3s. $s tall as many an older cathedral, it rises up in the middle of the royal palace li!e a stone shrineOwhich is in effect what it is, for it was built to
house what was thought to be -hrist.s crown of thorns, ac#uired from the 'y&antine emperor 'aldwin II. This relie, which was brought to "aris in 89;<
in solemn procession, served to increase the sacred prestige of the French !ings, who had for a long time, after all, been anointed with oil supposedly
brought straight from heaven. $s an allusion to the royal crown, the crown of thorns was an unmista!able symbol. Ahen the !ing was paying reverence
to the crown of thorns, holding it aloft on the platform of the )te.-hapelle, he was standing li!e -hrist among the apostles, whose statues are attached to
the piers. In addition, angels in the spandrels behind the statues of the apostles are celebrating a divine service. To those witnessing the ceremony, it must
have seemed as if the !ing was standing at the center of an earthly representation of the ?eavenly Herusalem.
It would have been illadvised to design such a politically important building as the )te.-hapelle only according to the latest "arisian architectural
fashion. Its timeless or eternal significance would be e*pressed much better by an appropriate (elassie( architecture. Therefore it is no coincidence that
the analysis of the building structure, which can be applied so successfully to the other e*amples of 4ayonnant architecture, is inappropriate for the )te.
-hapelle. $t least this is the case with the upper chapel of the church, while the lower chapel of the building, twostoried in the style of palace chap %is, is
an e*tremely complicated structure. )upporting the floor of the upper chapel is the lower vault, which is supported by thin columns standing well away
from the walls Qsee page 2C@. >elicate tracery arches divert the vault.s lateral thrust onto the outside walls. If this vault had e*tended from wall to wall,
then its arches would not only have become wider but also so high that they would have had to begin almost at ground level.
2;
"aris, )te.-hapelle,
former royal palace chapel,
consecrated in 89CL Fower
chapel Ground plan Qright@
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"aris, )te.-hapelle
Kpper chapel
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)t.GermerdeFly Q5ise@, former
'endictine abbey church Darian
chapel, ca. 89L3L:
)t.GermerdeFly Q5ise@, former
'enedictine abbey church
"assage between chevet and
Darian chapel Qleft@ Darian
chapel Qright@, ca. 89L3L:
The
structural
engineerin
g of the
upper
church is
no less
sophisti
cated, but
by contrast
with the
lower
chapel, the
means
employed
to carry
out the
tas!,
mainly a
comple*
system of
tensin
rods and
ring
armatures,
are
cleverly
concealed.
The
architect
had to
forgo any
overt
demonstrat
ion of his
ability in
order to
ma!e the
upper
chapel
appear
both
simple and
elegant
Qsee page
2:@. The
wall is
completely
translated
into
shallow
wall
arcading
and very
tall,
narrow
windows,
each of
which has
an
unobtrusiv
e crown.
)lender
responds
of varying
si&es
support the
vault with
its high
springing.
This
architectur
e is painted
all over in
the colors
and motifs
of the
royal
coatsof
arms,
while the
vault webs
portray a
starry s!y.
>espite
ma/or
restoration,
the present
colors are
probably
cise to the
original
scheme, in
which
intricate
gla&ing in
strong red
and blue
tones
predominat
ed.
There is
a
connection
between
the
appearance
of )t.
Fouis
himself,
who never
showed
himself in
an
e*travagan
t light
either in
his actions
or in his
clothes,
and the
architectur
e of the
)te.
-hapelle,
which is
devoid of
fashionabl
e detail.
+either a
reassertion
of the out
ofdate,
Sor a
retour G
l4ordre, the
)te.
-hapelle
set the
standard
for
(classic(
Gothic for
a long
time.
5utside
France,
where an
attempt
was made
to imtate
the French
monarchy,
it became a
standard
for Gothic
buildings0
within
France, in
contrast,
the trend
was for
less
ma/estic
buildings
since
nothing
could
really
compare
with the
)te.
-hapelle.
Thus
the Darian
chapel of
the abbey
church of
)t.
Germer
deFly Qsee
opposite
and
above@,
constructe
d in the
early
89L3s, can
be inter
preted as a
miniature,
and above
all less
steeply
soaring,
versin of
the )te.
-hapelle.
5utside,
nevertheles
s, it is
decorated
somewhat
more
richly and
elegantly,
notably in
the
filigreed
gables and
the richly
wor!ed
cornices.
This is also
true of the
connecting
passage to
the od
church,
which
ma!es the
e*tensin
far more
than /ust a
new a*ial
chapel. In
this
miniature
piece of
architectur
e, the
d%cor
discloses
its full
effect
because
here the
buttresses
are not so
dominant.
The
e*penditur
e on
decoration
is also
evident in
the
windows,
since in the
crown of
the
windows,
instead of
the
#uatrefoils
used in the
)te.
-hapelle,
larger
cin#uefoils
were used,
window
ape* and
gable
being
drawn
together
into one
single
feature. In
the interior
of
21
5""5)ITE7
"aris, +otre>ame -athedral
6iew from southeast, after 89:2
this connecting passage the doublelayering of the wall, avoided in the
)te.-hapelle, also reappears, and the piers display far more shafts than
is necessary0 they seem to develop from the richly profiled soffit of the
chapel portal. The cusped arcade arches produce a rhythm of their own
that does not correspond to that of the window tracery. In contrast to
this, the interior of the chapel itself loo!s smoothed out, for the responds
do not protrude boldly. The original painted decoration will have
emphasi&ed this effect. The architect of the Darian chapel of )t.
GermerdeFly !new very well how to cr%ate decorative, three
dimensional, and graphic effects, and how to apply them in a sensitive
and subtly differentiated way.
For this architecture, rich in nuances, the two transept facades of
+otre>ame in "aris, constructed around 89:3, were the model. These
new farades had to be built because around 8993;3 wor! was started
on constructing chap%is between the buttresses of the cathedral, chap%is
that overshadowed the od facades. The Same of the architect of the
older north facade, Hean de -helles, who before his death also laid the
foundation stone for the south facade Qsee opposite, top@, is !nown to us
than!s to an inscription which his successor, "ierre de Dontreuil, put
into the base of the later facade. This south facade largely follows the
model of the older north facade, but with a number of subtle differences.
For e*ample, the tracery of the rose window becomes even more
intricate and finely detailed. $lthough its appearance has altered after
several restorations, it still shows why on his gravestone its creator
"ierre de Dontreuil was given the scholarly title of doctor latho&oru&,
(doctor of stonemasonry.(
Te Indi0idua"it& of Arcitecture and Arcitects Aith Hean de
-helles and "ierre de Dontreuil we encounter the first "aris architects
!nown to us by Same. In $miens there is the cathedral master builder
4obert de Fu&arches and his two successors, Thomas and 4egnault de
-ormont. In the ma&e of 4eims -athedral Qwhich has since disappeared@
the architects Hean d.5rbais, Hean de Foup, Gauches de 4eims, and
'ernard de )oissons were represented, and in 4eims we can still se% the
gravestone of ?ugues Fibergier Qsee right@, the architect of the abbey
church of )t.+icaise, which was demolished during the French
4evolution. Than!s to documentary evidence, Gauthier de 6arinfroy is
!nown to us as the master builder of the cathedrals of Deau* and
Nvreu*. It is hardly a coincidence that none of these Sames is mentioned
before the second half of the 89th century, and that only then did the
younger master masons erect monuments to their deceased
predecessors, as happened in the cathedrals of $miens, "aris, and
4eims.
5bviously the leading architects of the period were no longer
regarded merely as capable craftsmen but were greatly admired for their
organi&ational s!ills and, above all, for their creativity. In art history,
therefore, it is precisely for this period that attempts are being made to
ascribe an oeuvre to individual artistic personalities not primarily on the
basis of written sources, but on the identification of
each architect.s (artistic signature.( For that is e*actly what these
architects were doing7 trying to cr%ate a recogni&able individual style
that would enable them to be distinguished from their colleagues. The
theoretical concept for this was ae&ulatio Qemulation@, competition
with a recogni&ed model. "ierre de Dontreuil was doing /ust this when,
in the building of the transept facades of +otre>ame in "aris, he named
his predecessor Hean de -helles, and modified his own architecture on
the basis of the other man.s e*ample. In all this it was no longer the
patrn of the wor! who provided the empetus for the competition
between architects, as had still been the case only a few decades before,
but the architects themselves.
The patrons were losing control over their pro/ects because archi
tectural speciali&ation was increasing. The profession of the individual
architect was emerging. The architect could now achieve a high social
position, as is clearly shown by the fact that he could erect monuments
to himself and his deceased colleagues in the guild of architects. The
remembrance of individu,is across several generations, a practice seen
in the everincreasing number of architects. inscriptions, had until then
been the preserve of the nobility and the higher clergy. 4egnault de
-ormont, who laid the ma&e on the floor of $miens -athedral, in which
his own Same also stands ne*t to those of his predecessors, probably
went the furthest in this respect. This monument, loo!ed at from the
entrance, lay immediately behind the tombs of the bishops of $miens,
who had been the first to commission the Gothic cathedral. The ma&e
placed the bishop and the master masn of the cathedral on the same
level.
This growing stress on individual architects was first confined to the
main centers Q"aris, $miens, 4eims@. +evertheless, it is clear that
4eims QDarne@, +otre>ame
-athedral
+orth transept, gravestone of
the architect ?ugues
Fibergier, from the abbey
church of )t.+icaise, begun
by him in 89;8 and demol
ished during the French
4evolution
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Troyes Q$ube@, former collegiate 5""5)ITE7
church of )t.Krbain, -arcassonne Q$ude@,
founded 89L9 by "ope Krban I6 )t.+a&aire
Interior Qleft@ -athedral
E*terior of the transept Qbelow@ -hoir and transept, begun ca. 8923
The church was founded in
89L9 by "ope Krban I6 at the
house where he was born and
the choir and transept were
constructed in the years
immediately following Qsee
above@. 5utstanding among the
building.s features are the
membraneli!e walls that are
so thin that they give the
impression they are not solid
walls but fabric stretched
between the buttressing. There
are always several layers
placed one behind the other. In
the lower story of the interior,
the discrepancy between the
inner and the outer layers of
wall Qhinted at cautiously in
+otre>ame in >i/on and in
the Darian chapel of )t.
GermerdeFly@ is logically
e*tended to all parts, so that
the freestanding tracery at the
front never corresponds with
the window tracery behind.
There is no hint of a triforium
or a wall ,rea rising over the
roofs of the side aisles. Instead,
the clerestory windows are
e*tended downwards as far as
possible.
The e*terior of the building
seems to be resolving into
three elements7 structurally
necessary buttressing,
decorated glass surfaces
re#uired for structuring the
interior space, and decoration.
+owhere else is there such a
wide space between clerestory
and buttresses. $t times it
seems as if the windows and
vaults are stretched over the
architectural frame, /ust li!e
the fabric of a vast tent. The
decoration, particularly the
gables, mostly stands
independently in front of the
wall, which is largely reduced
to loadbearing elements. This
is also the case with the
filigreed transept porches, the
thrust of which is diverted in a
completely unusual way onto
buttresses standing freely in
front of them.
<3
$t Troyes the architecture
was bro!en down in a uni#ue
way by displaying its basic
elements Qthe space
boundaries, the supports, and
the decoration@ independently.
From this it can be seen what
selfconfidence an architect
could develop in his profession
at that time whenever he had
received such an e*traordinary
Oin this case papalO
commission.
For the same reason,
however, the building was also
bound to remain uni#ue, since
it went radically beyond the
aesthetic of the age. That
architecture in other places
remained more conservative
does not therefore mean that it
was poorer, but that patrons
and architects were not in such
an e*ceptional and fortGnate
situation as those at )t.Krbain
in Troyes, and had to satisfy
the more comple* needs of a
church.s many users.
Thus the choir and transept
of the cathedral of -arcassonne
in southern France Qsee
opposite and page <9, top@,
although probably planned
only around 8923, are closer to
the architectural concepts of
the )te.-hapelle than they are
to those of )t.Krbain.
$dmittedly the pier profiles
and the tracery are carved,
following fashion, a little more
distinctly than in the )te.
-hapelle, but the lu*ury of the
layered wall of )t.Krbain is
not repeated. $s there was not
much space at his disposal, the
architect lin!ed the choir to a
series of chap%is and opened
the choir and chap%is through
to each other at the sides. This
resulted in one huge
continuous space whose
merged sections are bounded
only by fine freestanding
tracery and openwor! wall
panels.
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89C2. Its architect was Hean >eschamps. The wall elevation of the
interior follows the classic threetiered form Qwith arcade, dar!
triforium, and clerestory@, but it is combined with the modern pier type
from )t.>enis. The motif of the gabled triforium derives from the choir
of $miens.
'ut the innovations in this cathedral in the middle of France become
clear precisely in the comparison between the triforium and clerestory
there and at $miens. For instead of lin!ing both stories to each other by
means of continuous window mullions, and without giving up a
stringcourse between them, Hean >eschamps simply placed the
triforium into the clerestory window ,rea. The triforium is part of the
window tracery, and it is of secondary importance whether the tracery is
gla&ed or open, transparent or not.
Technically it would have been a trifling matter to open up the
triforium in -lermontFerrand since above the side aisles there are no
pent roofs, whose slope would otherwise cover the triforium, but fat
terraces, above which the whole clerestory, including the triforium,
rises up freely. Therefore the reason for not allowing the triforium to
disappear could only be an aesthetic one. It was probably preserved
because it was separated from the clerestory windows by a series of
richly carved, visually dominant gables. These gables, together with
their individual lancets, form a basic module that remains constant,
appearing fre#uently in the individual windows, with variations
according to the width of the bay.
Knusually, the individual window is not defined as a leftover space
between two piers, but as an independent element composed of the
basic module /ust mentioned. This had the advantage that in each case
these outer strips of window are always of the same height, which
means that the lower part of the crown is situated at e*actly
6iewed from the older nave, the choir loo!s li!e a glassedin shrine,
its windows a wall of bright light. This filigree architecture is
structurally so daring that it could be stabili&ed only with the aid of a
complicated system of invisible tensin rods.
-arcassonne is evidence that Gothic architecture after the middle of
the 8;th century was no longer a local style limited to the IledeFrance
and the surrounding ,rea. 5utstanding buildings were now considered
models worthy of emulation regardless of where they were built. Thus
the canons of the cathedral of +arbonne, also in southern France,
/ustified the new construction of their cathedral by arguing the need to
imitate the (noble and grandly e*ecuted churches... in the =ingdom of
France.( $nd for that reason the main focus of building activity in
France was now moving increasingly to the periphery, because, after
all, in the heartland of Gothic most cathedrals, abbeys, and priories had
been begun in the new style long ago, even if they were not yet
completed.
$n e*ample of the spread of Gothic beyond its original ,rea of
influence is the cathedral of -lermontFerrand Qsee right@, begun in
:1
Tournai Q?ainaulti'elgium@,
+otre>ame -athedral
-hoir, consecrated 89:;
Ground plan Qright@
n r
<J 0
i
' -0 0!J J 0 J J ?=
S 0 t t '--T t S0 ?:
the same
height in all
parts of the
choir, which
was not the
case in older
buildings. This
meant that the
impression of a
unified choir
clerestory
could be
achieved. In
the narrow
wall ,reas of
the choir
polygon two of
these modules
fit e*actly
between the
piers every
time, yet in the
straight bays a
narrow strip of
wall still
remains free
alongside each
of the window
,reas, which at
-lermont
Ferrand consist
of three
lancets.
This does
not mean that
Hean
>eschamps
departed from
the principie of
the dissolving
of the wall into
supports and
windows, or
even that he
inaugurated a
new aesthetic
of the wall, as
has often been
claimed7
he
merely
resolved
in a
totally
new way
the
problem
common
to every
choir,
that of
the
complica
ted
transition
between
the
straight
and
polyg
onal
parts. $s
we have
already
seen in
the
analysis
of the
church of
)te.
Dadelein
e in
6%&elay,
this
problem
could
lead to
highly
original
solutions.
The
anonymo
us
architect
of the
choir of
Tournai
-athedral
, which
was
construct
ed
between
89C; and
89::,
also had
to
concern
himself
with the
problem
of lin!ing
the
different
parts in
this ,rea
of the
church
Qsee
above@.
Fi!e his
colleague
at
-lermont
Ferrand,
he too!
the strips
of
window
in the
chevet as
his point
of
departure
for the
windows
in the
remainin
g parts of
the upper
story, but
instead of
adding a strip
of wall to them
at the edge, he
split the two
strips in the
middle by an
additional,
very narrow,
e*tra lancet,
repeating this
design in the
triforium.
)ince in
Tournai he was
not building a
completely
new cathedral
but was merely
e*tending the
od
4omanes#ue
building with a
new choir, the
architect had
little space at
his disposal for
the choir.
Therefore he
chose the
ground plan of
the cathedral of
)oissons,
which re#uires
only a small
,rea for the
choir. Thus the
straight chap%is
are situated fat
between the
buttresses
while the
radiating
chap%is, to
save space, are
drawn together
with the
ambulatory
under one
vault.
In Tournai,
however, the
chap%is are no
longer
independent
spaces, but
instead are
parts of an ,rea
created by the
undulating
e*terior wall of
the ambulatory,
an arrangement
that creates an
unusually
spacious
impression.
Aith their large
,reas of
window, the
chap%is must
originally have
seemed li!e a
gla&ed
bac!drop
behind the
arcades of the
inner choir. In
order to ma!e
this view
possible, the
arcade piers
were made
appropriately
thinOtoo thin,
in fact, for they
soon had to be
strengthened
and the
impression of
space was lost.
<;
)an Galgano, former -istercian
abbey church, begun ca. 899C +ave
)fesri0
.B
<<
+..
%B
U
3 (
-0V ! rt! &,I ,. EY
Elv 6a))E.. !5J5 sE
6ercelli, )ant.$ndrea,
founded 898<, consecrated 899C
+ave
Early and ?igh Gothic 5utside France
Gotic as a 1renc ?Q!ort
It is no coincidence that Tournai stands at the end of an account of the
development of Gothic architecture in France. For this town was no
longer situated within the =ingdom of France, but was now within the
borders of the ?oly 4om,n Empire. $ll the same, the influence on the
town of French politics and culture was decisive, especially as Germ,n
was never spo!en in Tournai. -onse#uently, The cathedral of Tournai
can certainly be regarded as belonging directly to French Gothic, which
is e#ually true of other buildings in the frontier ,reas of France.
In any case, it is only with difficulty that the spread of Gothic in the
late 89th and early 8;th centuries can be represented as coinciding
with the political frontiers of the time. +ormandy, for e*ample, still
belonged de Kure to France, but when the first Gothic buildings were
built there it was under English rule and the French !ing could not
e*ercise any rights there de fado5 Early Gothic is therefore very similar
on both sides of the English -hannel. The first country outside France
in which this style was ta!en up and #uic!ly achieved an independent
form was indeed England, whose Gothic is therefore treated in a
sep,rate chapter in this boo!. In France.s other neighbors, whose
history was not so closely bound up with the mother country of Gothic,
the assimilation of the new style carne about differently.
In the following pages the spread of Gothic will be discussed in the
phase in which it can still be viewed as a French e*port, before it too!
root and underwent completely independent transformations in the
countries of adoption. This does not mean that the first Gothic buildings
outside France are being labeled as merely derivative, particularly as
none of them as they stand could have been built in France. $ll the
same, the wish of the English !ing ?enry III to put the newly built
)te.-hapelle in "aris on a wagn and transport it to Fondon reve,is
that French buildings were widely regarded as pointing the way
forward. This admiration of French architecture varied in intensity
from country to country, and ended at very different times in its various
places of adoption.
Te Beginnings of Gotic in Ita"&
$mong France.s neighbors, it was Italy that was the least receptive to
the early forms of French Gothic. Thus, in mar!ed contrast to other
European countries, there is not a single Italian cathedral or large
church from the 89th or 8;th century that is wholly based on the French
model. In Italy, the new style was first of all spread mainly by the
-istercians, not in the versin !nown from the IledeFrance, but in a
variant based on 'urgundian Fate 4omanes#ue. This led to only minor
modifications of Italian native architectural style, especially as the rib
vault was already common as an important structural element of Gothic
architecture in northern Italy from the early 89th century.
The period of the true adoption of Gothic architecture from France was,
for the reasons already given, brief and had already ended soon after
the middle of the 8;th century, when #uite independent buildings were
constructed in Italy, buildings that have little more than the Same
Gothic in common with their counterparts in France.
The ruin of )an Galgano in Tuscany Qsee opposite@ is typical of the
many Gothic -istercian churches in Italy. 'egun about 899C, the
building still shows the cruciform piers with the three#uarter columns
in front, typical of 'urgundian 4omanes#ue. $ll the same, from the
ground plan up it is an e*tremely logical transplantation of the French
pattern for a -istercian church. Thus it is virtually only the materialsO
bric! and travertineOwhich point to Italy.
5ne of the few churches that show a #uite definite relationship to
the Gothic of the northern French type is )ant.$ndrea in 6ercelli,
founded in 898< by 'ishop Gualo after his return from England as
papal l%gate, and consecrated as early as 899C Qsee above and page 9<15
The building was admittedly far from finished at that point, but it must
have progressed rapidly because the bishop was able to place a
substantial income from an English abbey at the disposal of his
foundation. The adoption of Gothic building forms, unusually
<;
specific for Italy, is certainly connected with the fact that the church
was run by canons from the "aris abbey of )t.6ictor.
Thus the ground plan already indicates a style of building that is
characteristically French, with a nave and two side aisles, transept, and
staggered apses, a form that is found for e*ample in )t.6incent in
Faon, and in )t.Vved in 'raine. The shape of the piers, unusual for
Italy, with the columns closely surrounded by shafts, is derived from
the side aisles of the nave of +otre>ame in "aris. ?owever, the
unusually small clerestory windows are already an indication of how
far the building is from French Gothic, especially as it was begun
around the same time as the cathedral of $miens. From the outside, the
church is built entirely of bric!, which is typical of northern Italy, with
a fat blind screen facade with dwarf galleries and flan!ed by twin
towers rising from a rectangular ground plan. $ll these features had
been !nown in Italy for over a century. )ant.$ndrea clearly
demonstrates that a complete adoption of Gothic building types and
forms was out of the #uestion in Italy0 such an adoption, if it was
attempted at all, depended on specific conditions.
6ercelli, )ant.$ndrea, founded
898<, dedicated 899C
Te Beginnings of Gotic Arcitecture on te Iberian 'enInsu"a
The appropriation of Gothic on the Iberian peninsula proceeded in a
considerably more varied manner than in Italy, beginning earlier and
lasting longer. The reason for this was that the connection with France
had always been closer geographically and, above all, politically. $s
early as the 8 lth century, the age when -hristian )pain was beginning
to emerge from $rab domination Quntil 8C<9 )pain had to grapple with
Duslim rule in the southern part of the peninsula@, the orientation
toward French culture had been an important means of reintegrating
)pain into the -hristian west. The French monastery of -luny, closely
connected with the ?oly )ee in 4ome, played an important part in this,
/ust as in reverse the gigantic church of -luny was constructed by
means of )panish money e*torted from the $rabs. $long the pilgrims.
way to )antiago in Galicia, French culture played a particularly
important role, because on the ca&ino franc.s QFrench road@ there were
not only very many pilgrims from France but also a series of towns
settled completely or partially with inhabitants of French origin. It is
therefore no coincidence that the first signs of the adoption of French
architecture and sculpture can be recogni&ed in the cathedral of
)antiago itself.
In the west of the church, where building began in 88L2, the main
portal Qthe "rtico de la Gloria, completed in 8822@, the rib vaulting and
the whole conception of the design show that the architect, Daster
Dateo, was familiar with artistic trends of the day in France, especially
in 'urgundy. $dmittedly all the French elements there are transformed
in such an original way that it is difficult to describe the "rtico de la
Gloria as Gothic, let alone French.
This is true also of a whole series of other buildings from -atalonia
in the east to Galicia in the west, for e*ample the -istercian churches of
Doreruela, )antes -reus Qsee page 88@, and "oblet, and also the
cathedrals of )alamanca and Fleida. Their architecture, which combines
traditionally )panish elements, such as powerfully constructed piers,
with rib vaulting inspired by French models, could have led to the
emergence of an original variant of Gothic on the Iberian peninsula at
an early date. 'ut wor!ing against this possibility was the fact that all
the !ings of the different !ingdoms of )pain were always concerned to
be in direct contact with French culture, which in the field of
architecture led to more and more new waves of Gothic being adopted.
In jvila in -astille, which had been an archbishopric only since
88C9, the rebuilding of the cathedral was probably begun in the 8813s.
-haracteristically, this happened at a time when =ing $lfonso 6III
Q88:2898C@, still a minor, was temporarily residing in the town after
the separation of the !ingdoms of -astille and Fen, which occurred in
88:1. This cathedral was such an ambitious pro/ect that in order to
construct its ambulatory Qsee opposite, left@ the mighty town wall,
finished only a few decades before, had to be bro!en through. This
would have been unnecessary had they decided on a less lavish east end
of the church, namely one with an apse of the
<L
Fas ?uelgas Q'urgos@, former
-istercian convent church, early
8;th century -hoir and transept
form usual in )pain. 'ut instead
they even constructed a double
ambulatory with radiating
chap%is, the center of which,
hardly by chance, lies e*actly on
the line of the od town wall. $t
the time there was only one
model for this east end in Europe,
namely )t.>enis, which
contained the tombs of the French
!ings and the national patrn
saint, >ionysius Q>enis@. It can be
assumed that jvila too was
intended as a (royal( building,
differing from everything hitherto
constructed in )pain, and at the
same time comparable to one of
the most modern and
sophisticated royal churches in
Europe.
$t the same time, it was clear
from the start that in jvila an
e*act replica of )t.>enis was
impossible, because the e*cessive
opening up of windows, so
important for the French abbey
church, was the one thing which
could not be imitated7 the choir,
being a part of the town wall,
could hardly be opened to the
outside. 'ut that probably did not
matter either, because the
integration of the jvila choir into
the town wall ma!es the !ing.s
involvement #uite clear7 he alone
was responsible for decisions on
the demolishing or rebuilding of
town walls. Therefore a subtle
interplay between a heavy
e*terior and a filigreed interior,
with slender columns, responds,
and rib vault, characteri&es the
ambulatory of jvila, whose
architect is named as
Daster Fruchel. The
appropriation of Gothic was in
this case highly selective and
only of short duration, as the
other parts of the choir already
show a repertoire of e*clusively
traditional )panish forms.
In 882;, $lfonso 6III, who
had already been involved in
jvila, founded, in front of the
city gates of 'urgos, the
-istercian monastery of Fas
?uelgas, which served as a royal
residence. The church, which
dates only from the early 8;th
century Qsee above, right@, shows
that patrons and builders were
still basing themselves on French
architecture, although the
reception of Gothic had in the
meantime become much more
comple* than it had been at
jvila. For e*ample, the building
imitates French models from the
regin around Faon in almost
e*act detail while some of the
rather more complicated vault
shapes allow us to conclude that
the Gothic architecture of the
Foire regin was also !nown.
In the cathedral of -uenca,
too, the chevet, which originally
consisted of a polygonal main
apse and lower side apses,
increasing in depth towards the
a*is, imitates building types and
forms of Faon, perhaps also those
of 'raine. The influence of the
buildings in that regin was at the
same time spreading in France
itself, shown by its reception in
such varying places as 'ourges,
-hartres, and Fe Dans.
<1
$lcobaca, former -istercian
abbey church, from 8812
"anteao 4eal Qleft@ -hoir Qright@
)ome of the motifs
characteristic of this architecture,
such as the shafts set into the
window reve,is, or the buttresses
that are continued above a wide
water channel merely as narrow
strips of wall, even recur on the
wellroom of the "ortuguese
-istercian monastery of
$lcobaca. $nd since the well
room cannot have been begun
before the 8993s, it is to be
assumed that large parts of the
church had already been
completed earlier, for usually the
e*tensin to the cloister began
only when the church could be
used for religious services.
Knfortunately it is necessary to
approach this powerful, e*tremely
impressive building by way of
marginal notes such as these,
since there is not yet a
satisfactory account of its history.
The monastery had been
founded in 88:; by the first
"ortuguese !ing, $fonso I
?enri#ues Q88;<2:@. The
original church was replaced from
8812 by the present new building
Qsee above and opposite@.
-onstruction, however,
progressed slowly as the mon!s
had to abandon $lcobaca again
temporarily because of an attac!
by the Doors. -onse#uently
several building phases can easily
be
distinguished. For e*ample, at the
fourth nave bay from the
crossing, there is an interruption
in building typical of many
-istercian churches, since the first
things to be completed were the
east parts necessary for priest
mon!sOthe high altar, the side
altars, and choir stalls. $
consecration recorded as ta!ing
place in 899; may be associated
with the completion of this
building phase. $fter that, at least
two further building phases
followed for the remainder of the
nave, until the final consecration
in 89:9.
$ precise architectural history
categori&ation of $lcobaca is
difficult because whereas the
church reve,is itself from its
ground plan to be an almost e*act
copy of -lairvau*, )t. 'ernard.s
church, its later construction
cannot be so simply classified.
This is true of its unusually high
choir Qsee above, right@. The choir
is, by contrast with a -istercian
church li!e "ontigny Qsee page
L2@, modern for its time, its
comparatively long windows
suggesting the influence of
cathedral design, but all the same,
it is covered by a rather old
fashioned, domeli!e vault. In
contrast to this basilicastyle
choir, the nave and transept
<2
'urgos -athedral, begun 8998
-hoir
Toledo -athedral,
begun ca. 89999;
$mbulatory
are
halls
with
cross

ribbe
d
vault
s and
with
aisles
about
as
high
as
the
nave,
for
whic
h
there
were
no
mode
ls in
-iste
rcian
archit
ectur
e.
+
o
satisf
actor
y
e*pla
natio
n for
the
intro
ducti
on of
this
unus
ual
buildi
ng
type
has
been
found
.
"erha
ps we
can
imagi
ne
that
in
$lco
baca,
as in
)pain
aroun
d
8933,
the
build
ers
who
were
wor!i
ng
there
were
famil
iar
with
the
Gothi
c of
"icar
dy,
and
espec
ially
of
weste
rn
Franc
e,
wher
e
there
were
hall
churc
hes
such
as the
cathe
dral
of "oitiers
Qsee page
1<, left@.
'ut the
bays here
are much
wider,
while the
distance
between
the
mighty
piers of
$lcobaca,
collared
off at the
bottom in
true
-istercian
style, is
so narrow
that a
view
through
into the
side aisle
becomes
almost
impossibl
e.
$t any
rate it is
clear that
in general
the
imposing
church of
$lcobaca
pays no
attention
to the
Gothic of
the Ilede
France,
even if
individual
details
show that
the
builders
were well
ac#uainte
d with it.
Instead,
the
building
tends to
give the
impressio
n of an
e*aggerati
on of a
'urgundi
an
-istercian
church
from the
third
#uarter of
the 89th
century.
In other
words it
does not
reflect a
fashion, it
represents
a type.
)ince this
church
could not
have been
constructe
d in such
dime
nsion
s
with
out
some
royal
invol
veme
nt, its
archi
tectu
re
also
refle
cts
royal
inter
ests
and
aspir
ation
s.
It
was
only
after
the
8993
s that
Gothi
c
cathe
drals
were
con
struct
ed in
)pain
for
whic
h the
most
mode
rn
Frenc
h
episc
opal
churc
hes
serve
d as
direct
mode
ls. It
is
true
that
befor
e that
there
were
churc
hes
in
)pain
in the
Gothi
c
style,
in
-uen
ca,
for
e*am
ple,
but
these
were
based
only
on
elem
ents
of
the
new
Gothi
c
style,
not
mode
led
on
the
Gothi
c
cathe
dral.
$t
'urg
os in
899<,
'ish
op
Daur
icio,
a
confi
dant
of
the
-asti
lian
!ing,
Ferdi
nand
III
Q898
1:9@,
laid the
foundatio
n stone
for his
new
church,
the choir
of which
could
already
be used
by 89;3
Qsee
below,
left@.
5rigin
ally this
baslica,
which has
a
protrudin
g aisleless
transept,
also
possessed
an
ambulator
y with
se*partite
vaults and
small
chap%is,
li!e the
cathedral
of
'ourges.
The motif
of the
columnar
pier
surrounde
d by
slender
responds
stems
from
there, too0
the core
of the pier
is
continued
in front of
the main
nave wall.
Dotifs
li!e the
high
triforium
surmount
ed by
blind
arches
derive
from the
model of
the
French
cathedral,
as well as
the vault
webs in
the choir
polygon
833
4lG?T7
Fen -athedral, begun 89::
'EF5A7
Toledo -athedral, begun ca. 89999; E*terior and ground plan
penetrated by small oculi. 'ut 'urgos is not a copy of 'ourges, since the
)panish cathedral has only single side aisles and for that reason it was not
possible to repeat the se#uence of two side aisles increasing in height
toward the nave.
This did occur, however, in the construction of the archiepiscopal
cathedral of Toledo, begun immediately after 'urgos and based
essentially on the same French model. In accordance with the status of the
$rchbishop of Toledo, who was "rimate of )pain, this cathedral is the
largest 8;thcentury building in )pain. $part from its nave and double
side aisles, it can also boast an aisled transept, thereby surpassing both its
French model and its )panish sisterchurch in 'urgos. In addition, the
double ambulatory Qsee opposite, right@ possessed a further circle of
radiating chap%is, formerly with
8: alternately rectangular and semicircular chap%is, a record for Gothic
cathedrals. In order to cr%ate the connection between the piers of the inner
choir, si* in number, and the 82 corners of the radiating chap%is, a
complicated se#uence of vaults was used in which, starting from the
center, behind each pier there is a triangular vault framing a large
rectangular one.
The Toledo master masn Qwhose Same was Dartn@ could not adopt
the 'ourges system here, but based himself instead on the outside
ambulatory of the recently started choir of the cathedral of Fe Dans. The
motif of the triforium in the inner ambulatory, which is crowned by a
rosette, had already occurred in numerous smaller churches in the ,rea
around "aris, in which, as here in Toledo, the clerestory was too low for
lancet windows.
838
5""5)ITE7 Fen
-athedral, begun
89:: Ground plan
Qright@
The archiepiscopal cathedral of Toledo can be seen not only as a
slightly moderni&ed versin of the pattern of 'ourges, but also as an
attempt to int%grate the latest French architecture over its whole range,
while at the same time continuing to ta!e account of Islamic elements.
This building was clearly aiming to be seen as the religious center of the
whole Iberian peninsula, and to be at least the e#ual of cathedrals outside
)pain, if not their superior. It is no surprise that such an ambitious
building pro/ect could be brought to a conclusin only at the end of the
8:th century.
The cathedral of Fen, begun about 89::, represents a further step in
the Iberian appropriation of French Gothic. The choice of models is in
this case not as arbitrary as at Toledo, but it is almost only royal buildings
of France that are adopted. The ground plan of the choir resembles that of
4eims, while the layout of the west and transept facades, with their
towers standing freely at the side ne*t to the central aisles Qsee page 838,
right@, follows the model of the transept farades of the royal tomb of )t.
>enis. The e*treme delicacy of the interior and the large tracery windows
Qsee opposite@ must similarly go bac! to )t.>enis, although the elegance
of the e*ecution suggests that the )te.-hapelle may have served as the
model. The pier type can be described as the lin! between the piliers
cantonn.s of 4eims and the continuous rib clusters of )t.>enis.
Fen -athedral was therefore to unite elements that in France were
divided among several buildings important to the monarch. $t the same
time, this claim could be displayed only formally because the cathedral of
Fen was not a royal coronation church, the tomb of a particularly
important national saint, or the home of a politically important relie.
$t that time a further enlargement was planned to the already very
large cathedral of )antiago, which, as the burial place of )t. Hames, was
one of the most important pilgrimage destinations, and which since the
beginning of the 4econ#uista Qthe recon#uest of )pain under the -hristian
banner@ had been considered one of the principal centers of -hristian
)panish identity. The plan was for a choir e*tensin in the "aris style,
which with its total of 8< chap%is would have put even Toledo in the
shade. Finally, "arisian 4ayonnant architecture was also the model for the
e*tensions to the cathedral of 'urgos carried out about 89L3 to 8923. In
these buildings a particular connection with =ing $lfonso M Q89:92C@
can be demonstrated. Fi!e the French !ings a hundred years before, he
wanted to cr%ate a centrali&ed state based on the person of the monarch.
?e failed in this, however, because of the resistance of the nobility, who
plunged the country into civil war.
The influence of French 4ayonnant architecture in -astille can
therefore be regarded as an attempt, through architecture, to ma!e royal
claims that were not in fact reali&able. Therefore it did not result in a
broad adoption of Gothic forms in a clear and definitive way, as was the
case at Toledo. The forms ta!en were those of an e*clusive (royal(
French Gothic, which in France itself was no more
than one of many possible versions. The failure of the policies of $lfonso
M was therefore a heavy blow for the further reception and e*pansin of
Gothic in -astille. Gothic would become successful again only later in
$ragn and -atalonia, because in these ,reas there was no e*cessive
concentration on a small circle of French models, which meant that
architectural development could be more independent and more varied.
The 'eginnings of Gothic $rchitecture in the ?oly 4om,n Empire
The First Encounter
The ?oly 4om,n Empire was politically and culturally still a highly
heterogeneous entity at this time. 'etween its individual parts there
e*isted at best a lose association. $t the moment when, for various
reasons, Gothic architecture in France began to be of interest to potential
patrons in the Empire, the Empire e*tended from )icily over wide ,reas
of Italy and up to the +orth )ea and the 'altic. The Emperor, whose tas!
it was to hold this empire together, had real power only in certain regions.
?is power had not been enforceable in northern Italy, for e*ample, since
the 89th century.
In the ,rea north of the $lps, which is to be discussed here, a
distinction must be made between the ,reas in the east, and those in the
west, which today belong predominantly to France. In the latter, where
French was spo!en, Gothic architecture can hardly be distinguished from
that which arse in the neighboring French regions. In the eastern ,reas,
by contrast, an early adoption of individual elements of Gothic
architecture too! place, though without the buildings concerned being
mista!able for their models. It was not until the second half of the 8;th
century that Gothic become the norm there, and it was only after this time
that an independent style of Gothic architecture began to emerge in
Germany.
?ow wrong it would be to ta!e as a starting point merely political
frontiers, whether real or the accidents of history, is shown by the case of
the cathedral of Fausanne, situated on Fa!e Geneva. The diocese was part
of the archbishopric of 'esancon and therefore was oriented toward the
west, not only in terms of geography but also in terms of ecclesiastical
politics. +evertheless, it is astonishing that already during the building of
the cathedral Qbegun about 88L313@, a Gothic ambulatory was
constructed that at this time was very unusual in the regi n, an
ambulatory vaguely reminiscent of the cathedral of )ens. Ahen after a
change of plan the inner choir was finally begun, the builders of Fausanne
loo!ed even farther west7 the threestoried wall elevation Qsee page 83C@,
which has a real triforium and a recessed clerestory, shows astonishing
similarities to that of -anterbury -athedral Qsee page 89:@, where the
origin,is of many other forms at Fausanne can also be found.
It is true, therefore, that after -anterbury Fausanne is the oldest Gothic
cathedral outside France. "erhaps that is why at Fausanne the consisteney
and order that characteri&es the architecture of the heart
83;
Fausanne Q6aud@, +otre>ame -athedral,
begun last #uarter of 89th century -hoir
Fausanne Q6aud@, +otre>ame -athedral
+ave
land of Gothic
is largely
ignored. In
French Gothic,
for e*ample,
there is not a
single church
in which such
different piers
stand ne*t to
each other as
they do in
Fausanne. 5n
the other hand,
the building
was clearly of
interest to
French
architects7
6illard de
?onnecourt,
passing
through the
,rea, studied
the rose
window in the
south transept
and made a
free copy of it.
$bove all,
Fausanne was
to become
important later
in the French
part of
'urgundy,
since the
cathedral, as
one of the first
Gothic
buildings,
boasted a two
layered
clerestory.
Today the
painting of the
interior, still
largely
preserved,
gives
Fausanne
-athedral a
special place
in the study of
Gothic
architecture
Qseepage 89@.
$n
important
contribution to
the spread of
Gothic
architecture
was made by
the
-istercians,
whose tightly
organi&ed and
centrali&ed
order had its
home in
'urgundy. In
the Germ,n
-istercian
monasteries
there was at
first no
complete
adoption of
French Gothic
83C
architecture,
but a mi*ing
of regional
traditions with
modern
elements. Thus
the church at
Daulbronn in
)wabia is still
entirely
4omanes#ue,
but is
surrounded by
monastic
buildings
demonstrating
increasing
Gothic
influence7 the
porch of the
church, con
structed
towards 8993,
possesses a
vault with ribs
that all have
round arches.
)ince the
diagonal,
blind, and
arcade arches
are all of
different
widths, their
diameter is
also different,
and therefore
they all begin
at different
lev%is.
In the
somewhat later
refectory Qsee
opposite@, with
its two aisles,
the pointed
arch is
admittedly
already used,
which would
have made it
possible to
position all the
vault
springings at
the same
height, but the
architect
sacrificed this
possibility in
the interests of
unity. Aith
their red ribs,
some curving
outwards and
some richly
ornamented,
the vaults
form a
contrast to the
completely
smooth, light
brown walls.
In the middle
of the room
the vaults are
supported by
seven
Daulbronn, former
-istercian monastery
4efectory, ca. 8993
83:
Dagdeburg -athedral
-hoir, from 893<
Dagdeburg -athedral
-hoir, with reused anti#ue columns
from the earlier 5ttonian building
columns that
ma!e up the
main, richly
varied
decoration
of the room.
$ccording
to the
number of
ribs carried,
the columns
are either
thic! or
thin0 s#uare
plinths
correspond
with
octagonal
capitals and
vice versa,
and the
s#uare abaci
even have
further
octagonal
ones laid on
top of them.
The
architecture
at Daubronn
must have
been seen to
be so
advanced
for its time
in Germany
that the
wor!shop
there was
also
engaged in
places
farther
afield. That
this should
happen at a
-istercian
monastery,
as in
Aal!enried
in the ?ar&,
is hardly
surprising,
but that it
should have
played a part
in the new
building
wor! at
Dagdeburg
-athedral
re#uires
comment.
The
rebuilding
of the
cathedral
began in
893<, the
od
cathedral
having been
destroyed by
fire in 8931.
$s usual,
the
rebuilding
began with
the
construction
of the
ambulatory
and its
radiating
chap%is. 'ut
in
Dagdeburg
neither their
structure Sor
their forms
are really
Gothic. It
seems that
the patrn,
$rchbishop
$lbrecht II,
who had
studied in
"aris, had an
idea of how
a Gothic
cathedral
should
loo!,
but
could
not
comm
uni
cate
this
precise
ly to
the
builder
s.
Doreo
ver,
there
may
have
been a
lac! of
s!illed
archite
cts and
builder
s to
reali&e
the
pro/ect
.
5nl
y with
a
second
buildin
g
phase,
when
the
choir
gallery
, the
so
called
bishop.
s
ambul
atory,
was
built
did a
truly
Gothic
charact
er
appear.
It was
this
part of
the
cathed
ral,
with
its
colum
nar
piers
and
corres
pondin
g rib
vaults
Qsee
below,
right@,
that
was
built
with
the
partici
pation
of the
Daulb
ronn
wor!s
hop.
$stoni
shingl
y,
however,
even in this
building
phase the
wall
supports,
which had
already been
started in the
inner choir,
were bro!en
off so that
columns
from the od
cathedral
could be
used. These
were anti#ue
columns that
Emperor
5tto I, under
whom the
Dagdeburg
archbishopri
c had been
founded in
<L2, had
appropriated
from Italy to
bestow on
his cathedral
a certain air
of nobility.
Their
renewed use
in the
Gothic
cathedral
was a clear
reference to
the tradition
of the
archbishopri
c, its
founder, and
the first
cathedral.
?owever,
the od
cathedral.s
histricaW
valu% was
totally
re/ected by
$rchbishop
$lbrecht II,
who, against
much
opposition,
had his new
cathedral
built over
the od one
but at an
angle, so
that it was
impossible
to reuse the
original
foundations
and the
walls resting
on them.
Dagdebu
rg therefore
shows in an
e*emplary
way how
compli
cated the
reception of
Early Gothic
was in the
?oly 4om,n
Empire.
83L
-ologne, former collegiate church of
)t. Gereon
Tensided tower, 898<91
For while the initial idea of building a modern, Gothic cathedral could be e*ecuted only in stages Qwhich is why only the clerestory of the choir with its
tall windows, completed in 89LL, reflects French architecture@ the new cathedral was once again lin!ed to tradition through the integration of the re
used columns. )uch changes in composition are clearly illustrated by Dagdeburg -athedral, which creates an impression of architectural patchwor!
when compared with the Gothic buildings of France, where an e#ually radical but nevertheless elegant /u*taposition of od and completely new parts
had ta!en place.
-ompletely different from Dagdeburg is )t. Gereon in -ologne, where there is a conscious contrast of od and new Qsee right@. ?ere a centrally
planned building dating from the Cth century had been constantly e*tended since the second half of the llth century, with the result that this historie
heart had in the end become the lowest and most unsightly part of the whole church. Ahen finally the church was rebuilt in the 8993s, the problem the
builders faced was that of how to turn this Early -hristian heart of the church into its center without losing it entirely in the rebuilding. The builders
solved this problem by leaving the historie circle of niches on the ground floor alone and building a new Gothic structure there whose lower stories
match those of the od structure. In this way, by having a French Gothic e*tensin built on top of its older church, )t. Gereon became increasingly
modern from outside to inside, and from bottom to top.
In the interior, the only really modern QGothic@ element, which goes beyond the formal 4omanes#ue canon that had been the norm until then in
-ologne, is the upper story of the central structure. Its high windows and dome of ribs show a similar tracery pattern to that of the cathedral of
)oissons. 5n the outside, even buttresses were added, though they are much too high to ta!e the lateral thrust of the dome. $part from that, a small
gallery that is still #uite 4omanes#ue crowns the whole building. Thus )t. Gereon is not an entirely Gothic building, but one in which individual Gothic
elements were used li!e set pieces in order to enshrine the od heart of the building.
The )ystematic De0e"o!4ent of Gotic in te Ho"& Ro4=n ?4!ire
-hurches in which the Gothic style carne to be applied systematically which were built after the 89;3s stand out against the bac!ground of these early
e*amples. It is stri!ing that most of these new buildings were constructed in the archbishopric of Trier, to which belonged the three Forraine dioceses of
Toul, 6erdun, and Det&, still at that time situated within the boundaries of the Empire. )ince they bordered directly on -hampagne, and were
predominantly Frenchspea!ing, it is not surprising that they were particularly receptive toward the new French architectural ideas. Knfortunately the
art and architecture of this whole regin have not been widely studied, and the treatment in art history of the Gothic architecture of Forraine or the
Doselle regin cannot compare with the detailed studies of, for e*ample, 'urgundian Gothic. There are signs that Gothic in this ,rea carne
831
first to Toul, which was nearest to France, as well as to Trier, the
metropolitan center. It is not possible, however, to see a clear advance
of Gothic from west to east. The development of Gothic within the
archdiocese has to be seen in terms of a comple* web of relationships
between the various patrons, and also between the buildings themselves.
The Fiebfrauen!irche Q-hurch of 5ur Fady@ in Trier was constructed
for the cathedral chapter ne*t to the cathedral, replacing an od central
building on the same spot. The new Gothic church ta!es up the basic
form of the older church, with the result that the arms of the cross
formed by the nave and transept are of the same length, though the new
choir protrudes a little more to the east Qsee opposite@. The ground plan
of this choir is based on the five sides of a tensided figure, whereas the
other arms are based on the five sides of an eightsided figure, with low
diagonal chap%is attached to their sides to lin! the arms together. $
tower rises above the crossing. The unusual ground plan, built
according to local tradition, demanded an e#ually unusual elevation,
with only two stories Qsee left@. The tall
5""5)ITE7
Trier, former cathedral church of
5ur Fady
6iew from east
ground story is formed by the arcades that open onto the chap%is while
the shallower upper story consists mainly of windows gla&ed /ust at the
top, only those in the chevet and at the ends of the arms of the cross
being completely gla&ed. The impression created is that the interior is
divided into two spatial ,reas. In the lower regin there is a very light
effect spreading in all directions, while in the upper regin, which is
open in the shape of a cross, it is much dar!er. 'oth ,reas are lin!ed to
each other through the motif of double windows.
Hust how precisely the significance of the individual spatial ,reas is
calculated is shown by the shapes of the piers, whose si&e is reduced
from inside to outside. Those of the crossing, above which a further
tower rises up, are constructed as piliers cantonn.s, followed by slender
columnar piers between the arcades, while on the e*terior walls there
are only thin clusters of responds. The sills of the windows are
continued as stringcourses around the piers in order to reemphasi&e,
particularly on the ground floor, the way in which all the spatial ,reas
are united.
$lmost all the individual motifs of the Fiebfrauen!irche in Trier can
be traced to French models. Thus the stringcourse over the piers, the
passages in front of the windows, and the tracery patterns are modeled
on these features in the cathedral of 4eims, although it can be assumed
that the cathedral of Toul, begun shortly bef ore, served as a mediator.
'ut the way in which these forms are connected to each other in an
almost mathematical way is completely unFrench, even if we cannot
overloo! the fact that it was the rational formal vocabulary of French
Gothic that made the systematic architecture of Trier possible. Finally, it
is clear that the Fiebfrauen!irche is, as it were, pinned in between two
#uite traditional poles7 the ground plan was determined by the earlier
building and so the church ended up with a crossing tower completely
devoid of Gothic forms. To comp%nsate for that, the church ma!es a
tactful gesture toward the forms of the neighboring cathedral, which is
superior in status. Therefore both churches seem not to be in
competition, but to complement each other, though admittedly the older
cathedral mar!ed out the framewor! for the development of the Gothic
architecture of the Fiebfrauen!irche.
)tylistically very closely related to Trier, even if not situated in that
diocese, is the church of )t. Elisabeth in Darburg, which was
constructed from 89;: above the grave of )t. Elisabeth of Thuringia,
who had died in 89;8 and had /ust been canoni&ed. Elisabeth was in
two respects a (modern( saint. First, she had devoted herself to poverty
and to the care of the poor and sic!. )econd, as a princess serving the
poor, she had set an e*ample of deep piety by brea!ing deeply
entrenched social barriers. The fact that she was a woman meant that
she was perhaps better placed to e*press her piety in this way. It also
meant that, since her cult combined elements both of the courtly love
tradition and of popular Darian devotion, she #uic!ly became
e*tremely popular.
'oth the Teutonic 5rder, who were the patrons of the church, and
Elisabeth.s brotherinlaw, -ount -onrad of Thuringia, had political
832
Darburg, former hospital and pilgrimage
church of )t. Elisabeth Interior loo!ing
west
and territorial ambitions. Thus both, e*ploited her cult for their own
purposes and made her their patrn saint. The Darburg church was to
promote the cult of Elisabeth and give it a center, and in so doing was to
satisfy the re#uirements of all the interested parties.
The building is composed of a nave of the hall church type, which
has a twintower fagade. The ground plan is of the threeconch type Qsee
above@, characteristic of 4hineland 4omanes#ue. In the central church,
the Teutonic 5rder was responsible for the service while in the southern
conch the counts of Thuringia maintained their family tombs. It was
they who assumed responsibility for the protection of the patrn saint of
their house, as she was entombed in the northern conch. The functions
of such buildings with three conches had never before been so precisely
defined as they were at Darburg. For whereas in the older architecture
there were magnificent unified spatial ,reas spreading out to the sides,
in Darburg three choirs of similar type were actually added onto each
other. This possibility of spatial disposition was precisely what the older
threeconch type of building did not offer because the eastern apse,
which was only an
883
Det& QDoselle@, )t.Ntienne -athedral,
begun 89;3s
+ave
anne* of the central crossing, was too small. In Darburg, this older
building pattern was combined with the form of the new Gothic long
choir, for which Trier was the model.
The threepart choir in Darburg set the standard for the rest of the
building. 'ut since the wall of this east end, with its two rows of
windows, could be transferred to the nave only if continuous e*terior
walls were present there too, the main body of the building was
constructed as a hall church Qsee opposite, right@. In this type of building
the nave and side aisles are the same height, so that the e*terior walls can
be at the same height as those of the choir. $ baslica form, in which the
outer walls of the side aisles are lower that those of the nave, could not be
used. It was not necessary to invent this form for the Darburg nave since
the design of the hall church had long been in use. It was here adapted to
the form of the Gothic choir through the use of a se#uence of narrow
bays. Thus the closely aligned piers concealed the side aisles completely
and nothing remained of the spaciousness of the older Aestphalian halls.
It seems that at Darburg, Gothic architecture served the same purpose
it did at Trier, namely that of adapting a traditional building type to
contemporary needs in a modern way. In doing so, the builders were not
able to ma!e a complete brea! with tradition. They tried, rather, to utili&e
tradition. $n e*ample of this is the way in which, at the time the church
was built, a golden shrine for )t. Elisabeth was created, adopting once
again the basic type of the older Darian shrine in $achen, but slightly
moderni&ed. Ahat distinguishes this phase of Frenchinspired Gothic
architecture in Germany is the fact that Gothic was made to new and
different ends, and was not used solely to build larger, more beautiful, and
(better( churches than before.
It was only in the 89C3s that the new cathedral in Det&, southwest of
Trier, was begun Qsee right@. 5ne of the ma/or problems in the -athedral
of )t. Etienne was the fact that space was limited at both ends. The choir
and the transept in the east could therefore be constructed only much
later, between 8C2L and 8:;3. For the planned lengthening of the church
towards the west, the highly original solution was found of incorporating
into the new building the seminary church of +otre>amela4onde. The
unusual position of the towers, in the middle of the nave, still reve,is
today where the cathedral originally ended. The building was probably
intended to be a little lower, as the low arcades indicate, but after a
change of plan it was then adapted to the most modern French
architecture. In this way it received not only an unusually tall, lightfilled
triforium, but also gigantic clerestory windows. $ll the same, these parts
of the cathedral do not give the impression of being out of proportion,
because they are delicately formed and covered by sharply pointed vaults.
The cathedral of Det& mar!s a turning point in the Gothic architecture of
the ?oly 4om,n Empire because there is no originality in the way it was
remodeled. The builders were happy /ust to bring it into line with French
models.
In the 'enedictine abbey church of )t.6incent in Det&, begun in
89C2, the regional variant of Gothic in Forraine can be seen more clearly,
as this building was not sub/ect to any change of plan aimed at bringing it
into line with French models. Thus it copies the twostoried elevation of
the cathedral of Toul, as well as its apse, which is gla&ed with a
continuous row of large windows. Though its walls are not #uite so
filigreed as the upper wall ,reas of the cathedral of Det&, the building is
an important e*ample of how adaptation to the French models at first
proceeded cautiously until, in the same town, with the change of plan for
the cathedral, a decisive step was ta!en towards a structurally more daring
style. In a sense the town of Det& was therefore a testing ground for Early
Gothic architecture in the ?oly 4om,n Empire, preparing the way for a
far more comple* reception of Gothic than had occurred at Darburg or
Trier.
$nother important center was )trasbourg. ?ere around 89C3,
immediately after the completion of the cathedral choir and transept
888
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e the
e*istin
g
crossi
ng,
whose
dimen
sions
could
not be
e*cee
ded, at
least
on the
outsid
e.
Thus
the
nave
has
unusu
al
propor
tions
for a
Gothi
c
cathed
ral7
the
width
of the
nave
at
4eims
is ;3
meters
Q<2
feet@
and at
)trasb
ourg
;L
meters
Q882
feet@
while
the
height
of the
nave
at
4eims
is ;2
meters
Q89:
feet@,
at
)trasb
ourg
;9
meters
Q83:
feet@.
+ever
theles
s the
)trasb
ourg
archit
ect
con
structe
d the
most
moder
n building
of its time
in
Germany,
its forms
largely
based on
the new
building
wor! at
)t.>enis
which had
begun a
few years
before.
From
there the
cathedral
borrows
features
such as
the pier
with the
continuou
s shaft,
the gla&ed
triforium,
the
window
tracery,
and, in the
side
aisles,
walls with
niches and
blind wall
arcading.
These
motifs
were not,
however,
copied
e*actly
from )t.
>enis.
They were
also
partially
influenced
by the
style of
even more
modern
buildings,
such as
the
cathedral
of
-h,lons
sur
Darne.
>etails
such as
the
unusually
high
number of
shafts Q8L@
surroundi
ng the
piers,
however,
are
completel
y new.
Thus
the
architectu
re of the
)trasbour
g nave not only adopts
French Gothic
seamlessly, it even goes
a step beyond it. 'ut
unli!e at Trier or at
Darburg, Gothic
architecture here is not
modified by being
blended with traditional
regional elements.
4ather, its development
continGes in line with the
most uptodate
tendencies of archi
tecture in France itself.
This is also true of the
facade of )trasbourg
cathedral Qsee page 938@,
which was begun shortly
after the completion of
the nave in 891:. ?ere
the famous wall grilles of
the flamboyant building
of )t.Krbain in Troyes
are ta!en to e*tremes
through (tracery harps,(
so that in the port,is, for
e*ample, three layers are
staggered one behind the
other7 at the front the
decorated gable, behind
it a screen
889
of tracery, and only then the actual wall. Even the gigantic rose window in the
middle of the facade stands out from the bac!ground by virtue of the fact that
the spandrels are freestanding circles of tracery in front of the rose.
Aith this facade a change in trends in the Gothic architecture of
)trasbourg becomes apparent. If the nave is still geared toward French
buildings of a classic, measured style, then in the facade there is a mar!ed
shift toward something new and #uite e*traordinary. In its dimensions, too,
this facade far outdoes the earlier parts of )trasbourg -athedral, with the
result that from outside it seems to form the focal point of the whole
cathedral. It is no coincidence that it was begun at a time when )trasbourg
was prospering economically and its citi&ens had won the freedom of the city
from the bishop Qthe city council had ta!en over supervisin of the building
of the cathedral@. -ontemporary chronicles were already praising the
building as a sign of a new Golden $ge. Ahat part Erwin von )teinbach, first
named in documents in 892C, had in the planning of this facade, is still in
dispute. There is no doubt, however, that the facade has to be regarded as the
highly original wor! of an outstanding artistic personality.
Ahat )trasbourg was for the Kpper 4hine, -ologne was for the Fower
4hine, for it was there in 89C2 that the foundation stone was laid for a new
cathedral. There had been plans for it already under $rchbishop Engelbert
Q898L9:@ since in contrast to the cathedrals of the archbishops in Dain& and
TrierOand even in contrast to some lowerran!ing episcopal churchesOthe
e*isting cathedral, dating from the -arolingian and 5ttonian eras, had
become hopelessly small and oldfashioned. The ambitions entertained by the
people of -ologne can be /udged by the scale and lavishness of a Fate
4omanes#ue shrine for the relies of the Dagi, politically important within
the Empire. It is not only the largest of all the shrines, it was also their
culmination. )imilarly, the new cathedral was also to be the culmination of
everything that had gone before.
The attempt has constantly been made to lin! the adoption of the French
Gothic style for -ologne -athedral with the political orientation of the
archbishop of the time, =onrad von ?ochstaden. In doing so, too little
attention is paid to the fact that in order to e*press his position, and that of the
-ologne seminary, the powerful archbishop had to choose the most e*acting
models for his cathedral. ?is
88;
-ologne -athedral, begun 89C2
6iew from northeast Qleft@
+ave Qcentre@
Ground plan Qbelow@
Transept, nave, and facade completed
8223
5""5)ITE7 -ologne
-athedral -hoir,
dedicated 8;99
<01
G -. - -
<
K r T -
#c 0 0 0 0 -
cathedral had
to be in the
French
Gothic style7
a gigantic
building in
the Fate
4omanes#ue
style would
certainly have
e*cited some
attention in
the town and
its
surroundings,
but hardly in
the Empire,
and certainly
"'
m
0 1i0 30 80
not outside it.
$t the
same time,
however, it
becomes clear
that in
-ologne no
e*travagant
building in
the style of
)trasbourg.s
west facade
could be
allowed. It
had to be a
classic
cathedral Qsee
above and
opposite@. The
French !ing
had also
re/ected an
alltoo
individual and
modernistic
style when
building the
)te.-hapelle,
consecrated in
89C2, so it is
not surprising
that it was
precisely the
style of the
)te.-hapelle
Qthat of the
cathedral of
$miens,
which had
been the
model for
)te.-hapelle@
that was
adopted in
-ologne.
In
-ologne,
therefore, the
architects
built a
cathedral
modeled
essentially on
$miens.
Ahere in
$miens there
was still some
formal
uncertainty, a
classic
solution was
chosen for
-ologne.
Instead of the
piliers
cantonn.s, in
which a brea!
between
upper and
lower story
was
unavoidable,
the patrons
chose a
clustered pier
of the )t.
>enis !ind,
but not on a
cruciform
ground plan.
They had to
be on a round
plan, for
which the
piers between
the side aisles
of the choir in
$miens
served as a
model. )ince
in this shape
of pier a much
better relation
between the
responds and
the ribs could
be achieved,
the large
continuous
capitals of
$miens could
be dispensed
with, so that
there is only a
single capital
between
respond and
rib. The light
triforium of
the $miens
choir was also
adopted, but
its somewhat
wea! gable
motif was
replaced by a
much more
elegant
triforium
inspired by
'eauvais,
blended with
openwor!
spandrels in
the manner of
the transept
farades of
+otre>ame
in "aris. Thus
at -ologne
the clerestory
reaches the
same height
as the arcade
Q/ust as at
)oissons,
-hartres, and
4eims@ and is
no longer as
low as the one
in $miens,
and the nave
is somewhat
higher than
that at
)oissons,
-hartres, and
4eims.
Doreover,
-ologne
-athedral has
double side
aisles, li!e the
choir, so that
each of the
towers sits
s#uarely on
four sideaisle
bays instead
of being in
effect only a
false front, as
at $miens.
This meant
that a
monumental
west facade
could be built,
the plan of
which,
however, was
only ready
and fully
wor!ed out
towards 8;33.
Ahen the
choir of
-ologne
cathedral was
consecrated in
the year 8;99,
the first part
of the
building of
the cathedral
had been
completed.
)uch a
development
would not
have ta!en
place in
France7 in the
very active
world of
French
building,
drawing a line
under earlier
developments
and creating
the (perfect(
cathedral
would have
been
unthin!able.
The artistic
aim in
-ologne, by
contrast, was
to achieve
perfect
architecture,
free from any
hint of
creation by a
particular
individual.
For that
reason the
first cathedral
architects, the
masters
Gerhard,
$rnold, and
Hohannes,
were not the
stuff of
legends, li!e
their
)trasbourg
colleague
Erwin von
)teinbach,
whose style
clearly reve,is
highly
individualistic
tendencies.
The personal
signature of
the architect
was to
become
important
again only
some decades
later, and not
in -ologne.s
attempt to
build the ideal
Gothic
cathedral.
88C
*G
s.
*0
I
%Dii H
'
>+1
H FII
i"iii^I
'arbara 'orng,sser
The -athar ?eresy in )outhern France
Donts%gur, "eyrepertuse, Xu%ribus, "uivert...
the -athar castles of southern France cling to
the graybrown roc! li!e eagle.s nests. The
relies of an age deeply sha!en by the religious
crises that afflicted the south of France during
the 89th and 8;th centuries, they are symbols
of the sufferings of a religious sect ground
down by the millstone of European history. $
story that began with a simple desire for
reform ended with the brutal and systematic
eradication of (heretics.( Thousands of
people died, many of them burnt at the sta!e,
and whole towns, such as '%&iers in 893<,
were burnt and plundered, -athars and non
-athars ali!e dying at the hands of the French
soldiers. -rusaders and the infamous
In#uisition, initiated by the pope and the
French !ings in rare unanimity, left behind
them scorched earth and drove clergy as well
as laity into flight, hiding, and e*ile.
Even today the historical categori&ation of
the -athars is difficultOutopian thin!ers,
church reformers, hereticsP The range of
labels that have been attached to the
nonconformists of the south is a broad one.
Ahat did the -athars wantP Ahat was it that
drove them into a dispute with the -hurch
which had such farreaching and tragic
conse#uences, which turned reformers into
martyrsP Everything had begun with clearly
/ustified criticisms of the -atholic clergy.
)imilar criticisms were heard in many parts of
Europe during the 89th century. 'ut with
others Qfor e*ample the wandering preachers
and mendicant orders@ this desire for reform
became successfully integrated into the
-hurch and utili&ed for propaganda. Aith the
-athars, by contrast, it drifted into heresy and
thereby, in the eyes of both -hurch and state,
made the -athars guilty of betraying the
-hristian faith.
The -athars. faith involved a radical
commitment to the principies revealed in the
Gospels, a ban on !illing Qconnected with
abstention from meat@, total se*ual
( i r -
p
0
9' OM 00-
"')
m
)* 0I9 @8 \M
P
)
!00\ m

b
S0+*2r088 +*r
s8J
abstinence, and commandments to wor! and
to fast. Their worldpicture was oriented
toward dualism7 to the idea that the world,
deeply flawed as it was, could not be the wor!
of a single creator and therefore included
within itself two antagonistic principies. There
e*isted the (good,( the realm of the spirit,
which had been created by God, and, in fierce
opposition, the (bad,( which was identified
with the physical world and seen as the
creation of )at,n. $ similar philosophical
concept was in fact already in e*istence in late
anti#uity in the philosophy of gnosticism7
human beings are composed of two
antagonistic parts, since their souls are divine,
but their bodies earthly and corrupt. For the
-athars, the only escape from this dilemma
was to van#uish evil by becoming (pur%( in
mind and body through the strict observance
of the precepts of the +ew Testament.
The Same -athar, derived from the Gree!
katharos Q(pur%(@, indicated the striving for a
simple, purer way of life Qthe term $lbigensian
arse later in relation to $lbi, the main center
of the sect@. The path of the -athar believer
striving for this inner purity led through
baptism 2consola&entu&1, to the status of a
parfait,
Fan/eau* Q$ude@
Aheel cross, 8;th century
(a perfect one.( This spiritually enlightened
person, a sort of priest, was to be shown deep
respect by the believers, who were to as! him
for the &eliora&entu&, the blessing, with a
triple bow.
These beliefs, which may sound #uite
harmless to us, contained e*plosive potential7
with the ac!nowledgment of only one
sacrament, baptismOwhich moreover was
newly interpretedOthe -athars struc! at the
fundament,is of -atholic dogma. 'ut another
belief proved even more e*plosive. )ince the
earthly sphere belonged to the >evil, the
normally effective deterrent of the -hurch, the
threat of eternal damnation, was gravely
wea!ened. In the face of the (daily e*perience
of hell,( the concept of the Fast Hudgment held
no fear for the -athars. $ccordingly, they were
hardly prepared to perform the usual ritual of
indulgences or to pay church ta*es. )o it was
not only the beliefs of the -hurch that were
challenged, but its structure, practices, and
institutions. The -hurch felt it had to act.
?eresy, however, was only one aspect of the
bloody conflict that the -athars unwittingly
provo!ed. Ahat proved disastrous was their
lin! with the rulers of the ,rea who wished to
resist the e*pansin of French power in the
south. For a long time #uestions of faith had
not been the main concern7 the fertile lands at
the foot of the "yrenees, in Fanguedoc, and in
$#uitaine, had long been a problem for the
French crown. The historical and cultural
orientation of the peoples of the Fanguedoc
,rea lin!ed them with the empire of $ragn,
which from 'arcelona controlled the
Dediterranean, rather than with the lie de
France far to the north. Ahen the #uestion of
the religious nonconformists in the south had
first arisen, the French were happy to leave the
solution to the pope. ?owever, in 8932 the
papal l%gate, "ierre de
-astelnau, was !illed near )t.Gilles. The
circumstances in which he died are not clear,
but his violent death increased the tensin of
the situation sharply, and prepared the way for
a war that was launched by "ope Innocent III
as a crusade against heretics. Into this (holy
war( rod% the northern French feudal lords,
created crusaders for the event, who had been
promised forgiveness for their sins Qand the
possessions of the heretics@. $s early as 893<,
'%&iers and -arcassonne were con#uered
under dubious and brutal circumstances0 in
8983 the fortresses of Dinerve, Terme, and
"uivert fell. In Dinerve, it seems, 8C3 -athars
leapt voluntarily into the flames at the sta!e.
Knder the leadership of )imn de Dontfort,
the (crusaders( pressed on through the
countryside, murdering and
"
e
X
u
X
u
?
a
88L
"uivert Q$ude@, 8Cth century "uivert Q$ude@, 8Cth century
-orbel figure of a musician
-arcassonne
Fa -it%, begun in 8992, restored in
the 8<th century by Eug%ne Emmanuel
6iolletle>uc
-arcassonne, )t.+a&aire -athedral 4elief
with scenes of a siege, first half of the 8;th
century
burning
. In
8988
they
too!
Favaur,
fought
around
-asteln
audry,
and
laid
siege,
ineff
ectiv
ely,
to
Toul
ouse.
In
898;
the
first
roun
d of
the
confl
ict
carne
to an
end at
the
castle
of
Duret,
when
"ere II,
!ing of
$ragn
, was
!illed
in a
s!irmis
h and
his
troops
withdre
w.
French
control
of the
south
was
assured
for the
momen
t.
)imn
de
Dontfo
rt died
during
the
renewe
d battle
for
Toulou
se in
8982,
and his
son,
who
had
ta!en
over as
militar
y
leader,
was let
down
by the
pragma
tism of
the
crusade
rsO
promis
ed an
indulge
nce for
C3 days
of
militar
y
service,
they
returne
d home
to
norther
n
France
imme
diately
this
time
was up,
which
coincid
ed
e*actly
with
the
siege of
Toulou
seW
For a
short
time
at
least
the
-ath
ars
and
their
politi
cal
supp
orters
were
able
to
draw
breat
h.
They
did
not
have
long.
In
899;
Fouis
6III
carne
to the
Frenc
h
thron
e, a
tirele
ss
camp
aigne
r
deter
mine
d to
e*ten
d his
empi
re to
the
Dedi
terra
nean.
In
899L
he
invad
ed
the
south
again
and
emba
r!ed
on a
blood
y
camp
aign
of
con#
uest
that
ende
d in
899<
with
the
capit
ulatio
n of
-oun
t
4ay
mond
6II
of
Toul
ouse
in
Deau
*.
Th
e
politi
cal
situat
ion
in the
south
of
Fran
ce
was
there
by
clarif
ied
and
the
inde
pend
ence
of
the
regi
n lost
once
and
for
all.
The
confl
ict
with
the
-ath
ars,
howe
ver,
smol
dered
on,
with
the
result
that
"ope
Greg
ory
IM
set
up an
instit
ution
that
was
long
to
dem
nstrat
e the
powe
r of
the
-hur
ch7
the
In#ui
sition
. The
>omini
cans
were
given
the
respons
ibility
of
organi&
ing the
In#uisit
ion, its
sol%
functio
n being
to
combat
heresy.
Their
ultmat
e
weapon
was the
sta!e,
used
selectiv
ely but
noneth
eless
effectiv
ely.
The
-athars
had
withdra
wn to
inac
cessibl
e
fortress
es since
the
Treaty
of
Deau*.
The
Sames
of the
castles
of
Fenouil
l%des,
"uilaur
ens,
"eyrep
ertuse,
and
Xu%rib
us
stand
for the
legenda
ry
resistan
ce of
their
occupa
nts to
the
over
whelmi
ng
power
of the
-hurch
rebels
whose
only
weapon
was
their
(purity
of
soul.(
The
most
stri!i
ng
e*am
ple of
this
resist
ance
is
provi
ded
by
the
fall,
in
89CC,
of
Dont
s%gur,
the
(secu
re
moun
tain(
that
had
defie
d the
royal
army
for
over
a
year.
Event
ually
the
suppo
sedly
impre
g
nable
fortre
ss,
into
whic
h C33
to
:33
men,
wom
en,
and
childr
en
had
with
draw
n, fell
throu
gh
treac
hery.
The
occu
pants
were
given
a
star!
choic
e7 to
recan
t their
(error
s( or
to be
burnt
at the
sta!e.
Two
hundr
ed
-atha
rs
!ept
the
faith
and
died
in the
flame
s.
$cco
rding
to
tradi
tion,
only
four
perfe
cti
succe
eded
in
flee
ing0 it
is
said
that
they
too!
the
legen
dary
treasur
e of the
-athars
into
safety
and
conceal
ed it in
a place
still
un!no
wn.
)inc
e that
time,
facts
and
legends
have
been
constan
tly
intertwi
ned in
literatur
e about
the
-athars
.
Aoven
into the
bare
historic
al facts
were
romanti
c
stories
of the
heroic
struggle
for
freedo
m and
inde
penden
ce, of
ardent
anticler
icalism
and
anti
imperia
lism.
The
story of
the
-athars
became
one of
myth
and
mysti#u
e. In the
8<;3s
scholar
s of the
compos
er
4ichard
Aagner
,
togethe
r with
e#ually
dubious
literary
critics,
even
claimed
Donts%
gur as
the
scene
of the
"arsifal
legend
Qcont
rary
to all
histo
rical
evide
nce,
as
the
epic
was
comp
osed
deca
des
befor
e the
fall
of
the
castl
e@.
?i
storic
ally,
howe
ver,
the
#uest
ion
remai
ns of
how
a
small
com
munit
y
with
radic
al
claim
s
could
bring
so
many
peopl
e
under
its
spell,
and
even
inspir
e
some
of
them
to the
ultm
ate
sacrif
ice,
marty
rdom.
>isg
ust
with
the
e*tra
vaga
nt
and
la*
life
style
of the
clerg
y and
a
desir
e for
strict
mora
lity
and
firm
princ
ipies
are
only
part
of the
e*pla
natio
n.
The
centr
al
#uest
ion
was a
differ
ent
one7
how
could
the
worl
d,
with
all its
parad
o*es
and
all its
evil,
be
under
stood
as the
creati
on of
a
good
godP
For
the
-ath
ars,
myth
s
about
angel
s and
devil
s, the
fall
of
)at,n
, and
the
trans
migr
ation
of
souls
provi
ded
more
con
vinci
ng
e*pla
natio
ns of a
trouble
d and
proble
matic
e*isten
ce than
did the
rela
tively
abstract
concept
of the
sacrific
ial
death
of
-hrist,
or the
dry
dogma
of the
-atholi
c
-hurch
. -athar
preache
rs !new
e*actly
how to
bring
such
concern
s and
spiritua
l
longing
s
vividly
to life
through
imager
y. They
interwo
ve
'ible
scenes
with
fol!
legends
until
the
former,
now
unrec
ogni&ab
le,
portray
ed the
battle
betwee
n Good
and
Evil in
the
most
compel
ling
stories
and
images.
-athar
preache
rs were
able, in
other
words,
to
move
deeply
and
convinc
ingly
those
who
had
long
since
turned
their
bac! on
an
ineffect
ual
estab
lished
church.
Dyt
hs
beca
me
an
integr
al
part
of
-atha
r
belief
s and
left a
deep
mar!
on
their
every
day
life.
"erha
ps for
that
reaso
n it is
not
surpr
ising
that
the
-ath
ars
them
selve
s
have
beco
me
part
of a
myth
.
Donts%
gur
Q$ri%ge
@
(Fe
"og(
QThe
4oc!@
with
the
fortress
ofl93
C
881
Kte Engel
Gothic $rchitecture in England
The ?istory of England in the ?igh and Fate Diddle $ges England was
one of the first countries to adopt the Gothic architecture of France
during the second half of the 89th century, a ma/or factor in the new
style.s reception being the cise historical lin!s between the two
countries. In 88:C ?enry II Q88:C2<@ carne to the English throne. ?e
was of the French "lantagenet dynasty and so was able to e*pand
English territory on the continent by adding his native ,rea in the west
of France. England had been united with +ormandy since the +orman
-on#uest in 83LL. To these territories were added the possessions of
Eleanor of $#uitaine in the southwest of France when she divorced the
French !ing in 88:9 to marry ?enry. $s a conse#uence, England ruled
over the whole of the western half of France during the second half of
the 89th century Qa greater ,rea of France than the French !ing himself
ruled@.
'ut this was soon to change. ?enry.s son =ing Hohn Q88<<898L@
#uic!ly lost +ormandy and most of the territories in western France
through his clashes with the French crown and the pope. In 89:<, under
?enry III Q898L19@, "oitou was also lost, with the result that England
was left only with territories in the south of France0 direct lin!s with
France were largely lost. In the course of the 8;th century, as a result,
an independent English national consciousness was born. The English
nobles still spo!e French, of course, but a variety of their own which
during the 8Cth century gradually merged with $nglo)a*on Q5d
English@ to form the English language.
Knder Edward III Q8;9111@ conflict with France bro!e out which
led to the ?undred Vears. Aar, fought on and off from 8;;< to 8C:;. In
spite of initial success, England finally lost all its French possessions,
od and new, with the sol% e*ception of the town of -alais. The power
of the English !ings was wea!ened and only with the Tudor !ing ?enry
6II Q8C2:8:3<@ was real political stability restored. ?is son ?enry
6III Q8:3<C1@ implemented the 4eformation in England, which carne
to a head with the dissolution of the monasteries. This affected
countless cathedrals too, of which half were administered not by canons
but by 'enedictine mon!s. The crown too! over -hurch property and
founded several abbeys again as additional diocesan seats. The age of
the English 4enaissance began.
>istinguishing Features of English $rchitecture7 )alisbury -athedral
The history of medieval England was deeply mar!ed by the centuries
old conflict with France. This rivalry is clearly reflected in the
development of Gothic architecture7 right from the beginning the
English chose to follow an independent path. -onscious of their
traditions, as far as possible they preserved their $nglo+orman
building methods, which had developed from l5th and llthcentury
$nglo)a*on architecture, and also the +orman architecture introduced
by the con#uest of 83LL. >uring the whole Gothic era it was mainly
those features compatible with $nglo+orman principies that the
English adopted from the wealth of French architectural forms. +ot
even once was the system of French Gothic accepted as a
882
)alisbury -athedral
6iew from northeast, 8993LL
Ground plan Qbottom@
whole, as it was in Germany, for e*ample, in -ologne -athedral0 it was always modified to suit English building traditions. $nd so there ar se in
England an independent variant of Gothic architecture whose common features we can loo! at more closely in )alisbury -athedral, one of the most
significant e*amples.
)alisbury was begun in 8993, the same year as the cathedral of $miens, and was also completed shortly after $miens, in 89LL. Vet the differences
between them could hardly be greater. )alisbury, unli!e $miens, is not situated in the town center and so surrounded by other buildings, but is on the
edge of the town in a spacious cathedral precinct. +orth of the cathedral there was originally a freestanding cloc! tower in the style of an Italian
campanile. To the south is a cloister surrounded by a high polygonal central building, the chapter house. )uch polygonal or round chapter houses are
uni#ue to England, the earliest e*ample being built in Aorcester around 8883.
The ground plan of )alisbury -athedral is made up entirely of rectangles. $ large e*tensive transept divides the building in the middle Qsee right@. 5n
the e*terior this crossing is mar!ed by a tower. 5ut of the eastern half a second, smaller transept rises up. 'ehind that the choir is made up of a number
of buildings that become lower as we move eastwards7 a high choir, a rectangular ambulatory, and a low eastern chapel. This regular layout fits in with
the medieval liturgical divisions of the cathedral. 5nly the nave was accessible to the laity0 to the east of the great crossing, a choir screen 2pulpitu&1
separates the choir ,rea reserved for the clergy from the nave. 'etween the two transepts were the choir stalls for the canons. East of the smaller
transept was the sanctuary with the high altar. Dore altars stood in the eastern side aisles of both transepts. The ambulatory led to the east chapel, the
retrochoir, which was dedicated to the ?oly Trinity. In addition, this room was used for the adoration of the 6irgin, a particularly strong observance in
England. )ep,rate Fady -hap%is, in which the clergy celebrated a daily Darian mass, were common from the late 89th century. These chap%is were
mostly built at the east end of the church as a retrochoir, and less fre#uently on the north side of the choir.
The countless new choirs in English Gothic are almost all rectangular. "olygonal choirs with an ambulatory and radiating chap%is, as built in France,
are rare. In the second half of the 89th century two types of rectangular choirs developed in England, according to regin. In the south and west, the
)alisbury versin, which has a low ambulatory and protruding retrochoir, is more widespread. In the north and east, on the other hand, the dominant
type is a church in which the whole of the choir ,rea ends in a fat end wall, the nave staying at its full height throughout its length. This results in a fat
east fa]ade. Aithin these large unified rectangular spaces the individual ,reas are divided by barriers.
5n the e*terior of )alisbury there is none of the open buttressing so impressive in French buildings. The presentday flying buttresses are later
additions. The original buttressing in )alisbury is hidden
88<
893
)alisbury -athedral
6iew loo!ing east
under the roofs of the side aisles, a typical English solution that is
lin!ed to $nglo+orman traditions. There are two reasons for this
hidden buttressing. For one thing English Gothic buildings are
relatively low. The nave of )alisbury is 9:.L meters Q2C feet@ high, that
of $miens C;.: meters Q8C; feet@ highW For another, right until the end,
the English !ept up the +orman building method of the &ur .pais, the
thic! wall. That means that they built e*tremely powerful walls which
could be split into several layers and tunneled through with galleries
and passages. 'oth of these features made it possible to construct main
nave vaults of stone with low flying buttresses or with no buttressing at
all. $nd so they were completely the opposite of the technically much
bolder French Gothic style with its di&&y heights and s!eletoni&ed
walls.
?owever, English Gothic cannot in any respect be seen as a more
modest versin of the French. 5n the contrary7 whatever English
architecture may have lac!ed in height, it made up for in length and
artistic decoration. 5d )t. "aul.s -athedral in Fondon, for instance,
attained a length of 81< meters Q:22 feet@. 4eims, on the other hand,
was only 8;< meters QC:L feet@ long. In addition, English Gothic
architecture is much richer and more sophisticated in its love of detail
and materials than French Gothic. It seems clear that English patrons
were concerned that their architecture should have as many bays as
possible, and that it should be as resplendent as possible. "erhaps this
situation reflects the general prosperity of the English economy in the
Diddle $ges, in particular the e*traordinary wealth of the medieval
-hurch in England Qin the 8;th century 89 of the C3 most prosperous
bishoprics in Europe were to be found in England@. Thus in England
Gothic architecture was not seen as a technical challenge, but as a
decorative system in which walls, vaults, and glass could all be richly
ornamented.
In )alisbury, as in English buildings generally, this love of
decoration can be seen particularly well in the interiors Qsee opposite@.
If one loo!s eastwards along the nave in )alisbury -athedral, then first
of all it is the richness of architectural materials that stands out clearly.
Fight limestone contrasts with the slender en!d.lit shafts, sills, and
capitals of a dar!, gleaming marbleli!e substance. This is the socalled
"urbec! marble, a sedimentary limestone from the south of England
that can be polished li!e marble. It became increasingly popular in
England from the 89th century. If we add the colorful painting of arch
profiles and vaults, and fine stainedglass windows, then English
buildings must have had a gloriously colorful and costly appearance.
The piers in )alisbury have comple* shapes and are surrounded by
many en!d.lit shafts. They often change shape from bay to bay and, as
a result, demnstrate English inventiveness merely in their fashioning.
These piers bear huge arches with stepped profiles of a richness that
cannot be found anywhere in France. This great variety of profiles is a
result of the English tradition of using the +orman &ur .pais, which in
this way is concealed by being reduced to a series
of slender, decorative lines. The piers are not connected to the vault
responds, which begin only at the middle story. This truncation of the
responds, which sit on corbels in the form of small carved heads, is
again characteristic of English Gothic. )hafts and vault responds are not
lin!ed together as one common structure, as in French Gothic. The piers
are conceived as independent units within the architecture, in effect as
pieces of sculpture to be seen from all sides. In the middle story at
)alisbury the $nglo+orman preference for galleries lives on. The
spandrels of the arches are richly decorated with leaf patterns and
rosettes. Even the clerestory above is decorated with a motif typical of
English 4omanes#ue, the stepped triple arcade. The wall at this point is
in two layers and a passage is s#uee&ed between the inner wall and the
outer wall.
Dost of the great churches of England were not built at one time and
according to a single unified plan. They were often built bit by bit and,
true to the od $nglo)a*on tradition, always retained a part of the
earlier buildingObetter to add a few new parts then to tear down a
muchrespected od building and start again. Thus many of England.s
Gothic buildings contain fragments from different ages, with bits of
very different plans often standing side by side. In the course of the
following overview of the development of Gothic architecture in
England, we will fre#uently encounter the coe*istence of several
buildings within a single structure.
?ar"& ?ng"is3 Decorated3 'er!endicu"ar: Te 2ain 'eriods
of ?ng"is Gotic
English Gothic architecture can be divided into three main periods,
which do not correspond e*actly to the Early, ?igh, and Fate Gothic
familiar to those who live in -ontinental Europe. The terminology of
English Gothic was established in 8281 in the boo! An Atte&pt to
Discri&Anate the Architectural Styles of %n'lish Architecture by
Thomas 4ic!man, and has proved valuable even today. Each of the
three periods begins with an adoption of a French Gothic feature which
is then transformed by being made to conform to local architectural
traditions.
Early English describes the first period, from roughly 8813 to 89C3.
To this early stage belongs the choir of -anterbury -athedral, which
was started by a French architect from )ens and used elements from
)ens, )t.>enis, and other buildings of French Gothic. The second
period, from roughly 89C3 to 8;;3, is !nown as the >ecorated period.
This begins with the restoration of Aestminster $bbey, which mostly
derives from the cathedral of 4eims. Finally, the "erpendicular period
mar!s the last and longest period of English Gothic, roughly 8;;3 to
8:;3. $lthough it has its roots in the French 4ayonnant style,
"erpendicular was the English style least influenced by French Gothic.
898
4oche, ruins of the -isterican abbey church
Transept and chor from the west, 88L:13
T
h
e
'
e
gi
n
ni
n
gs
of
E
n
gl
is
h
G
ot
hi
c7
+
e
w
El
e
m
e
nt
s
$
m
id
$
n
gl
o
+
or
m
a
n

T
r
a
d
i
t
i
o
n
F
ro
m
th
e
m
id
dl
e
of
th
e
8
9t
h
c
e
nt
ur
y
th
er
e
w
as
a
fl
o
ur
is
hi
n
g
ar
ti
st
ic
e
*
c
h
a
n
g
e
b
et
w
e
e
n
E
n
gl
a
nd and France.
+ew elements
such as the
pointed arch,
crossribbed
vaults over the
nave and aisles,
and delicate,
slender shafts
now
occasionally
appeared in the
rich vocabulary
of English Fate
4omanes#ue.
The use of rib
vaults was
particularly
significant. In
England they
had been
developed
around 8833, in
>urham
-athedral, but
had been used
mainly in the
vaulting of side
aisles.
The
-istercians
played an
important role
in the adoption
of French
ideas, as was
the case in
other European
countries too.
$lmost all their
buildings in
England
survive only as
ruins. The
abbey church
of 4oche Qsee
above@, for
e*ample, built
between 88L:
and 8813,
closely follows
the patterns of
northern
France, above
all that of
"icardy. The
pointed arch
dominates, and
the piers are
composed of
!eelshaped,
sharpedged
shafts, some of
which climb
right up to
th
e
s
pr
in
gi
n
g
of
th
e
v
a
ul
t
in
th
e
cl
er
es
to
ry
.
T
h
e
b
ui
ld
in
g
h
a
d
cr
o
ss

ri
b
b
e
d
v
a
ul
ts
th
ro
u
g
h
o
ut
.
"
ar
ti
c
ul
ar
ly
c
o
n
s
pi
c
u
o
u
s
is
th
e
ta
ll
tr
if
or
iu
m
w
it
h
it
s
p
oi
nt
e
d
bl
in
d
ar
c
a
di
n
g.
5
f
e
v
e
n
gr
e
at
er
si
g
ni
fi
c
a
n
c
e in the
development of
Early English
Gothic was the
succession of
episcopal
patrons. ?aving
cise contact
with the
-ontinent, they
were able to
initiate the
adoption of
innovations
from France in
their ambitious
building
pro/ects. Dost
prominent of
all was the
$rchbishop of
Vor!, 4oger of
"ont l.Nve#ue
Q88:C28@.
)oon after
ta!ing up office
he had the
choir of his
cathedral
rebult, but this
has been
destroyed and
is !nown to us
only from
e*cavations. $
smaller versin
has survived in
the cathedral of
4ipon Qsee
opposite, top@,
constructed
according to
4oger.s plans
and dating from
between 88L3
and 881:. In
the choir, early
French Gothic
buildings li!e
+oyon or Faon
are copied in an
ama&ingly
faithful way.
-lustered piers
with slim
proportions
carry a sharply
pointed arcade
and a nave wall
unusually thin
for England.
The responds
begin on their
own corbels
directly above
the piers, and
899
4ipon -athedral Qformer collegiate
church@
Aest bays of choir, loo!ing northwest,
ca. 88L31:
'5TT5D7
Aorcester -athedral,
+ave, west bays, loo!ing northwest,
afterll1:
with their five shafts refer completely naturally to the crossribbed
vault, planned from the beginning but built only later, in wood. The
triforium, gla&ed at a later date, is also constructed according to French
tradition. Twin lancet windows with a shared mullion are flan!ed by
two blind windows with pointed arches. This motif was soon
afterwards adopted in other buildings in the north of England, including
'yland $bbey and Tynemouth "riory. In the clerestory, 4ipon, with its
triple arcades and passage, returns to the $nglo+orman tradition.
The south of England was destined for an e*change of ideas with
France across the -hannel. The influences of French Early Gothic can
be seen particularly well in the buildings of ?enry of 'lois Q889<18@,
'ishop of Ainchester0 a good e*ample is the )t. -ross ?ospital in
Ainchester. In the west of England, on the other hand, an original
variety of Early Gothic architecture developed. It appears for the first
time in the two west bays of the nave at Aorcester -athedral Qsee right,
bottom@, but is admittedly still heavily mi*ed with 4omanes#ue
traditions because this was a repair to an older part of the building after
a tower collapsed in 881:. $nd so in Aorcester we can still see a
particularly massive &ur .pais, a high gallery whose rear wall is an
integral part Qas in a triforium@, and the already familiar clerestory with
passage. Vet the new elements are unmista!able7 pointed arches
alongside round arches, vertical clusters of responds which protrude
from the piers and which support the ribbed vault Qrenewed later@, and,
above all, the brea!down of the piers, arcades, and supports into many
slender shafts and profiles. The middle story, with its several layers of
wall staggered behind each other and its sculptured rosettes, is
particularly lavish.
Te I4!act of Canterbur& Catedra" on ?ng"is Gotic
>uring the 8813s -anterbury was a Same on everyone.s lips.
$rchbishop Thomas a 'ec!et Q888213@ was murdered in the middle of
his cathedral by =ing ?enry II.s men in 8813. $ pilgrimage to his grave
was #uic!ly established and as early as 881; 'ec!et was canoni&ed by
the pope. 5nly one year later, in 881C, -anterbury -athedral burnt
down Qsome people believed that this was no coincidence@. The
rebuilding of the choir led to one of the most sensational building
pro/ects England had seen for a long time. $lthough the mon!s of the
cathedral monastery, in typical English fashion, at first wanted to retain
as much of the burntout shell as possible, they were receptive toward
new ideas and held an architectural competition. $ Frenchman carne
out the winner7 Ailliam of )ens. Gervase, one of the -anterbury
mon!s, wrote an account of the building wor! right up to the
completion of the choir in 882C, and his account constitutes one of the
most important sources of information about the construction of
medieval buildings. The French architect managed to set the new
building in the od perimeter walls and to lengthen the choir eastwards
Qsee page 89:@.
-anterbury -athedral
Ground plan
In so doing, there
arse in
-anterbury the
first of the many
Gothic choir
e*tensions in
England. Vet in
other respects the
mon!s were
uncompromising.
The 4omanes#ue
crypt had to be
retained and this
predetermined
the distance
between the piers
in the choir
above. Their
shape was to
alt%rnate, as in
the earlier
building, between
round and s#uare.
The height of the
nave could not
e*ceed the height
of the od nave,
and there also
had to be the
traditional
clerestory
passage. Knder
these conditions
Ailliam of )ens
created, as best
he could, a
French cathedral
in the style he
!new from his
own country.
In the first
part to be built,
the mon!s. choir
in the west, he
made the piers as
thin and tall as
possible in order
to cr%ate slender,
soaring
proportions. ?e
designed the
double arcades of
the gallery in the
pattern of )ens,
even if
everything turned
out to be much
more crowded
because of the
narrow spaces
between the
piers. In addition
he changed a
large number of
the en!d.lit
shafts, which he
had carved out of
the dar! marble
in fashion in
northeast France.
$ fourth story, a
Frenchstyle
triforium, was not
possible because
of the low height.
Ailliam
constructed the
vault in the
French style as a
se*partite ribbed
vault, but
supported it with
only #uite fat
flying buttresses.
In the eastern
transept and the
sanctuary he
began to
e*periment even
further, above all
with more
"urbec! marble
shafts around the
piers. Their
magnificent
gleam had
obviously fired
his clients with
enthusiasm. 'ut
then disaster
struc!. In 8812
Ailliam fell from
the scaffolding
and had to return
to France.
$nother master
masn of the
same Same, an
Englishman this
time, completed
the pro/ect.
The most
unusual parts of
-anterbury were
built under the
English Ailliam7
the Trinity
-hapel, which
spreads out
beyond the altar
into a
semicircular apse
with an
ambulatory and
ends with the
-orona, which in
turn is an almost
circular a*ial
chapel. 'oth
parts were to
serve the cult of
)t. Thomas a
'ec!et. ?is
shrine was placed
in the Trinity
-hapel, raised up
high above the
whole church0 the
relie of his head
was in the
-orona. The
splendor of the
new building is
concentrated in
these parts7 the
double columns
in various colors
of marble and the
enormous
stainedglass
windows which
tell of the saint.s
miracles in color
Qsee left@. The
architecture
displays even
more
innovations7 the
gallery is altered
into a true French
triforium and on
the e*ternal walls
long slender
shafts brea! away
from the wall to
cr%ate a s!eletal
effect.
$lthough the
new choir of
-anterbury was
built under
special
circumstances, it
was nevertheless
e*tremely
influential and
determined the
development of
English
architecture for at
least the ne*t 1:
years. 5ne reason
for its power of
attraction was
certainly the
flourishing cult
of relies. The
veneration of )t.
Thomas a 'ec!et
triggered a flood
of pilgrimages to
the relies of the
English saint. $ll
the larger
churches tried to
promote their
own saint and to
display their
relies as
effectively as
-anterbury did
)t. Thomas a
'ec!et.s. This led
to the large
number of new
choirs which
were inspired by
the new style of
building in
-anterbury,
choirs which
mar! the first
phase of English
Gothic.
-anterbury -athedral -hoir
loo!ing east, 881C2C
i
'
DD
J.
i
nr,
89:
Fincoln -athedral, )t. ?ugh.s -hoir Fincoln -athedral, )t. ?ugh.s -hoir
Dain nave vault with the (cra&y vaults( )outhern side aisle with the syncopated
by Geoffrey of +oiers, 88<9ca.l983 doublelayered blind arcading by
Geoffrey of +oiers
Early English Gothic7 Three >ifferent )tyles
Fincoln and the +orth
5ne of the first large buildings to
follow -anterbury was the
cathedral of Fincoln, rebuilt from
88<9 after an earth#u,!e. Fi!e
-anterbury it had two transepts,
an ambulatory with Qoriginally@ a
sep,rate a*ial chapel, a three
story elevation, and Qoriginally@ a
se*partite rib vault. 'ut each of
these elements was now
upgraded. It appears that the
master masn of Fincoln wanted
to use every architectural form
possible and to avoid repeating
himself. )o Fincoln -athedral
became a testing ground which
enriched the capabilities of
English Gothic in an undreamed
of way. $rchitects would draw on
its repertoire of forms for
generations to come.
Especially unusual is the first
section to be built, the choir,
which was named after its patrn,
'ishop ?ugh of $valon. It was
constructed until about 8983 by a
master builder named Geoffrey
Qhis place of origin, +oiers,
leaves it unclear whether he was
English or French@. In
comparison with -anterbury, the
whole of the new building, both
inside and out, is rich and varied
and served up such surprises as
shafts whose capitals are
decorated with croc!ets. Two
inventions in the Fincoln choir
turned out to be particularly
momentous and made it /ustly
famous7 the syncopated double
layered blind arcading in the side
aisles Qsee above, right@, and the
socalled (cra&y vaults( of the
high choir Qsee above, left@. In the
choir Geoffrey increased the
se*partite vault of -anterbury to
eight parts per bay. ?e subdivided
it, but not symmetrically7 the ribs
lying diagonally opposite are split
and meet east and west of the
middle of the bay. The
result is that an elongated lo&enge
stretches diagonally from one
crner of the bay to the other.
Two other ribs from opposite
sides of the bay spring up to meet
each of these points of
intersection and so form a curving
Vshape. $ rib runs along the
entire length of the ridge to bind
the vault together longitudinally.
This comple* construction is the
first largesi&ed, richly decorated
rib vault of Gothic architecture
and clearly demonstrares the
pioneering spirit of its designer. $
contemporary chronicler
compared it to the wings of a
bird.
In the nave of Fincoln
-athedral another no less talented
architect summed up the
e*periments of his predecessor
Qsee opposite@. The "urbec!
marble shafts of the piers in the
generously proportioned space
are different between one pair and
the ne*t. The decoration of the
building is of the highest #uality.
-apitals and consoles are
decorated with English stiffleaf
decoration, in which the buds
intertwine and the flowers and
leaves appear as if blown by the
wind. The vault provides the high
point once again. $ prominent
longitudinal ridge leads the eye
eastwards. From each vault
springing seven ribs rise up li!e a
fan, each one meeting its
counterpart at the ridge rib. The
(cra&y( ideas of )t. ?ugh.s choir
are systemati&ed and increased in
intensity. The transverse and
diagonal ribs are given additional
ribs !nown as triple ribs, or
tiercerons. The innermost ones
meet at the short transverse ridge
ribs and cr%ate a starshaped
outline. "robably completed
before 89;1;<, this is Europe.s
first recorded star vault, even
though when the ceiling is loo!ed
at as a whole the star pattern is
not very pronounced. 'y contrast,
the borders of the bays seem to
melt away and the ribs come
together from the side walls to
form a large, bold pattern.
89L
X
r' !!
-"E ! i , 8 iMYYYl
#e ;P;I
##
HA
The direct inheritors of the
innovative ideas in Fincoln are
found in the north of England,
where from around 8933 there was
a building boom which included
cathedrals, coKegiate churches,
and monastery churches in e#ual
numbers. There was real
competition in the rebuilding of
choirs. +orthern English Gothic
used the colorful en!d.lit shafts
only sparingly since "urbec!
marble from the south coast of
England was hard to come by. The
supports were mostly designed as
clustered piers. "atrons often did
without stone vaults, being content
with wooden ceilings. $
Fincoln -athedral
+ave loo!ing east, ca. 8993C3
Ground plan Qbelow@
particularly important theme in the
buildings of the north were the
fronts at the east end of the choirs
and on the transepts. )ince the
nave walls were continued at full
height right up to the east walls, in
the north of England there arse a
series of impressive soaring fat
east fronts. )everal rows of
long lancet windows were placed
above one another as, for e*ample,
at the 'enedictine abbey in Ahitby
Qsee page 89<@. The lower lancets
match the height of the arcade
arches of the nave, the middle ones
the gallery and clerestory0 the
upper row decorates the gable. The
greatest of these northern English
showpiece fronts is the northern
transept of Vor! Dinster, which
was built around 89;C:8. $bove
the wall arcading, five particularly
tall and slender lancet windows
rise up, ta!ing up almost the whole
height of the end wall0 these are
the famous (Five )isters( Qsee
page 892@.
891
t
/.<..--.#** H($*
5""5)ITE7
Vor! Dinster
+orth transept loo!ing northeast,
ca. 89;C:8
The (Five )isters( are among the tallest
lancet windows in England. The vault in
Vor! is built of wood. -haracteristic of
north of England Gothic is the gallery
consisting of four openings under one large
arch, as in the choir at Ahitby Qsee right@.
Ahitby, ruins of the 'enedictine abbey
church
East front Qtop@
Interior loo!ing northeast Qcenter@
Interior of the choir loo!ing northwest
Qbottom@
)alisbury -athedral
6iew loo!ing east, 8993LL
5""5)ITE7 )alisbury
-athedral Trinity
-hapel loo!ing
northeast, 89939:
Sa"isb
ur&
and
te
Sout
In the
south
of
Englan
d at the
end of
the
89th
and the
beginn
ing of
the
8;th
centuri
es,
several
import
ant
buildin
g
pro/ect
s were
embar
!ed
upon
in the
wa!e
of
-anter
bury.
They
include
rebuild
ing
wor!
at the
cathedr
als of
4oches
ter and
-hiche
ster,
and the
constru
ction
of the
retroch
oir at
Ainch
ester
Qsee
page
8:8@.
The
most
import
ant
buildin
g of
the
Early
Englis
h style,
howev
er, is
)alisbury
-athedra
l, at
which
we have
already
loo!ed.
)alisbury
is the
only
great
building
in
English
Gothic
that was
construct
ed
accordin
g to an
overall
plan on
virgin
land. The
earlier
building
had had
to share
space
with a
royal
castle on
a
cramped
hilltop
site. The
new
building,
on the
other
hand,
could be
built
down in
the
valley,
literally
on a
greenfiel
d site.
4ight
from the
beginnin
g it
appears
to have
been
designed
as a
counter
to the
lavish
and
e*perime
ntal
architect
ure of
Fincoln.
$nd so
)alisbury
-athedra
l is
character
i&ed by
its great
regularit
y and
simplicit
y Qsee
above@.
The
individua
l parts of
the
building
are only
very
subtly
distingui
shable
from one
another
8;3
accordi
ng to
their
liturgic
al
signifi
cance.
In the
choir
the
piers
have
eight
shafts
and are
of
differe
nt
shapes0
in the
nave,
on the
other
hand,
they
are
unifor
m and
have
only
four
marble
shafts.
)alisbu
ry.s
restrai
nt in
its
formal
langua
ge can
be
seen
most
clearly
in the
vault7
unli!e
Fincol
n,
)alisbu
ry has
a
conven
tional
#uadri
partite
cross
ribbed
vault.
The
origina
l
grisaill
e
gla&ing
lent
further
creden
ce to
the
balanc
ed
charact
er of
this
archite
cture.
The
Trinity
-hapel
in the
east
Qsee
opposit
e@
reache
s the
height
of
elegan
ce as a
bright
chamb
er
whose
vault is
suppor
ted by
slender
marble
colum
ns.
>ur
ing the
first
half of
the
8;th
centur
y such
simpli
city
becam
e the
hallma
r! of a
whole
group
of
buildings
in the
south of
England,
includin
g the
choirs of
the
Templar
-hurch
in
Fondon
and the
"riory
-hurch
in
)outhwa
r!
QFondon
@ and the
chap%is
in the
bishop.s
palaces
of
-anterbu
ry and
Fambeth
QFondon
@. They
are
character
i&ed by
slender
piers,
large
windows
, and a
preferen
ce for
open
hallli!e
spaces.
The
episcopa
l patrons
of these
buildings
carne
from an
influenti
al circle
of clerics
around
the
$rchbish
op of
-anterbu
ry,
)tephen
Fangton,
who was
an
importan
t
promoter
of
church
reform.
5ne of
these
clerics,
4ichard
"oore,
became
'ishop
of
)alisbur
y Q8981
92@,
carrying
out a
liturgical
reform
which,
on
account
of its
clarity
and
practicab
ility, was
an
e*ample
for many
English
churches
. The
same
sense of
order
also
appears
to be
e*presse
d in the
architect
ure of
this
group of
buildings
around
)alisbur
y
-athedra
l.
Aellsand
theAest
The
archite
cture
of the
west of
Englan
d too!
a
comple
tely
differe
nt
path.
$n
individ
ual
archite
ctural
langua
ge had
already
emerge
d here
around
881:.
It can
be
seen,
for
e*ampl
e, in
the
west
bays in
Aorce
ster
-athed
ral.
Thoug
h there
is no
rich
decorat
ion
with
marble
or en!
d.lit
shafts
in the
church
es built
in this
style,
they
nevert
heless
stand
out
becaus
e of
their
finely
nuance
d
design
s.
The
high
point
of
Gothic
archite
cture
in the
west of
Englan
d is
Aells
-athed
ral,
which
was
begun
around
8823
Qsee
page
8;9@.
Its
archite
cture
consist
s of
clear
but
delicat
e
linear
elemen
ts set
betwee
n plain
walls.
The
long
rows
of
unifor
m
piers
in the
nave
are
entirel
y
surrou
nded
by thin
shafts,
in
clusters
of three,
that
support
the
correspo
nding
ribs of
the
stepped
profile
arcade
arches.
The
stories
are
separated
clearly
from
each
other by
hori&onta
l
stringcou
rses. The
middle
story is
very
much
shallowe
r than
earlier
e*amples
in
English
Gothic,
and with
its
uniform
se#uence
of
closely
spaced
arches
this
gallery is
clearly
based on
the
French
triforium
. The
unusuall
y high
clerestor
y
windows
have no
accompa
nying
openings
. The
steeply
pointed
cross
ribbed
vault
rests on
short
responds
which
hardly
interrupt
the
hori&onta
l
layering
of the
stories.
The
variety is
ama&ing,
both in
the
wealth of
the
architect
ural
forms,
and also
in the
richness
of the
particula
rly
e*#uisite
stiffleaf
capitals,
on which
all !inds
of
human
and
animal
figures
romp
around.
$ fire
in 882C
made it
necessar
y to
rebuild
the
abbey
church
of
Glastonb
ury,
situated
#uite
cise
to
Aells.
In the
89th
centur
y
Aells,
9 '
3
I
f
9i I
#
i 8
##
H
#
II
#
S#
i
#
i
ii
i3
K8*9
1Z
A
A
Aells -athedral
+ave loo!ing east,
ca. 882389C3
The scissors arches from ca. 8;;2
support the tower.
8;9
T5" $+> -E+TE47 '5TT5D7
Glastonbury, ruins of the 'enedictine Aorcester -athedral
abbey church 4etrochoir loo!ing northeast,
Fady -hapel from south Qtop@, and 899Cca. 89:3
interior Qcenter@ loo!ing east, 882C2L
Glastonbury, and 'ath were competing with each other for supremacy
in the regin and to be the seat of a bishopric, a dispute which was
settled in the 8;th century in favor of Aells. The competition between
the canons of Aells and the mon!s of Glastonbury can be seen in their
building pro/ects. Ahile Aells represented a new style of Gothic formal
language, Glastonbury represents a careful attempt to moderni&e the
od. The historical bac!ground ma!es it understandable. Glastonbury
was one of the oldest and richest abbeys in the country. Its sep,rate
Fady -hapel, the ,etusta ecclesia Qod church@, was even said to have
been founded by Hoseph of $rimathea. +ow, in the face of competition
from the recently founded Aells, the mon!s wanted to e*press these
venerable traditions in their architecture.
The greatest splendor was reserved for the Fady -hapel, the heart of
the abbey and its showpiece Qsee right, top and center@. The small
rectangular building is completely surrounded both outside and inside
by finialed arches, and decorative motifs such as &ig&ags and rosettes
are everywhere. The whole building was painted and given stained
glass windows. In spite of this love of Fate 4omanes#ue decoration and
the consistent use of round arches, Gothic innovations were also
included, for e*ample en!d.lit shafts made of a bluish marbleli!e stone
Qalmost all lost today@, Frenchstyle stiffleaf capitals, triangular gables
above the port,is, and crossribbed vaults.
Thus Glastonbury, with its attempt at reconciling the od with the
new, and Aells, with its distinct modernity, represented two basically
different concepts of how an important church building should loo!.
$nd yet they were built only 83 !ilometers QL miles@ apart, at e*actly
the same time, with building materials from the same #uarry, a
particularly telling illustration of how medieval patrons and master
masons could choose between different formal languages or styles.
It was a different situation again with Aorcester -athedral, where a
new choir was built from 899C Qsee right, bottom@. Aorcester had
recently been honored. It had long housed the remains of the $nglo
)a*on bishop Aulfstan, who was canoni&ed by the pope in 893;, and in
898L, in accordance with his wishes, =ing Hohn was buried in the
cathedral. There was a desire to build something that would reflect this
new status architecturally.
The Gothic style of the west of England was shown off to advantage
only on the e*terior of the building and in the side aisles. $part from
that, the cathedral revealed the gloriously colorful raiment of the Early
English style in finely balanced variations that combine the structural
simplicity of )alisbury with the decorative delights of Fincoln.
Individual motifs such as the triforium, with its remodeled arches, are
clear e*amples of this. 'ut the structure of the choir as a whole, which
has a soaring east wall and monumental groups of lancet windows in
the end walls, follows north of England patterns. 'y choosing stylistic
elements from all the regions of the country, the patrons obviously
wanted to ma!e it clear that Aorcester was a royal burial place.
"eterborough -athedral Qformer 'enedictine
abbey church@
Aest facade, ca. 882389;2
$ Kni#ue Feature of Early English7 The )creen Facade English Gothic
also went its own way in the construction of west fronts. 5nly
relatively seldom do we see the twintowered fronts so common in
France. In their place English cathedrals and monastery churches were
conten with a simple straight facade, or else they competed with each
other in the construction of lengthy showpiece fronts, the socalled
screen facades.
)uch a fagade is only indirectly connected with the nave opening up
behind it. The facade e*tends across the whole building, and the towers
are either set bac! at the sides, or rise up from /ust behind the wall of
the fagade.
Aestend port,is play no particularly noteworthy role in English
architecture. In contrast to French port,is, they cower insignificantly in
the lower ,reas of the facade and are not decorated by sculpture. 5ne
reason for this is that, since $nglo)a*on times, the main entrances to
English churches lay at the side, mostly on the north, where a lavishly
decorated porch mar!s the portal Qprobably as a protection against the
inclement English weatherW@.
The most beautiful English screen facade is to be found at Aells
Qsee opposite@. $t the dedication of the cathedral in 89;< it was still
not complete. The towers stand at the side of the nave and boldly
protruding buttresses divide the building vertically. )everal rows of
blind arcading, one above the other, run across hori&ontally. )tatues are
spread over the whole facade7 they consist of reli%is on the surfaces of
the spandrels, lifesi&e figures of saints on the buttresses, and,
enthroned above them all, -hrist presiding over the Fast Hudgment. The
whole story of -hristian salvation unfolds on this gigantic wall of
pictures. In addition, the facade was used in the liturgy at the great
religious festival processions. )ingers and musicians stood on passages
behind concealed openings so that the whole facade would begin to
resound and became a spea!ing tableau of the ?eavenly Herusalem.
The Gothic screen facade constructed on the west transept of
"eterborough -athedral is a comple* design with huge arched openings
Qsee above@. It was based both on a 4omanes#ue facade with
monumental portal niches and on a 4om,n triumphal arch. The church
proudly displays its port,is as the gates of ?eaven, which lead into the
church as into the place of eternal salvation. The towers stand bac!
behind the gigantic arches, and statues are found only in the gables high
above.
8;C
Aells -athedral
Aest front, ca. 89;3]3
The towers were completed ca. 8C33.
8;:
Fondon, Aestminster $bbey
Ground plan
Aestminster $bbey7 +ew Ideas From France at the =ing.s 4e#uest
Aestminster $bbey in Fondon has a special place in the history of
medieval architecture in England. 'egun in 89C:, it was built at the
re#uest of one single client, =ing ?enry III. ?e financed the building
almost completely out of his own poc!et. ?is ancestor Edward the
-onfessor Q83C9LL@ had been buried in the 4omanes#ue church. ?e
had been canoni&ed in 88L8, but his cult became popular only under
?enry III. The !ing was trying to strengthen the position of the English
monarchy against a powerful France. Edward the -onfessor was his
trump card in this, for French !ings at this time could still not produce
an official saintly ancestor.
The rebuilding of Edward.s burial place was therefore a part of
ma/or political endeavors to enhance the status of the English royal
house. The new Aestminster $bbey was not only to be one of the most
splendid churches of -hristendom but it was also, even more
importantly, to stand comparison with the great French cathedrals. In
this way, Aestminster $bbey became the most French of English
Gothic church buildings.
The !ing employed an architect by the Same of ?enry of 4eyns.
5nce again the Same is pu&&ling7 is 4eyns a village in England, or
4eims in the ledeFranceP Aas ?enry perhaps an Englishman who
had studied in the masons. lodge in 4eimsP 5r was he, li!e Ailliam of
)ens, a Frenchman who had to adapt himself to English building
practicesP In spite of various restrictions, the master masn ?enry
created a Frenchstyle polygonal choir whose apse formed five sides of
an octagon, an ambulatory with radiating chap%is Qsee opposite, left@,
and an aisled transept. The elevation, with its soaring arcade, shallow
middle story, and high clerestory, is also in !eeping with French models
Qsee opposite, right@.
The most stri!ing feature of the choir is its height. +o English
religious building had reached ;9 meters Q83: feet@ until then0 4eims
was ;2 meters Q89: feet@ high. In addition, there is in Aestminster an
element which had been completely un!nown in English Gothic
architecture until that time7 tracery in the gallery and a thinwalled
clerestory, which now had no wallpassage. Farge rose windows with
openwor! spandrels decrate the transept farades. 5utside, a system of
flying buttresses supports the walls of the high nave.
The most important French model for Aestminster was, as the Same
of the master builder may well imply, 4eims -athedral, although in the
middle of the 8;th century its architecture had already been superseded
by the innovations of the 4ayonnant style. 'ut for ?enry III the
political significance was what counted7 4eims was the cathedral for
the coronation of French !ings and Aestminster was to fulfil this
function for the English monarchs.
?enry the master masn was also ac#uainted, however, with the
latest developments in $miens and "aris. In "aris he and his patrn
were particularly impressed by the )te.-hapelle, which the French
!ing, Fouis IM Q899L13@, later )t. Fouis, had built specially for the
relie of -hrist.s crown of thorns. The characteristic tracery windows
of spherical triangles in the Fower -hapel of the )te.-hapelle are
found again in the gallery of Aestminster $bbey. The rich interior
decoration of the "aris chapel also appears to have inspired the builders
of Aestminster, who decorated the entire surfaces of the walls of the
abbey church with small carved rosettes Qdiaper wor!@, which they
gilded and painted. They placed figures everywhere, on the corbels, on
the spandrels of the blind arcading, and on the end walls of the
transepts. Aestminster $bbey was one of the most magnificently
decorated buildings of the Diddle $ges. It was in effect a vast reli#uary
enclosing the shrine containing the bones of Edward the -onfessor.
In spite of this cise connection with French Gothic architecture, on
cise inspection Aestminster $bbey, li!e -anterbury -athedral before
it, remains an English building. Individual French elements were
selected, but immediately merged with English traditions. Thus the
middle story is not a triforium, as one would e*pect in a French ?igh
Gothic cathedral, but a gallery in the English style. The typically
$nglo+orman double layering is also in evidence here, as there is
double tracery in the openings going into the gallery space. The
supports of the arcade arches follow the pattern of the French pilier
cantonn., yet they are made entirely of "urbec! marble, and their
shafts, li!e the piers in the nave of )alisbury, are en d.lit5
This blend of English and French Gothic ma!es Aestminster $bbey
a truly eclectic monument, a fact that can be e*plained only by the clear
aims of its royal patrn. English tendencies increased in the course of
the building process. ?enry of 4eyns was succeeded in 89:; by the
master masn Hohn of Gloucester, and the latter in 89L3 by 4obert of
'everley. Knder them the piers in the nave received additional shafts
and the vault ac#uired tierceron ribs. $t the dedication in 89L<, the
choir, the transept, and the four eastern nave bays of the abbey, as well
as large parts of the splendid decoration, were complete. $fter the death
of the royal patrn in 8919, however, the building was left unfinished.
The nave was completed after 8;1:, and the west front as late as the
82th century.
8;L
Fondon, Aestminster $bbey
-hoir and nave, loo!ing east, 89C:L<
Fondon, Aestminster $bbey
+ave, loo!ing southwest, ca. 89:2L<
The nave was completed after 8;1:.
The
>ecorated
)tyle7
>ecoration,
Tracery, and
6ault
Aith
Aestminster
a new era in
English
architectural
history
began. It
embodied so
many new
ideas that
English
builders were
able to draw
on them for
almost a
hundred
years.
$dmittedly
they #uic!ly
returned to
traditional
English
building
methods and
practices,
such as the
thic!, double
layered walls,
but
nevertheless
Aestminster
had opened
up new
possibilities
for the
decoration of
church
buildings.
The most
influential
feature
proved to be
the tracery,
with which
one could
cover not
only the
windows but
now also the
walls. In
addition
carne the idea
of closely
lin!ing
architecture
and sculpture
to form a
total wor! of
art. 'efore
long the vault
was also
included in
the total
effect and
carne to be
artistically
fashioned
with the rib
formations
already
developed in
Fincoln.
Thus the
>ecorated
style, as its
Same
suggests,
brought
innovations
primarily in
the ,rea of
the
decoration of
every
available
architectural
surface. In
the process
two variants
of the
>ecorated
style
developed in
parallel,
distinguished
by the forms
of their
tracery. The
geometrical
style in the
Aestminster
tradition
remained
cise to the
geometrically
constructed
tracery of the
French
4ayonnant
style, while
at the same
time the
curvilinear
style of
tracery Qalso
called
flowing
tracery@
e*plored, on
the basis of
the new !eel
or taln arch
Qthe ogee
arch@, the
possibilities
of a flowing,
sweeping
design.
The Impact
of
Aestminster
>uring the
second half
of the 8;th
century the
momentum
generated by
Aestminster
helped to
cr%ate a large
number of
new
buildings.
Individual
elements
such as the
rounded
triangular
windows are
#uoted in
?ereford and
Fichfield.
Aestminster.
s chapter
house,
completed
under ?enry
of 4eyns,
served as a
model for the
one at
)alisbury in
the 89L3s
and 8913s
Qsee page
8;2@. These
two central
buildings
were both
built as
e*#uisite
glass cages in
which all the
wall surfaces
are
transformed
into vast
windows.
The central
mullion in
)alisbury is
so fine that it
is hardly
possible to
see it against
the light of
the window.
)culpted
reli%is in the
spandrels of
the lower
wall
8;1
)alisbury -athedral
-hapter ?ouse, loo!ing north,
89L3si13s or after 891<
5""5)ITE7
Fincoln -athedral
4etrochoir, !nown as the (jngel -hoir,(
loo!ing northeast, 89:L23
The base for the reli#uary of )t. ?ugh.s
head can be seen on the left.
8;2
#
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j%

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l
?
#
Vor! Dinster +ave,
loo!ing west 89<8ca.
8;C3
arcading, which tell stories from the 5d Testament, demnstrate the
great love that age had for decoration.
'etween 89:L and 8923 the choir in Fincoln cathedral was e*tended
eastwards. In the new bo*shaped space, the socalled jngel -hoir Qsee
page 8;<@, the reli#uary of 'ishop ?ugh, who had now been canoni&ed,
had to be installed in a fitting manner. $ll the window openings and
galleries of the choir are filled with geometrical tracery.
The great variety of forms here goes much further than in
Aestminster $bbey. In Fincoln they combined for the first time the
traditional English fat east end wall and the new element of tracery.
This resulted in large groups of vertical strips of traceried windows in
the east of the church as a counterpart to the windows of the west front.
Even the costly wall decoration at Aestminster is shown off to
advantage in Fincoln. 'lind tracery covers every available surface.
4eli%is decrate the spandrels of the gallery with the singing and
musicma!ing angels who gave this choir its Same.
'articu"ar"& 1renc: Tor/
$ new campaign, also completely under the spell of geometrical tracery,
was started for the rebuilding of Vor! Dinster in the last #uarter of the
8;th century. In the chapter house and its vestibule the tracery patterns
follow with unusual closeness models of the French 4ayonnant style,
especially those of )t.Krbain in Troyes. The French character of the
architecture is intensified in the nave, which was built from 89<8 Qsee
left@. The reason for this must lie in the person of the patrn.
$rchbishop Hean le 4omeyn Q892L<L@ had been professor of theology
at the Kniversity of "aris, and so in the nave at Vor! we find the only
English e*ample of the s!eletal, thinwall structure of French Gothic.
The high arcade arches are sharply pointed, and the gallery is
replaced by a triforium and lin!ed with the clerestory windows by
continuous vertical shafts. 'oth are placed cise up to the interior face
of the wall and have no wallpassage. Vet another motif from France
can be found in the triforium, namely arches that are framed by
croc!eted gables, that is, socalled gabled arcades. This motif was used
on the niches and canopies used for displaying statues, and was
eventually transferred to largescale architecture on French 4ayonnant
port,is. The change from geometric to curvilinear tracery can be seen
particularly clearly in the large west window of Vor! Dinster, which
was gla&ed in 8;;<. Foils appear to unfurl li!e leaves on a stem and in
the center of the crown a large heart shape is formed out of ogee arches.
Te Creati0it& of te SoutPest
$nother center for the >ecorated style was southwest England during
the last #uarter of the 8;th century. In several buildings in this regin it
is possible to see a move away from purely geometric style and the
evolution of unusual and distinctive solutions, especially in the interior
design.
The first of these buildings was E*eter -athedral, which was
renewed from east to west from around 8923, all in one phase. The
interior of this relatively smallproportioned building is dominated by
the lowspringing vault that appears to consist almost entirely of ribs
Qsee opposite, top right@. The vault of E*eter.s nave is the most elabrate
tierceron vault in England. The number of ribs has increased from the
seven used in the nave at Fincoln to eleven. The arcades and the
numerous clustered piers with stepped profiles closely match this tight
rib formation. In E*eter, even the traceried windows are fashioned in a
particularly rich style, with each pair of windows differing from the
ne*t.
From 8;8L to 8;C9 the master masn Thomas of Aitney, one of the
most creative men of his time, was wor!ing in E*eter. Thomas was
responsible for the completion of the nave, the building of the west
front, and the furnishing of the choir. In the detailed architecture of the
furnishings, especially the bishop.s throne and choir screen of 8;8:9C,
he introduced several important innovations. The most
8C3
'EF5A7 E*eter -athedral
E*eter -athedral +ave, loo!ing east, ca. 8;83
Aest front, 8;9<C9 Qwith alterations $t the bottom can be seen the choir
from the mid8Cth and 8:th centuries@ screen Q8;819C @ by Thomas of Aitney
and on the lef t, in the trif orium, the
singers. gallery.
significant are the ogee arches in various styles, which we can see in
one of their earliest e*pressions in the choir screen, and the new lierne
rib structure in the vaults of the choir screen passage. The lierne is an
additional rib on the crossribbed vault that Qunli!e the tierceron@ is not
connected to the vault springings. Aith liernes it was possible to design
even more intricate vault patterns.
Fi!e Thomas of Aitney, many architects of the period were happy to
e*periment with new shapes in smallscale architecture before
transferring them to large buildings. Thomas of Aitney had learned of
liernes and ogee arches shortly before his wor! at E*eter in an
important English building pro/ect which has since been destroyed,
namely the double chapel of )t. )tephen in the royal palace of
Aestminster. The chapel was begun in 89<9<1 under the court master
masn Dichael of -anterbury, but it was not finally completed until
8;939L.
The west front at E*eter Q8;9<C9@, with its large central window, in
which the transition between geometric and curvilinear tracery is
signaled, represents the fat end facades which are so typical of Fate
Gothic in England Qsee below@. The most unusual element, the blind
sculptured showpiece facade, is a later addition from the middle of the
8Cth and 8:th centuries and illustrates the survival of the early Gothic
screen facade.
Deanwhile, in nearby 'ristol, one of the most original buildings of
Fate Gothic in Europe was being built Qsee page 8C9@. The $ugustinian
mon!s of the cathedral started the restoration with the choir, which was
to serve as the burial place of the powerful 'er!eley family0 it was
completed in 8;;9. This is a hall church, unusual for England. ?ere a
brilliant master masn whose Same we do not !now created a new and
uni#ue interpretation of the hall church form. The wide nave opens into
the narrow side aisles through tall, wide arches.
The vaults are placed at right angles to the nave, li!e the barrel vaults in
early -istercian churches. The bays of the side aisles are spanned by
four small crossribbed vaults which are supported by transverse arches
that are much lower than the arcade arches of the central nave. The
spandrels of these arches, however, are openwor!, and termnate
hori&ontally in a battlementli!e frie&e. $bove the vaults is an open
space. Ahole vault webs are missing, which means that an open view
into the neighboring bays is provided so that the transverse arches of
the side aisle in 'ristol loo! li!e lin!ed bridges. The inspiration for this
unusual design could have been the lower chapel of the )te.-hapelle in
"aris. The 'ristol master too! this highly original approach to the vault
to an e*treme in the little anteroom of the 'er!eley -hapel, where he
omitted all the vault webs and allowed the ribs to hang freely in the air.
The master.s unrestrained originality is shown in other ways too.
The central nave piers merge into the arcade arches without a brea!.
There are no capitals and imposts here, one of the earliest e*amples
8C8
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5""5)ITE7
'ristol -athedral Qformer 'enedictine
abbey church of )t. $ugustine@ -hoir
loo!ing east, 89<2ca.l;;9
Aells -athedral
-hapter ?ouse, loo!ing south, 89<3s
of this feature in
European Gothic.
The wavy profiles
Qogee molding@ of
the piers are /ust as
novel. The central
nave vault begins as
a tierceron vault but
meets at the vault
ridge in a row of
large lo&enges
formed of liernes. In
addition, the liernes
are decorated li!e
tracery with cusps
suspended from the
surface of the vault.
'ut the most
unusual feature of
the cathedral is the
un!nown 'ristol
master mason.s
treatment of the
architectural
furnishings,
especially on the
'er!eley family
tombs. 5gee arches
are piled
precipitously on top
of each other and
inverse multifoil
arches form frames
reminiscent of
Islamic architecture.
$ third building
in southwest
England also
demonstrates the
dynamism of this
regin in the early
8Cth century7 Aells
-athedral, which we
have already
mentioned in
connection with the
Early English style.
In the 89<3s an
octagonal chapter
house was built, one
of the most beautiful
in England Qsee
right@. It was
comp
leted
befor
e
8;31.
Knli!
e the
chapt
er
house
s of
Aest
minst
er or
)alis
bury,
its
basic
form
is not
the
glass
cage
but
instea
d the
richly
decor
ated
vault.
Fi!e
a
palm
tree,
the
sturd
y
centr
al
colu
mn
suppo
rts
the
e*pan
sive
dome
of the
vault
on
whic
h
count
less closely pac!ed
tierceron ribs stretch
upwards.
The vault at the
end of the new choir
at Aells is also
worthy of attention.
It begins in the east
of the Early Gothic
choir with the Fady
-hapel, which is
lower than the
choir.s nave but
higher than the
ambulatory. Thomas
of Aitney, who is
already !nown to us
from E*eter, had
been active there
since 8;9;. The
Fady -hapel was
completed by 8;9L.
Knli!e all
comparable chap%is
in England, this
chapel has a ground
plan that is not a
rectangle but an
elongated octagon.
The vault, rising up
li!e a dome, is
decorated with a star
of ribs. The
architect had the
tas! of connecting
this octagonal
chapel space with
the rectangular
ambulatory around
the choir. ?is
solution was a
subtle
interpenetration of
spaces that would
become familiar
only much later
during the 'aro#ue
period. The supports
in the ambulatory
are arranged in a
he*agon whose east
side is identical to
the west end of the
Fady -hapel.
6isitors can easily
become dis
orientated in the
forest of slender
supports east of the
choir. 5nly by
loo!i
ng up
at the
vault
can
they
see
the
cente
r of
the
he*ag
on,
whic
h is
distin
guish
ed by
its
star
shape
.
Th
e
choir
itself
was
renov
ated
from
8;;;
by
the
maste
r
mas
n
Ailli
am
Hoy
Qsee
page
8CC,
left@.
The
three
storie
s are
lin!e
d by
a pier
profil
e
whos
e
wave
patter
n,
famili
ar to
us from 'ristol, runs
all around the pier.
The central ,rea, a
!ind of triforium,
consists of a delicate
latticewor! pattern
of vertical bars and
ogeearched gabled
arcading containing
statues. The bars
continu% from the
rear of the arcade
arches to the tracery
of the clerestory
windows. The finely
detailed tracery is
the socalled
flowing or
reticulated tracery,
in which the pattern
allows itself to go
off in any direction
it pleases. The
clerestory passage
leads past slanted
window /ambs.
Their openings are
framed by ogee
arches that curve
outwards towards
the
Aells
-athed
ral,
ground
plan
8C;
Aells -athedral
-hoir loo!ing east. The choir was built
by master masn Ailliam Hoy from 8;;;.
The Fady -hapel by Thomas Aitney,
completed in 8;9L, can be seen to the
east through the arcades.
Ely -athedral
-rossing octagon, 8;99C3
The wooden vault and lantern are by the
master carpenter Ailliam ?urley.
top. Thomas of
Aitney had introduced
this socalled nodding
ogee in the bishop.s
throne at E*eter.
Finally, in the vault,
the boundaries of the
bays almost
completely disappear
and a mesh of liernes
spreads over the
whole surface,
creating lo&enges,
he*agons, and stars.
Aalls, windows, and
vaults in the Aells
choir are all covered
by a filigree web of
fine lines.
+eces
sity
te
2ot
er of
In0en
tion:
?"&
$t
the
begin
ning
of the
8Cth
centu
ry,
the
mon!
s of
Ely
in the
east
of
Engl
and
also
want
ed to
have
their
own
churc
h in
this
splen
did
new
style.
In
8;98
they
bega
n on
a
small
scale
with
a
Fady
-hap
el to
the
north
of the
choir. 'ut the
following year a
catastrophe made it
necessary for the
clergy to underta!e a
much larger building
pro/ect all in one go.
The result of this is
one of the most
unusual spatial
creations of the
Diddle $ges. 5n 99
February 8;99 the
crossing tower
collapsed and too! the
crossing piers and the
ad/acent bays
Ely
-athedr
al,
ground
plan
8CC
Ely -athedral
Fady -hapel, loo!ing northeast,
8;98ca.l;C:
with it. The sacrist,n, $lan of Aalsingham, was given the tas! of
organi&ing the reconstruction. "ossibly it was his own idea not to build
the crossing in the od style but to e*tend it into an octagon Qsee opposite,
right@. Fight now streams in through large windows, illuminating the
central ,rea of the church where the mon!s. choir stalls once stood. The
vault above these windows is spectacular. The huge surface, with a
diameter of 99 meters Q19 feet@, stretches over an ingenious wooden
construction, to build which the royal carpenter Ailliam ?urley was
specially brought from Fondon. Tierceron ribs stretch up from the corners
of the crossing and support an octagonal lantern tower that has wide
windows and is angled at C:k. The wooden vault, behind which the
buttressing is concealed, was painted to loo! li!e stone. 5utside, the
fantastic silhouette of the octagon and lantern, with their buttresses and
pinnacles, can be seen from far away, rising above the fat marshland of
the surrounding countryside.
The bays ne*t to the choir in Ely also had to be repaired, and they
were completed in 8;;L;1. ?ere the decoration completely obscures the
architecture. Even more richly decorated is the Fady -hapel Qsee above@.
The last part to be completed, around 8;C:, it was consecrated in 8;:;.
$lthough it has a simple bo*li!e shape, it outdoes everything which had
gone before in comple*ity7 the interior architectural forms,
ornamentation, sculpture, and Qat one time@ painting are all subtly
interconnected. $ll the surfaces are covered with finely detailed
decoration, the shapes emerging from behind one another and out of each
other. The leitmotif is the gabled arcade with its threedimensional,
outwardly curving ogee arches Qnodding ogees@. Everywhere was
sculpture telling the story of the 6irgin Dary.s life. Everything was once
gilded or painted in bright colors. In its original condition, the Fady
-hapel at Ely must have been a stunning treasure house, a high point of
the >ecorated style which could hardly be surpassed.
8C:
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5""5)ITE7 -anterbury -athedral
Gloucester -athedral Qformer +ave, loo!ing east,
'enedictine abbey church@ ca. 8;1:8C3:
-hoir, loo!ing east, ca. 8;;1L3 The master masn ?enry Vevele is a
possible architect.
The "erpendicular )tyle7 4eaction to E*cess
This e*travagant wealth of shapes and details provo!ed a reaction. This
began in the west of England with the abbey church in Gloucester in the
8;;3s, even as some important wor!s of the >ecorated style were still
being built. =ing Edward II Q8;3191@, who had been held captive in
'er!eley -astle by his wife and her lover, and finally murdered, was
buried there. )oon afterwards, #uite une*pectedly, a pilgrimage was
established to his burial place. The pilgrims. donations, along with gifts
from his son, Edward III Q8;9111@, soon made it possible, shortly after
8;;3, to remodel the od 4omanes#ue basilica, beginning in the south
transept. "resumably the royal master masn Thomas of -anterbury,
who had overseen the completion of the royal chapel of )t. )tephen.s in
Aestminster, was brought to Gloucester. Dotifs from the upper chapel
there were used again at Gloucester, this time on largescale church
architecture, and so a new architectural style was born. 5ne of Thomas.
successors perfected this style in the remodeled choir around 8;;1L3
Qsee opposite@.
The traditionconscious 'enedictines of Gloucester wanted to retain
their od building as far as possible. The master masn satisfied this
condition by decorating the central nave walls with a veneer of lattice
wor! of vertical and hori&ontal Knes behind which the od side aisles
and galleries were concealed. 5nly the clerestory was completely
rebuilt. The >ecorated style is continued in Gloucester in a new formal
language7 the decoration of every available surface with patterns. Vet in
comparison with the >ecorated style as used elsewhere, in Gloucester
there is a standardi&ation of forms and no longer an everchanging
pattern of shapes. The basic motif is the (panel,( a narrow, elongated
rectangle of tracery at the top of which a small cusped arch is enclosed.
"anels such as this cover the walls, openings, and windows of
Gloucester with a symmetrical grid of latticewor!. ?ere the order of the
regular grid is set against the >ecorated style.s effusive spirit of
inventiveness. $ new style of vertical and hori&ontal lines was born7 the
"erpendicular.
Aithin this networ! individual structural elements cr%ate a clearly
legible system, with pronounced vertical elements dividing the walls
into regular bays. This orderly structure can be seen most clearly in the
monumental east window. Aith a surface ,rea of 82: s#uare meters
Q8,<<3 s#uare feet@, it is the largest of its day and consists solely of
glass and the tracery bars of the panels. Thic!er mullions subdivide it
into three vertical sections. Even the roof vault, which is covered with a
dense mesh of lierne ribs, conforms to the new formal language7
accentuating the central a*is, three parallel ridge ribs run the length of
the roof vault. $lthough at first sight there may be a danger of
monotony with the stereotyped repetition of these rectangular panels,
the master builders of the "erpendicular were every bit as successful as
their predecessors in articulating the space available. For it was only
with the help of paneling that windows whose surfaces were made
entirely of glass could be opened up to
such an enormous si&e as at Gloucester. ?ere the od Gothic dream of
an interior completely flooded with light became reality.
The architectural vocabulary formulated at Gloucester offered
numerous possibilities that English architects e*ploited to the full from
the middle of the 8Cth century. The panel became the standard form of
English architecture. It proved to be e*tremely fle*ible as it could be
copied in any way desired and could be used to cover surfaces of any
si&e. Doreover, in comparison with the large variety of individual
shapes in the >ecorated style, it was easy to ma!e, and mar!ed a
rationali&ation of the wor! processes. "aneling was soon used in all
,reas of architecture and furnishings, large or small, religious or
secular. The triumphal march of the "erpendicular may have some
connection with the ravages of the 'lac! >eath of 8;C2]C<7 there were
fewer builders available, and the somber and penitential mood of the
period meant that survivors turned away from e*aggerated lu*ury.
In the last #uarter of the 8Cth century the "erpendicular style was
used for the first and last time in the architecture of great cathedrals.
+ew naves were built at -anterbury and Ainchester. The one at
-anterbury, built between about 8;1: to 8C3: Qsee above@, was
probably designed by the court.s master builder, ?enry Vevele, one of
the most active and successful architects of his time. The most stri!ing
feature of this nave is its verticality. The arcades are particularly tall,
the piers slender. The vault supports climb up li!e drainpipes and, as in
the choir at Gloucester, clearly mar! the
8C1
Ainchester -athedral 5""5)ITE7
+ave, loo!ing southeast -ambridge, =ing.s -ollege -hapel,
'egun ca. 8;L3 and completed 8;<C, the loo!ing east, 8CLL8:8:
nave was built by master masn Ailliam
Aynford. 5n the right the funerary
chapel of 'ishop Ay!eham Qdied 8C3C@
can be seen.
Ainchester -athedral
Aest front, ca. 8;L3LL
divisin into bays. $ double waveshaped curved profile Qa
double ogee@ runs in an unbro!en
line from the piers up to the
clerestory windows, uniting the
whole main nave wall into one
enormous arcade, a motif familiar
from the choir at Aells. -ontrary
to English tradition, the arcade
arches are very narrow, with the
result that even the wall above
with its paneled triforium and
clerestory loo!s li!e a narrow
surface slotted into the huge
arcade. The vault is more
restrained than the one at
Gloucester, which has a dense
mesh of ribs. The liernes form a
star pattern only at the vault
ridge, a feature which accentuates
the center of each bay.
In Ainchester -athedral the
rebuilding of the nave around
8;L3 had begun with the west
front. 5ne of the last cathedral
fronts of England, it was once
again built with a fat end wall
Qsee above, right@. 5n this facade
the side aisles are separated from
the nave by boldly protruding
buttresses and pinnacles. The wall
and window surfaces between are
completely covered with
paneling, and the large west
window has been designed as a
variation of the east window at
Gloucester. The porch has Tudor
arches. These fourcentered
arches, which are typical of the
"erpendicular style, too! the
place of the ogee arch of the
>ecorated style. $s a result of the
bent angle of the arches, they
could be fitted easily into the
rectangular grid of the panels.
$fter the death of the first
patrn, 'ishop Edington, the
rebuilding of the Ainchester nave
was left unfinished in 8;LL, and it
was not until 8;<C that wor!
began again Qsee above, left@,
under 'ishop Ailliam Ay!eham.
?e was one of the most
influential men of his time and an
important patrn of the arts. ?e
employed as his master
8C2
masn Ailliam Aynford, who
li!e Vevele had served in the
royal household. To save money,
Aynford did not dismantle the
4omanes#ue nave but artistically
remodeled the original fabric of
the building instead. The new
structures were sculpted out of
the od masonry. In this way an
architectural style arse which
has #uite a different character,
although it wor!s with the same
set of basic shapes. The piers and
arcade arches are huge. $ parapet
above the arcades hides how far
the wall above it has moved bac!.
?ere the nave is characteri&ed not
by thin, tightly stretched wall
surfaces, as at -anterbury, but by
threedimensional stepped
profiles. The high nave vault is
e*tended downwards a long way
so that the thrust of the vault can
be transmitted to the thic!
4omanes#ue wall.
$fter the naves in -anterbury
and Ainchester had been built,
cathedrals lost their leading role
in English architecture. The
outstanding building pro/ects of
the 8:th and early 8Lth centuries
occurred in smallscale church
building such as chap%is and
parish churches and also in the
building of 5*ford and
-ambridge colleges, which were
now beginning to develop as
important pro/ects. )ome of these
smaller building pro/ects turned
out, at least in part, to be no less
spectacular than the cathedrals
and monastery churches of earlier
times. This is especially true of
the magnificent series of royal
chap%is with which medieval
architecture in England comes to
an end. 5nce again the English
!ings emerged as founders of
prestigious building pro/ects.
?enry 6I Q8C99L8,8C1318@ laid
the foundation stone for =ing.s
-ollege -hapel in -ambridge in
8CCL, Edward I6 Q8CL813, 8C18
2;@ founded )t. George.s -hapel
in Aindsor -astle, and ?enry 6II
Q8C2:8:3<@ renewed the Fady
-hapel at the east end of
Fondon, Aestminster $bbey
?enry 6II.s -hapel, loo!ing southwest,
8:393<
5n the left is the tomb of ?enry 6IF
Aestminster $bbey between 8:39 and 8:3<, the chapel now bearing
his Same. $s all three chap%is were intended to serve as royal burial
places, they reached cathedral proportions.
=ing.s -ollege -hapel Qsee page 8C<@ is an integral part of a college
that ?enry 6I founded in -ambridge in 8CC8. $fter the death of the
founder in 8C18, the wor! made slow progress. 5nly when ?enry 6II
too! up the initiative again in 8:32, and left the means for the
completion of the building pro/ect in his will, was it finally completed,
in 8:8:.
This chapel is the epitome of the "erpendicular style. The walls are
now almost completely translated into glass. 5nly at the bottom is there
any remaining solid wall, and this is covered by a grid of
8:3
tracery. The fine lines of these lower sections have a vertical emphasis
that leads the eye up to the vault. The product of the last building phase
at the beginning of the 8Lth century, this chapel is regarded as the high
point in the art of medieval vaulting. ?ere a techni#ue seen only in
England is applied to the monumental span of 89.LL meters QC8.: feet@7
the fan vault. This form of vaulting had already been developed around
8;L313 in the cloister at Gloucester, but until now it had been used
only in small buildings. The fan was created by combining the tierceron
vault, with its palmli!e spread of ribs, with the panels developed by the
"erpendicular style. The basic form consists of a series of inverted half
cones that are cut off hori&ontally at the top and meet at the vault.s
ridge0 they are supported by the transverse arches. Traceried panels are
laid on the cones, which taper as they descend. The vertical lines loo!
li!e the spo!es of a window rose. The result is a form that is fine
meshed but nevertheless clearly structured. ?aving spread over the
windows and walls, tracery and paneling had now ta!en over the vault
too. In =ing.s -ollege -hapel, English Fate Gothic created a completely
unified architectural space that is unrivaled anywhere in Europe.
Foo!ed at from a technical point of view, English Fate Gothic fan
vaults are a masterpiece. They are no longer composed of sep,rate ribs
and webs li!e traditional vaults, but of individual stone slabs curved
into each other. The tracery lines of the panels are carved out of these
slabs. The surfaces of the spandrels between the cones are completed by
hori&ontal slabs, which at =ing.s -ollege -hapel weigh 8.: tons each.
5ne would imagine that after -ambridge no further improvement
could be made. 'ut this was precisely what ?enry 6II set about trying
to achieve. ?e had the Fady -hapel in the east of the Aestminster
$bbey torn down for his own burial place, and the choir built by ?enry
III made twice as long. 'oth outside and inside, ?enry 6II.s -hapel is
composed entirely of intricate panels with hardly any plain wall ,rea
left.
5nce again the greatest triumph of the interior space is the vault Qsee
left@. ?ere the basic structure evident in -ambridge is almost totally
obscured by the rich diversity of forms. The Aestminster vault is a fan
vault, but combined with large hanging bosses called pendants. The
number of cones in the structure has increased and the points of the
whole cones in the middle hang spectacularly in midair. The techni#ue
which ma!es this masterpiece possible is well disguised7 the transverse
arches disappear into the ceiling of the vault, their thrust being
transmitted to the e*ternal buttressing. This intensifies the weightless
impression of the vault, the lines of tracery being carved out of stone
slabs, with the actual surface of the vault behind appearing only as a
shadowy bac!ground.
Dedieval art in England comes to an end with ?enry 6II.s -hapel in
Aestminster $bbey. ?enry 6II.s tomb, made by the Italian 4enaissance
)culptor "ietro Torrigiano, lies concealed behind a paneled screen in
the center of the chapel.
Ainchester -athedral 4etrochoir, loo!ing
northwest with the chantry chap%is of -ardinal
'eaufort, died 8CC1 Qin front@, 'ishop
Aayneflete, died 8C2L Qto the right in the
bac!ground@, and 'ishop Fo*, died 8:92 Qleft@.
In the niche in the base of this chapel the
s!eleton of Fo* is depicted.
Tree S!ecia" Bui"ding T&!es of te ?ng"is 5ate 2idd"e Ages:
Cantr& Ca!Wis3 'aris Curces3 and Cast"es
Te ?ng"is Cantr& Ca!e"
Finally, we can loo! briefly at three building types that played a special
role in English medieval architecture. The first is the r%#uiem chapel,
!nown as the chantry chapel. In the course of the 8Cth century, and
especially after the 'lac! >eath, there emerged a need for a stronger
e*pression of religious faith. Great significance was attached to
remembering the dead and to providing for one.s own death. $ccording to
medieval ideas, the souls of the dead had to rely on the prayers of those
left behind in order to reach ?eaven from "urgatory. Therefore during
their lifetime the faithful paid for masses that were to be read out Qand
sung@ at a particular altar in a particular church after their death,
preferably in perpetuity. The word chantry is derived from the Fatin term
for such r%#uiem masses, cantarAa5
Families that were especially rich could afford to build their own
chapel in memory of their dead. This would contain their tombs and an
altar. 5n the -ontinent these private chap%is were mostly built along the
side aisles of large churches. In England chantry chap%is had since the
second half of the 8Cth century been built as sep,rate little buildings in
the middle of the church, mostly as a (stone cage( structure. The idea
behind them was simple7 the nearer the main altar or reli#uary of the
church, the better. Aith the fle*ible architectural vocabulary of the
"erpendicular style, these miniature buildings could best be constructed
out of openwor! panels.
English chantry chap%is developed from the freestanding tombs with
lavish canopies that had been constructed for the dead of important
members of society since the middle of the 8;th century. $ high point of
this genre is the memorial to =ing Edward II which was erected about
8;;3;: on the north side of the choir at Gloucester Qsee page ;13@. Aith
all the lavishness of the Fate >ecorated style, this tomb is encased by a
comple* multilayered baldachinstyle piece of architecture composed of
ogee arches, buttresses, gabled arcades, and croc!eted pinnacles.
In Ainchester -athedral, whose bishops were some of the richest in
England, this form of lavishly decorated tomb was gradually upgraded to
evolve into the chantry chapel Qsee right@. The two patrons of the new
nave made the first move, particularly the selfimportant 'ishop
Ay!eham. ?e had his tomb placed under one of the southern arcades and
had a chapel erected around it whose wroughtiron wor! bloc!ed off the
whole of the arcade arch Qsee page 8C2, left@. )mall doors led into the
chapel, which is complete with altar and retable. Through the traceried
panels one can see the recumbent figure of the bishop, who died in 8C3C.
$t his feet small carved mon!s pray for the salvation of his soul. The
monument reve,is a curious mi* of piety and e*hibitionism.
'ishop 'eaufort of Ainchester, who died in 8CC1, had attained the
ran! of cardinal and wanted to outdo his famous predecessor. ?e
left behind large sums of money to ma!e alterations to the high altar and
reli#uary of )t. )within. In 8C1L the shrine was transferred to the Early
Gothic retrochoir further east. 'eaufort had already reserved a place south
of that for his chantry chapel, which has a steeply towering, e*tremely
comple* baldachin. The side walls are omitted in the middle in order to
reveal the statue of the entombed bishop proudly displayed in his
cardinal.s robes. ?is successor Aayneflete Qwho died in 8C2L@ did not
want to ta!e second place to him and occupied the north side of the shrine
with his no less splendid chapel. From Ainchester, chantry chap%is,
whether for clergy or laity, spread throughout the whole of England.
Dany patrons had representations of themselves as s!eletons integrated
into the bases of their funerary chap%is as a &e&ento &ori for visitors to
the church.
8:8
Fong Delford, ?oly Trinity parish
church, from the southeast, ca. 8CL3<L
5""5)ITE7
-aernarvon -astle, Aales
'egun 892C
Darch,
)t.
Aendre
da
parish
church
Fondon,
Aestmi
nster
?all,
?ouses
of
+ave
and
hammer
beam
roof, ca.
8:33
"arliam
ent
?ammerbeam roof Q8;<C8C38@ by
master carpenter ?ugo ?erland
Te
?ng"is

'aris
Curc

In
Fate
Gothic
Englan
d even
#uite
ordina
ry
people
left
behind
impres
sive
eviden
ce of
their
piety.
Englis
h
agricul
ture
e*peri
enced
a
tremen
dous
upturn
in the
8:th
centur
y, with
sheep
breede
rs and
wool
and
cloth
merch
ants in
the
east
and
south
west
becoming
e*tremely
wealthy.
)uch
citi&ens
often
donated
their money
to the
rebuilding
and
furnishing
of their
parish
churches,
and towns
and villages
competed
with each
other in the
creation of
the most
lavish
church.
)uffol!,
+orfol!,
and
-ambridges
hire possess
a
particularly
large
number of
splendid
parish
churches in
the
"erpendicul
ar style. The
parish
church of
the ?oly
Trinity in
Fong
Delford
Qbuilt
around
8CL3<L@ is
one of the
most
impressive
of these Qsee
left, top@.
The pride of
the whole
village is
e*pressed in
this richly
decorated
building.
$ll the
e*terior
walls are
covered with
inlay wor!
of dar! flint
and light
limestone
Qflushwor!@,
which is
typical of the
,rea and is
e*ecuted
particularly
s!illfully
here. $mong
the most
unusual
features of
Fong
Delford
church is the
inscription
that runs
round the
whole
building.
This
immortali&es
the Sames
and dates of
all those
who made
donations to
the church,
and adds a
prayer of
intercession
for their
souls.
In the
interior of
the parish
churches the
architects.
main interest
lay in the
wooden
ceilings.
5nly rarely
did English
parish
churches
have stone
vaults.
England, a
shipbuilding
nation, had a
preference
for wooden
ceilin
gs and
becam
e
e*pert
at
ma!in
g
them,
as we
have
alread
y seen
from
the
octago
n at
Ely.
5ne
type
prove
d to
be
partic
ularly
succes
sful in
Fate
Gothi
c
times7
the
hamm
erbea
m
roof,
in
which
beams
protru
ding
hori&o
ntally
into
the
space
bear
segme
nts of
arches
which
meet
at the
roof
ridge.
This
struct
ure
allowe
d long
distanc
es to
be
spanne
d
withou
t
interm
ediate
suppor
ts. The
parish
church
of )t.
Aendr
eda in
Darch
display
s a
particu
larly
splendi
d roof
of this
!ind,
built
about
8:33,
in
which
there
are
two
rows
of
hamm
erbea
ms on
top of
each
other
Qsee
bottom
left@. It
is
decora
ted
with a
host of
carved
angels
which
are
fi*ed
onto
corbels
,
beams,
and the
roof
ridge. Aith
angels.
wings
outstretched
, the whole
ceiling
becomes a
lively
celestial
dwelling
place, a
particularly
successful
presentation
of a church
as the ?oly
-ity and
house of
God.
The English
-astle
Finally, we
should loo!
at castle
architecture.
The most
splendid
castles were
built under
Edward I
Q89198;31@
in Aales.
This !ing
had
con#uered
the -eltic
pennsula to
the west of
England in
892; after a
long
campaign,
and now
wanted to
secure his
hold over it
with a line of
mighty
castles along
the north
coast. $nd
so, in an
enormous
financiaU and
technologica
l show of
strength, a
total of 81
castles were
built, some
of which are
the most
significant in
Europe. The
master
builder
appointed by
the !ing,
Hac#ues de
)t.Georges
d.Esp%ranche
s, carne from
)avoy.
Aherever it
was possible
he gave
preference to
a
symmetrical
layout with
several
concentric
circles of
walls, round
crner
towers, and
gatehouses
fortified as
bulwar!s.
#-(
These powerful castles built to the latest military and technical
standards were mainly aimed at displaying English strength and
superiority to the rebellious Aelsh.
This was to be demonstrated to perfection in -aernarvon Qsee
above@, where from 892; a new town was founded outside the castle,
which was open only to English settlers. The seat of the English
government of +orth Aales was there. -aernarvon is full of signs of its
imperious power. The castle, which has a Fong ground plan, is situated
right on the coast. It has octagonal watchtowers and its masonry is
distinguished by narrow strips of red sandstone between light gray
limestone. 'oth the polygonal towers and the striped masonry are
motifs adopted from a distinguished model7 the late classical :th
century city wall of -onstantinople. The lin! with the imperial tradition
of anti#uity was underlined when the English placed figures of eagles
on the battlements of the castle7 -aernarvon was to be understood as the
-onstantinople of the north, and Edward I as the -hristian ruler of the
world.
'ut in the late Diddle $ges the development of secular architecture
increasingly went in the direction of domesticity and comfort. The
military and technical features moved into the bac!ground after the end
of the ?undred Vears. Aar between England and France. The hall was
the center of life in the castles and country seats of the nobility. These
huge rectangular rooms were fitted with increasingly large windows
and bays. $t one of the narrow ends of the room was the high table,
raised on a platform,
and at the other end were the entrances to the wor!ing ,reas. These
were separated from the body of the hall by a corridor Q!nown as the
screen.s passage@ and a wall, because of the draft. There was often a
musicians. gallery high on one wall.
5ne of the most important preserved halls in England is in the
former royal palace of Aestminster, now the ?ouses of "arliament Qsee
opposite, bottom right@. Aestminster ?all was the only part of the
medieval palace to survive the devastating fire of 82;C undamaged. Its
e*terior walls date from the time of the +orman !ing Ailliam 4ufus
Q83218833@. 4ichard II had the hall altered by his master builder ?enry
Vevele in 8;<C8C38. Its masterpiece is the wooden ceiling built by the
royal carpenter ?ugo ?erland, one of the first and largest hammerbeam
roofs in England, which spans almost 93 meters QL:.: feet@.
?ugo ?erland.s elabrate roof displays the same power of
inventiveness that we have seen so often in this review of English
Gothic. This originality is the most important characteristic of Gothic
architecture in England. French ideas played a role again and again, but
their influence never impeded independent development. In all the
phases of Gothic, the results are no Hess remar!able than those in
France. The independent paths ta!en by English Gothic are well worth
learning to recogni&e and treasure.
8:;
-hristian Freigang Dedieval
'uilding "ractice
Kntil recently, Gothic architecture was largely
seen as medieval theology or cosmology
e*pressed in stone. This view totally ignored
the fact that in constructing these marvels of
architecture medieval builders had to employ
a wide range of highly developed s!ills in
both construction techni#ues and organ
i&ation. It was because these s!ills were so
highly admired that from the 89th century
onwards Qand for the first time since classical
anti#uity@ the Sames and achievements of
famous architects began to be recorded.
The rebuilding of -anterbury -athedral
provides a good e*ample of medieval building
practice. In 881: the bishop and chapter
summoned Ailliam of )ens, obviously a
highly respected master masn, from )ens far
away in France, to repair the cathedral choir,
which had been badly damaged by fire. $fter
the French master masn had assessed the
damage, however, he carne to the conclusin
that a completely new building would provide
a safer and also more fitting structure. Ksing
all his powers of persuasin, he was able to
convince his patrons to accept his ambitious
plan. Ailliam proved that his reputation was
/ustified7 he not only put the whole plan for
this new building into practice, but also
devised countless ingenious solutions to
technical problems. ?e was seriously in/ured,
however, by a fall from the scaffolding and
had to give instructions from his sic!bed.
Aor! carne to a halt as craftsmen and the
cathedral chapter waited in vain for the master
to
recover. Finally he had to return to his
hometown and another Ailliam, an English
master masn this time, succeeded him. Ae
have no record of what happened to either of
them after that,
Ahat !ind of plans and wor!ing drawings
would Ailliam of )ens, seen here as
representative of his many colleagues, have
usedP The earliest detailed designs and
technical calculations we have date from the
8:th century. 'ut surviving from the 8;th
century onwards are portable smallscale
architectural drawngs which obviously served
as the basis for the discussion of new ideas.
Two s!etches from about 89L3 of transept
facades for the cathedral of 4eims have come
down to us in this form. These two drawings
clearly served as alternative designs at the
planning stage. $ century later, in )trasbourg,
preliminary s!etches for the facade of the
cathedral were wor!ed on intensively and
some of these large design plans on parchment
have survived Qsee below, right@.
Even earlier, around 89;3, 6illard de
?onnecourt filled his famous s!etchboo! with
architectural drawings. Though probably not
an architect, but a painter and draftsman from
"icardy, he drew e*isting buildings as
accurately as possible and in great detail,
particularly the cathedral of 4eims Qsee below,
left@0 he even drew s!etches of imaginary
buildings.
$ttempts were obviously being made to
portray large buildings in order to be able to
suggest plans to patrons in other towns. $fter
the late 8;th century large architectural plans,
drawn on several sheets of parchment, become
more numerous. Dost of the surviving plans
"rague, )t. 6itus -athedral, bust of
master masn "eter "arler in the
triforium, ca. 8;13
were drawn for large building pro/ects in
Germany, )pain, and Italy. ?ow legible and
accurate these plans are can be seen from the
large ("lan F( for the west facade of -ologne
-athedral, drawn around 8;33 Qsee page 939,
left@. It was on the basis of this detailed
drawing that, after a brea! of C33 years, the
cathedral was finally completed in the 8<th
century. 5ther impressive e*amples, as we
have /ust seen, include the design for the west
facade of )trasbourg -athedral.
'ut medieval architectural drawings were
not always wor!ing plans for a specific site.
The ambitions of the patrons, together with
competition between individual building
pro/ects, forced many masters to go on paid
trips in order to study the (most beautiful(
e*amples of modern architecture, and so find
new ideas for their own pro/ects. These trips
became common, especially after the 8Cth
century. Ae !now, for e*ample, of /ourneys
made in preparation for the building of the
cathedrals of Tortosa and Troyes, and for the
collegiate church of Dons in ?ainault.
Dedieval master masons generally moved
around a great deal7 in 89L2 a master masn
from "aris was hired for the construction of
the =nights. -hurch at Aimpfen im Tal and in
8921 another "aris master masn was
employed to build the cathedral of Kppsala in
)weden. )everal French master masons are
!nown to have traveled between various
building sites. From the mid 8;th century to
the beginning of the 8Cth century, for
e*ample, Gautier de 6arinfroy and Hac#ues de
Fauran between them are !nown to have
wor!ed at )ens, Evreu*, -hartres, +arbonne,
and Gerona.
Famous master masons, accordingly, were
the most distinguished and highly paid
practitioners of their craft. They were entitled
to clothing appropriate to their ran! and some
were given figured gravestones on which their
trade was depicted. Hust how high
ran!ing a
6illard de ?onnecourt
Elevation of the nave of 4eims -athedral
/asons4 Sketch-ook, "aris, 'iblioth%#ue
+ationale, Ds. fr. 8<3<;, fol.; lv
)trasbourg -athedral, west facade
>rawing on parchment, between 8;L: and
8;2:, height C33 cm, )trasbourg, Dus%e
de l.5euvre +otre >ame
medieval master masn could become is
illustrated by the first two master masons of
the Gothic cathedral in "rague, Datthew of
$rras Q8;CC:9@ and "eter "arler Q8;:L<<@
Qsee left@. 'oth of them en/oyed the privilege
of being buried with figured gravestones in
the middle of the new choir of the cathedral.
Even more important, both had their portraits
carved in the triforium of )t. 6itus. -athedral,
along with those of Emperor -harles I6 and
his family, the first archbishops of "rague, and
the building administrators. The master
masons obviously ran!ed among the founders
of the new cathedral and were not to be
forgotten. 5f course not all medieval master
masons were so privileged. The ma/ority were
craftsmen who had learnt the stonemasonry
trade as a basic s!ill and applied themselves to
numerous building tas!sOnot only churches,
but also bridges, fortifications, houses, and so
on.
"eople have often pu&&led over what
mathematical aids the master masons might
have used in planning their buildings. In
particular, it was long thought that the basis of
their designs was a comple* geometrical
construction combining circles, triangles,
s#uares, pentagons, and octagons, together
with a range of lines derived from these
figures. 'ut it is more li!ely that they used a
few simple geometrical shapes and their rota
tions Qan octagon, for e*ample, can be
produced by rotating a s#uare@, together with
a s#uared grid plan, and a few basic modules.
In addition there were absolute measurements
li!e feet, cubits, and fathoms. $ll the building
contracts and descriptions we have refer to
measurements such as these.
'efore wor! c5uld begin in earnest, a great
deal of preparatory wor! had to be carried out.
The ground had to be leveled off, od building
materials often had to be cleared away, the
foundations dug, and vast amounts of masonry
found. In addition, the builders had to !eep a
cise eye on price and #uality. Fetching
materials from a long way off or overland was
e*pensive, and so they often decided to have
them transported by water. For many parts of
the building, li!e the foundations and wall
fillings, poor#uality stone was good enough,
but of course this could not be used for highly
visible features, such as the costly monolithic
shafts used in the 89th century in northern
France. For bric! buildings, a bric!wor!s had
to be set up and the necessary molds made.
Farge amounts of timber for scaffolding and
roofing had to be brought in and treated, so
every large building site had its own carpentry
wor!shop. 5n occasions a master carpenter
would direct the whole building process. In
addition, the manufacture and repair of metal
tools for wor!ing on the stone called for a
forge. Iron dowels, anchors, and strong clamps
to help hold the masonry together also had to
be made. $ll this wor! had to be efficiently
co
8:C
#as!de!c-ar'e vaulting supports, from
6iolletle>uc, Dictionnaire raisonn. de
l4architecture, 82:CL2, vol. I6, p. <;
ordinated. Even if on average it was
somewhat warmer in the Diddle $ges
than it is today, in the cold winter months
building wor! had to stop as soon as the
mortar began to free&e.
$n important development in Gothic
building practice, however, was that even
when the masons stopped building, they
continued to wor!. In the heated
stonemasons. wor!shops, the socalled
(lodges,( the craftsmen could carry on
ma!ing a stoc! of standardsi&ed stones
according to preset patterns. ?undreds of
meters of vault ribs, sills, and mullions,
all with the same outlines, had to be cut
from stone. For many of these parts the
masons used templates, which allowed
them to mar! out the shapes to be cut and
later to chec! the accuracy of their
carving. Even the curves of the rib arches
could be made in this way. )ince these
templates either went missing or wore
out, there were also large master
drawings Qoften on floors@, onto which
the important outlines of a building were
drawn and permanently scratched.
Daster drawings of this !ind have been
preserved in Vor!, for e*ample, and in
-lermontFerrand and +arbonne.
Templates were a vitally important
element in medieval building practice and
were even employed in the most compli
cated ,reas of Gothic vault construction.
This was particularly true in the develop
ment of the vault supports into widely
splayed out ribs, the use of which solved
the e*tremely comple* threedimensional
calculations involved in the socalled tas!
de!c-ar'e building techni#ue Qsee above@
by providing individual templates for the
different rib outlines to be fitted together.
'asically, a set of templates would be
created for each type of vault and then
instructions given on their use. This was
one of the master mason.s most important
tas!s. 5nce such standard solutions were
found, building wor! could continu%
when he was not there, which or for life, and were accountable to the
individual patrn. In most cathedrals this
was the cathedral chapter, not e*clusively
the bishop or abbot. Therefore in almost all
cases precise accounts would be !ept of the
building finances. 5nly a few accounts of
this sort have been preserved, notably in
"rague, Troyes, Gerona, and
meant he was then free to put his !nowl
edge to use on other building pro/ects.
The fact that Ailliam of )ens was on
the scaffolding when he had his accident
suggests that this theoretical preplanning
was still not the general rule in the 89th
century. 'ut by the mid I;th century such
wor!ing practices had become more
widespread and even gave grounds for
complaint. )ome observed that, li!e
many a prelate, the head masons merely
issued instructions without lifting a
finger themselves, and yet were still
handsomely rewardedW
For the organi&ation of largescale
building pro/ects, there was a building
administration committee, usually affili
ated to the cathedral chapter but legally
independent. )uch committees still e*ist
today in a few cathedrals, such as
-ologne and )trasbourg. The office,
called the opus, opera, or fa-rica,
managed the building finances and
personnel and concluded contracts with
the chief masons. In many cases, as in
)trasbourg, the cathedral administration
committee had e*tensive plots of land at
its disposal, as well as #uarries, and its
own sources of income, which made
budgeting more fle*ible. The administra
tors could hold office for a fi*ed period
IB i rT *
FEI i yQs
mMm
Dedieval builders at wor!, from
4udolf von Ems, $orld
C-ronicle, ca. 8;2:, =assel,
Kniversity Fibrary, 9k Ds.
Theol. C, fol. 92
$v
ign
on.
Th
ey
rev
eal
det
ail
s
of
pri
ces
an
d
wa
ge
s,
per
iod
s
of
em
plo
ym
ent
,
an
d
typ
es
of
co
ntr
act
s.
T
he
tur
no
ver
of
wo
r!e
rs
wa
s
hig
h.
Th
is
is understandable, for wor! involved in
the construction of a very large building
was e*tremely varied. For the
foundations they needed above all
numerous uns!illed laborers, while to
build the walls they sometimes needed
only a handful of s!illed masons and
bric!layers. Doreover, the main sum of
money for building carne from outside
sources and therefore at irregular inter
vals. Today we would tal! of various
types of shortterm outside funding. This
income was gathered from indulgences,
special contributions from church offices,
votive gifts, collections, and many other
sources.
It was not always the plan, of course,
to build entirely new buildings. In Fe
Dans, for instance, the choir was placed
alongside the 4omanes#ue nave as an
integral part of it. In Toulouse, on the
other hand, they built one side chapel
after another, while the inner choir was
only temporarily finished at halfheight
and covered with a wooden roof. In
4egensburg they proceeded bay by bay
and, as protection from the weather,
erected a succession of temporary walls.
The masterpieces of Gothic architec
ture can certainly be seen as e*pressions
both of the power and aspirations of their
patrons, and also of the medieval world.s
faith in the grace of God. 'ut they also
clearly reveal that the reali&ation of
these beliefs and aims was bound up with
a comple* networ! of technical and
logistical problems that could be solved
only through the application of a wide
range of highly developed s!ills.
Dedieval builders at wor!, from
Ro&ance ofGirart de Roussillon,
6ienna, +ational Fibrary of $ustria
8::
"eter =urmann
Fate Gothic $rchitecture in France
and the +etherlands
-hurch $rchitecture +orth of te Foire7 Tradition and Innovation
The architectural creativity of France in the period after the building of
the great cathedrals of Early and ?igh Gothic is not given the credit it
deserves, either in research or in our cultural consciousness. $ccording
to longstanding pre/udice, after the death of )t. Fouis in 8913
architects no longer created anything essentially new. $t the end of the
8<th century Georg >ehio used the term (doctrinaire( to characteri&e
the ecclesiastical architecture of France from about 8913 to 8C33.
$ccording to him, architects of this period were admittedly capable of
achieving remar!able technical feats7 the practical e*perience they had
amassed in structural matters had been boldly e*ploited, and the cutting
of stone had never been closer to perfection. 'ut their creations, he
argued, were uninspired, their lifeless effects lac!ing any true
originality. In place of creative imagination had come cold intellect and
artificial refinement. Aas there really a form of Gothic academicism
during this periodP
It is certainly true that after the rebuilding of the abbey of )t.>enis
in 89;8 church architecture had reached such a degree of e*cellence
and compositional logic that it could hardly be surpassed. )t.>enis had
been transformed into a fine, cageli!e structure in which wall space
had been reduced to the spandrels in the arcade and in the triforium.
The process of unifying the various architectural elements had reached
its limit. Thus the shafts in front of the wall carry the front side of the
piers on up to the vault, while the tracery of the triforium and the upper
windows merge together into one light and uniform bac!ground. $ll the
ma/or French buildings of the baslica type after the 89C3s are indebted
to the newly built )t.>enis. This abbey church set a standard of
e*cellence below which the commissioners of new buildings could not
fall. $s a conse#uence, the abbey of )t.>enis brought about a
standardi&ation of ma/or ecclesiastical building in France for the ne*t
8:3 years. It would be wrong, however, simply in view of the formal
richness and variety of architectural achievements of this period, to
spea! of a descent into the doctrinaire, or even the decadent, unless we
are to regard refinement and elegance as negative #ualities.
The architectural elements that were developed further were mainly
the piers and the tracery. The cruciform pier of )t.>enis, with the
columns set into the right angles of the cross, was based on the
4omanes#ue pillar. This refinement of an essentially outmoded type of
pillar was not destined to succeed. The general development went in the
direction of the clustered pier, where the surface of the core was
enhanced by the regular alternation of small slender columns and
cavettos. The tracery, which in )t.>enis was still composed of four
lancets and three round windows, became increasingly comple* in the
succeeding period. The number of units was increased and, in the
crown, comple* curves, as well as rounded triangles and rectangles,
were introduced in a great variety of combinations.
For the larger episcopal and abbey churches, the principie of the
threestoried elevation Qthat is, a nave with arcades, triforium, and
8:L
5rl%ans, -athedral of )te.-roi*, begun 8921
Interior Qbelow@ Ground plan Qleft@
clerestory@
remained as a
legacy of the
(classic(
cathedral. 'ut
for over :3
years after )t.
>enis, no
building as large
as the classic
cathedral was
underta!en in
the northern half
of France. The
reason for this
was probably
the fact that
e*tensive
building wor!
had already
been carried
out7 most
cathedrals north
of the Foire had
been renovated
fully or partially
during the
previous
hundred years.
Ahen in
8921 the
cathedral of
)te.-roi* in
5rl%ans Qsee
right@ was
begun, it was
meant to surpass
the classic ?igh
Gothic cathedral
in its impressive
height and
breadth. $ll the
longitudinal
parts were
planned with
four aisles, the
choir with si*
bays, and the
apse with nine
radiating
chap%is, a
recordbrea!ing
achievement in
architectural
lu*ury since that
number had
never been
reached before.
Dost of the
building wor!
was done
between the late
8;th and early
8Lth centuries,
though the wor!
has never been
completed. 5f
the original
building only
the radiating
chap%is, the
e*terior walls of
the side aisles of
the choir, and
two fullheight
nave bays Qthe
middle two of a
total of si*@ are
preserved today.
Everything else
was destroyed
by ?uguenots in
8:L2. 5n the
whole the new
building, which
on account of its
consistent
adherence to
Gothic forms
represents an
early and
outstanding case
of historicist
architecture,
!ept faithfully to
the character of
the two
remaining bays
of the Fate
Gothic. $dmit
tedly these date
from the 8Lth
century and in
individual
detail, abo ve all
in the
composition of
the tracery, they
certainly deviate
from the
original late
8;th and early
8Cthcentury
choir, which has
been lost. In
their main
features,
however, the
Fate Gothic
bays continu%
the architecture
of the original
choir. In the
radiating
chap%is,
moreover, the
builders
preserved the
original
character of the
late 8;th
century church,
which dates
bac! to the "aris
architecture of
the 89C3s.
4ight down
to individual
details,
therefore, )te.
-roi* con/ures
up once again
the Gothic of
the early 8;th
century. The
large number of
very narrow
sides of the
polygon in the
main apse
recalls the choir
in the cathedral
of -hartres
while on the
outside the
buttressing, with
its harpli!e
combination of
two flying
buttresses, is
modeled on the
buttressing of
the choir at
$miens. The
elevation of the
nave, in which
the triforium
occupies a
roughly central
position
between the
arcades and
clerestory and is
not lin!ed to the
latter, can be
understood as a
return to the
designs at
)oissons,
-hartres, and
4eims. 5n the
other hand, there
are also modern
features7 the
triforium is set
in a rectangular
frame as at
Deau* and
-ologne, and in
its original
arcades )te.
-roi* must have
possessed
clustered piers.
$ll in all, this
testifies to a free
selection of
elements, a
process that
from that point
on was to be a
central feature
of Gothic
architecture.
The
buildings in
which there is a
consistent
development of
the architecture
of )t.>enis are
in +ormandy.
This ,rea above
all, with its
regional style
strongly
indebted to
Early English,
had long
resisted French
?igh Gothic.
Vet around 8;33
the architecture
of the regin
became one of
the finest
e*pressions of
the elegant
"arisian style
rayonnant5 Aith
the choir of the
cathedral of
+otre>ame in
Nvreu* Qsee
page 8:2, left@,
a wor! of
e*#uisite
beauty, the
renovation of
the
preceding
4omanes#ue
building from
the early 89th
century was
completed. It
had been
substantially
damaged by the
troops of =ing
"hilippe
$uguste in 88<:
and 88<2 during
the con#uest of
+ormandy by
the French
monarch. $s
early as the
beginning of the
8;th century
there was tal! of
rebuilding, but
wor! must have
got underway
only around
89:3. $ contract
concluded in
89:; between
the bishop and
canons of
Deau* and
master builder
Gautier de
6arinfroy sets
down that the
latter did not
have to wor!
longer than two
months per year
in the
stonemasons.
lodge of Nvreu*.
This contract
relates to the
construction of
the triforium
and clerestory in
the nave, in
other words the
parts that
Gautier built
onto the
remaining
4omanes#ue
arcade ,rea.
There is no
record relating
to the start of
wor! on the
choir, which
was planned as
a completely
new building.
Aith its
Gothic stories,
the central nave
is considerably
broader than the
original
4omanes#ue
nave.
+evertheless,
those
responsible
never thought of
demolishing the
od nave, as
from the
beginning
8:1
they let the nave walls of the westernmost choir bay meet on the
crossing piers. 'ecause of the cise positioning of the crossing piers,
the view of the choir from the nave is framed very effectively. The arms
of the bishops from the period between 89<2 and 8;83 which decrate
the ribs of the high choir vaults have led historians to conclude a date of
about 8913 or even 89L3 for the start of wor! on the choir. 'ut why, in
that case, do the dedications of altars and stained glass in the
ambulatory not begin until the first decade of the 8Cth centuryP $nd
why, furthermore, was the gla&ing of the choir clerestory not begun
until the 8;;3sP These dates suggest that the choir was begun shortly
before 8;33 and that the bishops. arms on the high choir vault are
memorials erected later7 they simply recall the two bishops who had
begun the building.of the choir.
The choir of Nvreu* proves to be an improved and refined variant of
the 4ayonnant style of )t.>enis. The 4omanes#ue pillar has become a
clustered pier, a single, diagonally set support of a roughly s#uare
outline, whose four sides are given a continuous wave of
circular moldings, running in the opposite direction. Every pier profile
is meticulously continued as part of a wall support, a vault, or the soffit
of an arch. The gla&ed triforium, the inner arcading of which was
altered to Fate Gothic almost everywhere, is nearly half as high as the
clerestory. This emphasis, un!nown in the (classic( cathedral elevation,
is perhaps meant to be reminiscent of the high galleries that were part of
every large 4omanes#ue church in +ormandy. 'ut here this
e*aggerated passage also has a function in the overall composition.
Aithin the architecture of the Gothic (glass cage,( it provides a subtle
gradation in the flow of light into the cathedral. Ahile the brightness at
the very top streams into the space unfiltered, the high openwor! of the
triforium subdues it and thereby leads the eye from the clerestory
suffused with bright light to the arcade, which is less brightly lit. In )t.
>enis, where the translucent triforium merely forms the base of the
clerestory, this gradation is less prominent.
The abbey church of )t.5uen in 4ouen, 8;1 meters QC:3 feet@ long
and ;; meters Q832 feet@ high up to the ape* of the central nave
8:2
$u*erre, -athedral of )t.Ntienne
+ave, loo!ing west, ca.8;93ca.8C33
vault, achieves the dimensions of the gigantic episcopal churches of the
?igh Gothic Qsee opposite, right@. >oubtless the 'enedictine mon!s there
wanted to surpass the neighboring cathedral, which is 8;: meters QCC;
feet@ long and has a vault height of 92 meters Q<9 feet@. The rebuilding of
)t.5uen was begun in 8;82. 'y 8;;< the builders had completed the
choir, the e*terior walls of the transept, the crossing and the lower story
of the tower resting on it, and the ad/acent bay of the nave in the side
aisle. $s everywhere in France during the ?undred Vears. Aar, building
proceeded haltingly. The north transept was completed in 8;<L. Hean de
'erneval, who died in 8CC8, is documented as building the great rose
window of the south transept. 5nly shortly after that, so it seems, were
the neighboring clerestory windows added. The nave was built in several
stages from the 8C:3s onwards, and was completed in the first third of the
8Lth century. The Fate Gothic facade, incomplete but highly original,
with its towers placed at an angle, received no mercy from the purists of
the 8<thcentury Gothic 4evival and had to ma!e way for a sterile piece
of wor! in the years 82CL to 82:8.
>espite the many interruptions to the building wor!, all the architects
up to the end of the Diddle $ges !ept to the original plan of the early
8Cth century. 5nly in the window tracery, which in the nave shows the
flowing tracery of Fate Gothic, is a certain stylistic deviation evident. In
the elevation of its nave, the 4ouen 'enedictine church is related to the
choir of +otre>ame in Evreu*, in which the triforium rises up to occupy
almost half the height of the ,rea above the arcades. The spandrels of the
arcades in )t.5uen show musicma!ing angels in trefoils painted in
grisailleOin other words the builders painted tro&pe l4ceil windows on
the only remaining section of wall in order to give the impression that the
church was made almost entirely of glass.
The apse is built over five sides of an octagon, with the result that,
when viewed from the central a*is of the nave, only three sides are
visible. This end of the choir and the three central, e*traordinarily broad,
radiating chap%is, of which the a*ial chapel is distinguished by an outer
bay, are modeled on those of )t.+icaise in 4eims. Through this model
)t.5uen followed in the wa!e of one of the classic cathedrals, for )t.
+icaise was a refined versin of +otre>ame at 4eims adapted to the
dimensions of an abbey church.
)t.Ntienne in $u*erre is one of many French cathedrals whose
construction slowed down after the choir had been completed before the
middle of the 8;th century Qsee page 18@. $s elsewhere, the construction
of the nave and transept too! up the whole of the 8Cth and 8:th centuries,
during which time the wor! went at a slow pace because of the economic
situation and because of the ?undred Vears. Aar0 on several occasions
wor! stopped altogether for long periods. The west front, which the
canons began as late as 8:C1, remained unfinished.
The nave of the cathedral of $u*erre Qsee right@, begun in the 8;93s
and completed around 8C33 with the construction of the
clerestory, was built without any essential changes of plan, and is the
e#ual of the earlier choir. 'oth of these are masterpieces in their different
ways. Ahile the choir enchants by its elegant lightness, the nave
impresses through an appearance of unsha!able stability. The oblong
piers set at right angles to the nave are many times more powerful than
the slender piers of the choir. 5bviously the architect of the early 8Cth
century had drawn important lessons from the structural damage that
made repairs to the choir necessary shortly before 8;33.
In the nave the considerable circumference of the piers led to a
corresponding thic!ness of the walls on the ground floor. The arcades
with their deep soffits seem to have been carved out from the mass of the
walls. $bove this robust lower building, pinned between the pipeli!e
shafts that support the vault, rise the traceried openwor! of the triforium
and the windows of the upper story, slightly recessed and framed by
strong outlines. These upper windows are situated above the triforium on
a deep protruding sill. $s in the classic cathedral, the triforium and
clerestory are thereby clearly separated
8:<
once again. The design of the arcading of the triforium, however, which
has two arches per bay, is associated with models of the elegant
4ayonnant architecture of "aris dating from the second half of the 8;th
century. The highly s!illed architect of the nave in $u*erre was able to
weave all these elements into a new whole that has its own fascinating
coherence.
Ahile the nave in $u*erre struc! a balance between tradition and
innovation, the priory church of )t.Fouis in "oissy, destroyed in the
French 4evolution Q812<<<@, was given over completely to the past.
The elevation of the north side of the nave Qsee above@, prepared by
Hules ?ardouinDansart in 8L<:, clearly shows how strongly the formal
world of the priory was mar!ed by "arisian models from the years 89C3
to 89L3. The transept facade copied the facade of the )te.-hapelle Qthe
original appearance of which the artists "ol de Fimbourg and Hean
Fou#uet captured in their miniatures@, and the rose tracery was a
repetition of the rose windows of the north front of +otre>ame
-athedral in "aris. The e#ualsi&ed rows of gables in the side aisle
windows and in the clerestory evo!ed both the side chap%is of +otre
>ame, as well as the upper story of the royal palace chapel.
$s a construction with an ambulatory and seven radiating chap%is,
but without a twotowered east facade, the priory represented a
compromise between cathedral and chapel. The west front will have
loo!ed more or less li!e the smaller sides of the shrine of )t.Gertrude
in +ivelles, which on a much smaller scale struc! a similar balance
between reli#uary church and cathedral. The priory was, in effect, a
monumental reli#uary containing the relies of )t. Fouis. The formal
references to buildings from the time of the royal saint were therefore
programmatic. Founded by "hilippe the Fair Q892:8;8C@ and begun in
89<1, the year in which Fouis, at the instigation of his grandson, was
canoni&ed, the church and the >ominican monastery connected to it
had two purposes7 the veneration of the new saint, and the salvation of
the founder.
5""5)ITE, FEFT7
4ouen, -athedral of +otre>ame
)outh front, ca. 8;33;3
5""5)ITE, 4IG?T7
Fyons -athedral
Aest front
In complete contrast to )t.Fouis in "oissy, though begun only a few
years later, the choir of the priory church of )t.Thibaulten$u*ois Qsee
below@ is a highly innovative wor!. It was the result of a building
program that from about 89L3 onward provided a new choir for the
nave and transept, which had been built around 8933. For some strange
reason wor! began with the construction of a costly portal, complete
with carved statues, on the north transept, which was seen as the focal
point for a pilgrimage that had yet to be established. $fter the building
of two side chap%is in the choir in the 89<3s, a new chevet was begun
that became a showpiece of the style rayonnant5 -ertainly we have here
a representative type of chevet fre#uently chosen in Gothic, one which
can be called a (gla&ed apse,( but the obligatory divisin into ground
floor, triforium, and clerestory is reinterpreted here with the greatest
ingenuity. Than!s to the blind arcading under the triforium, the ground
floor consists of two ,reas. Doreover, it is treated li!e the nave of a
basilicatype 4ayonnant building, with the tracery of the blind arches
below and the windows above being lin!ed. In )t.Thibault the actual
triforium has a blind rear wall.
-ompositionally, the architect thereby achieved two things. First, he
prevented the total disintegration of the chevet into a webli!e glass
cage, and in so doing retained a certain measure of monumentality.
)econd, by having the triforium blind, he intensified the three
dimensional effect of the gla&ed passage below, which the casual
observer ta!es for an ambulatory. Thus a high degree of visual illusion
is uni#ue to this architecture. Its astonishing character doubtless derives
from the desire of the patrn to promote a new pilgrimage, to the relies
of )t. Thibault of "rovins.
The church facades planned around 8;33 show the broad spectrum
of variation in French 4ayonnant architecture. In 4ouen -athedral the
transept farades, which were built in the early part of the
8L3
"oissy, "riory of )t.Fouis
Qdestroyed@, 89<18;;8
'5TT5D7
)t.Thibaulten$u*ois "riory
-hoir, ca. 8;33 E*terior Qleft@
Interior Qright@
8;th century, were out of date, so the central portions of both transept
farades were renewed between 8928 and about 8;;3. The south front
Qsee above, left@ is certainly the later one, since in documents from the
year 8;C3 it is called (le neuf portal,( or (novissimum prtale( Qthe new
portal@.
The 4ouen farades imitate the two transept farades of +otre>ame
in "aris Qsee page 2<, top@ and in each case attempt to adapt to a two
tower fa]ade a model conceived for a transept having a nave without
side aisles. The 4ouen farades enriched the +otre>ame model through
the development of a more comple* pattern of intricate tracery and
through the use of sculpture across the whole fagade. They also re
interpreted the model by giving greater emphasis to its two layers. $t
4ouen the front layer consists of the gable of the central portal as well
as the tabernacleli!e buttress towers that frame it. ?igher up, this layer
is completed by a gable that stands immediately over the rose window.
The bac! layer is formed by the portal itself, then its tympanum, the
triforium tracery, and the rose window. This means that the rose
window is set in a shadowy niche, as on the west front of +otre>ame
in Faon. 'ut the rose window.s niche is framed by an archivolt with
statues, as on the main fa]ade of the cathedral of 4eims.
)imilarly, the enormous -oronation of the 6irgin on the main gable
of the 4ouen fagade is a reference to the west front of 4eims, though
there the iconic group of figures enlivens the central gable immediately
over the portal. $ more refined reali&ation of different models is hard to
imagine.
Curc Arcitecture in te Soutern Ha"f of 1rance: Te Ada!tation
of Xortern 2ode"s to 5oca" Conditions
>uring the years the AaBade of the south transept of 4ouen was being
built, the west front of Fyons was begun Qsee above, right@. The portal
,rea, with the blind triforium running above it, was constructed between
8;32 and 8;;9, but then building carne to a halt. The tier with the rose
window was completed only in the 8;<3s, and the towers were never
completed Qthe surviving lower portions were built in the early 8:th
century@. +evertheless, the whole fa]ade is e*ecuted according to a
unified concept, even if this is somewhat simplified in the upper parts.
'oth in their architecture and in their sculpture, the port,is follow the
model of both transept farades at 4ouen -athedral. It is probably no
coincidence that at Fyons, shortly before the final fall of the town to the
French monarchy, they !ept to the most modern models of the time
from the ,rea around "aris. For the architects of the Fyons fa]ade the
motif of the gable, based on both transept farades of +otre>ame in
"aris, was also an important element. Ahereas in "aris, however, the
chain of gables rises up thin and membraneli!e, and detached from the
actual wall, at Fyons it appears as part of the fa]ade wall and is treated
li!e a relief. >oublelayering effects are eliminated. The e*tent to which
the whole wall is treated as a unified relief is shown by the buttress
piers, which have become slim pilasters. The master of the west front at
Fyons was obviously tired of playing with the threedimensional
potential of farades, something that was being e*ploited in a sometimes
e*cessive manner in "arisianstyle 4ayonnant Gothic.
8L8
The transept fronts of the cathedral of 'ordeau* Qsee above@, on the
other hand, with their emphatic vertical structuring, are based on classic
northern French models. The new Gothic building of 'ordeau* was
begun in the 89L3s with the construction of the choir, whose ground
plan is closely modeled on that of the choir of 4eims -athedral. "ierre
de 4oncevau*, who most li!ely initiated the new building, had been
chancellor at the court of the counts of -hampagne before "ope Krban
I6 imposed him on the canons of 'ordeau* as archbishop. It is the
ecclesiastical politics of 4oncevau* that we see reflected in the ground
plan and, especially, in the construction of the twintower facades on
the transept. Aith these e*pensive twintower facades 4oncevau*
raised his metropolitan
l,
church to the same status as the archiepiscopal cathedrals of 4eims and
4ouen. $s far as the details are concerned, however, the facades, begun
shortly before 8;33 and, according to tradition, completed under the
rule of the English !ing 4ichard II Q8;11<<@, adapt in 'ordeau* the
"arisian style rayonnant from the end of the era on which )t. Fouis had
decisively set his sealOeven though 'ordeau* accommodated itself
very well to English sovereignty. These facts warn us to be cautious
about hasty interpretations of architectural forms in terms of historical
events or political allegiances.
In relation to some cathedral churches in the south of France, such
caution has been lac!ing. Aor!s li!e the cathedral choirs of Toulouse,
+arbonne, and 4ode& have been interpreted as a manifestation of a
northern French (cultural imperialism.( -hristian Freigang has shown
these interpretations to be erroneous. Ahen these three choirs were
begun in the 8913s, victory over the -athars and the occupation of the
regin by Fouis 6III already lay decades in the past. $nd when the
canons of +arbonne recorded that they wanted (to imitate the noble and
grandly e*ecuted churches... which have been constructed in the
=ingdom of France,( they were not affirming that they regarded the
cathedral as an architectural symbol of the French !ingdom. They were
simply recogni&ing the overwhelming power of the new cathedrals.
In contrast to the cathedrals of +arbonne and Toulouse, that of
4ode& Qsee opposite, left@ was almost completed in the Diddle $ges,
but as a result of a chronic lac! of funds the wor! begun in 8911 was
not finished until around 8::3. In the first third of the 8Cth century
there was a change of plan which introduced, as its most stri!ing
alteration, a type of pier whose shafts merge into the core to form a
waveli!e curve. This, as well as the blending of the arcade profiles into
the wall of the nave, was based on the compositional principie of fusing
architectural elements into a compact mass. Aith this, Fate Gothic
started to develop in 4ode& as early as the beginning of the 8Cth
century.
In the 4omanes#ue period the south of France had already shown a
preference in large churches for the simple aisleless church. Aith the
cathedral of $lbi Qsee opposite, right@, Gothic architecture created one
of the greatest of these churches. The buttresses that line the inside
cr%ate a continuous row of shaftli!e side chap%is that almost reach the
full height of the vault of the nave. The chevet is formed of radiating
chap%is also reaching up almost to the height of the main nave, creating
a choir of uni#ue beauty.
Knfortunately, everywhere else at the end of the 8:th century these
(shafts of light( surrounding the great unified space were divided up by
galleries and so their impact was seriously impaired. The e*terior of the
building is largely characteri&ed by the fronts of the buttresses which,
protruding as huge cylinders, give the cathedral the appearance of a
castle. The obvious assumption is to interpret the fortressli!e outer
shell of the cathedral as an assertion of -hurch power intended to
impress a town that had long been a hotbed of
8L9
4ode&, -athedral of +otre>ame,
begun 8911 Qbelow@
$lbi, -athedral of )te.-%cile, 8921ca. 8C33
E*terior Qbelow@ Interior Qbottom@ Ground
plan Qbelow, right@
8L;
-athar heresy. $ letter of indulgence of 89C1 records that the
predecessor of the present cathedral had been ruined (by the wars and
the heretics.( Indeed it was the energetic 'ernard de -astanet,
In#uisitor of Fanguedoc and 6iceIn#uisitor of the whole !ingdom,
who, in 8921, on the day after his installation as 'ishop of $lbi, sei&ed
the initiative to build a new church. The choir was completed around
8;;3. In 8;L: the large and clumsyloo!ing tower, li!e a !eep, was in
the process of being built, so that towards the end of the 8Cth century
the nave could be completed.
$s we !now, one of the main tas!s of the >ominicans was that of
combating heresy. The order had been founded in 898: in Toulouse and
the general chapter of the order met there every year. In this sense
Toulouse, >ominican church
Fate 8;th century8;2:
Interior Qbelow@ Ground
plan Qright@
5""5)ITE7
Toulouse, >ominican church
("alm Tree( detail of vault
8LC
"* -t. -
t\
& 1 0--
-'0
[3!
4H+H BaHBYI
the Hacobin church in Toulouse Qsee pages 8LCL:@ is the mother church of the
order. The French >ominicans had ac#uired the Same (Hacobins( after their first
place of assembly in "aris, near a church dedicated to )t. Hames QHacobus in
Fatn@. )ince not a single one of the churches of the mendicant orders has
survived in the heartland of Gothic, the Hacobin church in Toulouse is all the
more precious.
It is not obvious that it grew in several phases. $ first church, begun in 89;3
with a double nave, was e*tended between 89CC and 89L; by two bays and a
polygonal apse. This structure was reshaped from the late 8;th century into the
presentday church, the building being completed at the latest before the
dedication in the year 8;2:. The surprising alignment of powerful columnar
piers in the middle of the broad, high space, the magnificent Aindows stretching
up over the low side chap%is around the whole building, and last but not least the
centered vault of the apse, which from the easternmost pier Qpopularly called the
("alm Tree(@ radiates li!e a star, all cr%ate a powerful impression. ?ere an
architectural concept was being developed which, drawing both on 4ayonnant
shapes and on the twoaisled style fre#uently employed in the north by the
>ominicans, was responsible for the development of the harmonious and
monumental church interiors in the south of France.
-ourt $rchitecture in the Fate #Bt and #-t -enturies Ae !now the Sames of
several artists who from the late 8;th century onward wor!ed on commissions
from the French !ing or from members of the royal household. Ae can hardly
describe them, however, as (court artists( in the full sense since the court gave
them no commissions that led to the creation of uni#ue or even distinctive
buildings.
This changed under -harles 6I Q8;238C99@, however. $lthough the "aris
court had lost much of its cultural preeminence, in the closely related satellite
courts of the !ing.s Gneles, who largely too! over the business of government,
there developed a love of splendor which had never been !nown before. Each of
these courts attempted to outdo the others. There arse an artistic patronage that
re#uired artists to wor! almost e*clusively for these courts and to accommodate
themselves to the particular tastes of their patrn. 5ne of the !ing.s Gneles was
>u!e Hean de 'erry, who had his residences in 'ourges, 4iom, Dehunsur
V%vre, and "oitiers furnished in a princely manner. "art of this involved diverse
building schemes, including costly new buildings. ?is court master masn was
Guy de >ammartin, who as a pupil of the royal "arisian architect 4aymond de
Temple, under whom he had wor!ed at the Fouvre.
8LL
5""5)ITE7 Guy de >ammartin
FaFert%Dilon, castle, 8;<28C31 "oitiers, ducal palace
Aest side Fireplace wall in the Great ?all,
late 8;23s
Guy de >ammartin entered the service of the >u!e de 'erry shortly
before 8;13, and in "oitiers at the end of the 8;23s he restored the
Early Gothic palace of the du!e.s forebears, the du!es of $#uitaine.
The showpiece of this wor! was the famous fireplace wall with
which the narrow southern end of the great hall was newly closed off
Qsee above@. The threepart fireplace stands at the top of several steps,
li!e the bac!drop of a stage. The gallery above the fireplace was for the
use of musicians. $ fivepart composition of tracery windows with
decorated gables filis the upper half of the wall. The fireplace is
composed of three sep,rate layers. In the front layer stand the two spiral
staircases that overlap the outermost windows. The three middle
windows, separated by tall pinnacles, form the second layer. The
outermost layer of the wall is defined by gla&ed lancet windows
between which the chimneys rise up. These three chimneys dar!en the
central sections of the three middle tracery windows that form the
second layer. ?ere the play with different wall lev%is is ingenious. ?ow
greatly the patrn identified with the monarchy is shown by the statues
of -harles 6I and Xueen Isabelle that stand on the central pinnacles,
framed in turn by the statues of the patrn and his wife, Heanne de
'oulogne, on the outer pinnacles.
$fter the >u!e of 'erry, his nephew Fouis, the >u!e of 5rl%ans, was
one of the most active patrons of this period. 5f the half do&en castles
that he renovated or constructed during the period from 8;<9 to his
death in 8C31, "ierrefonds, which was rebuilt by 6iolletle>uc in the
8<th century, was the most lavish. Fouis. intention was not so much to
cr%ate defendable strongholds as to have comfortable and prestigious
residences at his disposal on his visits to his various estates. Aith Fouis
d.5rl%ans, as with Hean de 'erry, the step from castle to palace was
ta!en7 the fortress had become a country house. This transition is
especially evident in the castle of FaFert%Dilon Qsee opposite@, the
building of which stopped in 8C31 after the death of the du!e. 'etween
the two halfcylindrical, almondshaped central towers of the west wall
a gigantic gateway with a pointed arch opens up. $bove this, and
situated in a rich architectural frame, is a relief with a theme popular
around 8C33, the $ssumption of the 6irgin into ?eaven. The use of
religious iconography on a castle gateway is very unusual. It is possible
that the patrn meant his castle to be seen as a secular versin of the
?eavenly Herusalem.
$fter Hac#ues -oeur, the court ban!er of =ing -harles 6II Q8C99
L8@, had been raised to the nobility in 8CC8, he had a palace constructed
in 'ourges that surpasses all town houses of the late Diddle $ges Qsee
page 8L2, left@. The west wing of the building, which is in the shape of
an irregular #uadrangle, has a castleli!e e*tensin that uses part of the
Gallo4om,n town wall. The east wing and its main portal, on the other
hand, cr%ate the impression of a palace rich in architectural features. 5n
the roof, a lavish window surmounted by the royal insignia and framed
by pinnacles, and, on the staircase tower, the traceried windows of the
upper floor stand li!e elabrate pieces of church architecture. In the
canopy above the great entry arch there was originally an e#uestrian
statue of -harles 6IF In adorning his house in this way with the royal
insignia and the representation of the sovereign, this rich ennobled
bourgeois was both demonstrating his fidelity to his employer and
placing himself s#uarely among the members of the nobility. It is no
surprise that, in halfopen false windows ne*t to the niche with the
horseman, the new noble and his lady are watching out for their
overlord.
The prestige of the )te.-hapelle, constructed by )t. Fouis, led to
some patrons having such a chapel built in their castles or palaces. The
indispensable re#uirement for this was the ac#uisition of a relie of the
?oly "assion. Fre#uently the )te.-hapelle in "aris was also the
architectural model, as it clearly was for the )te.-hapelle in the castle
of 6incennes Qsee page 8L2, right, and page 8L<@. =ing -harles 6
Q8;LC8;23@ began the building of this chapel in 8;1<, even before he
had founded a seminary for it. In 8C99, the year his successor, =ing
-harles 6I, died, this chapel stood complete apart from the roof, the
buttress piers, and the vault0 these were added between 8:93 and 8::3.
The )te.-hapelle of 6incennes shows in many of its windows,
constructed from about 8;23 to 8C93, early forms of the style
fla&-oyant5 This Same for French Fate Gothic is derived from
8L1
5""5)ITE7
6incennes, -hapeU
E*terior view
'ourges, "alace of Hac#ues-oeur, 8CC;:; Inner facade 6incennes, castle chapel, ca. 8;1:8::3 Interior loo!ing west
QGallery of "hilibert>elorme, 8::3@
8L2
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Ir @9
1
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5""5)ITE7
4iom, castle chapel, 8;<:8C8L
+antes, -athedral of )t."ierre, 8C;C82<8
the elabrate
patterns of
tracery, in
which lines
flow into each
other and are
often flame
li!e in shape.
In England, an
intricate style
of this !ind had
appeared as
early as the late
8;th century.
+evertheless, it
was not the
English
occupation of
France in the
first third of the
8:th century
that brought
about the
flowering of
this style in
France. $s the
)te.-hapelle
at 6incennes
and the
fireplace wall
of "oitiers
show, the style
fla&-oyant had
come into
fashion in the
8;23s.
>u!e Hean
de 'erry also
had a )te.
-hapelle built
on the "arisian
model in his
$uvergne
residence of
4iom Qsee
opposite@0 wor!
on it began in
8;<:. Fi!e its
sister in
6incennes, the
chapel in 4iom
consists of only
an upper story0
in other words
it dispenses
with the vaulted
lower chapel.
'ecause of the
somewhat later
start to the
building, all the
windows in
4iom now
show forms of
Fate Gothic.
Hean de 'erry
never used the
4iom chapel,
although it was
completed
before his death
in 8C8L. 5nly
half a century
after the
beginning of
construction did
the heirs of
Hean de 'erry
concern
themselves with
furnishing the
chapel with
stained glass.
French Fate
Gothic $fter
the ?undred
Vears. Aar It is
hardly
surprising that
the architecture
of France
waned
considerably
during the first
third of the
8:th century,
the period
when the
?undred Vears.
Aar was at its
most intense
and when the
English
occupied
half of
France.
The
reali&ation
of large
building
pro/ects
started
only after
the
fortunes of
the
English
were
finally
reversed in
the 8C;3s.
$s the
country.s
economy
and
political
structures
revived, so
in some
regions,
from
around
8C:3,
architectur
e began to
thrive
again. mor
did this
late
flowering
of Gothic
end when,
in the first
third of the
8Lth
century,
patrons
and
architects
began
turning to
the forms
of the
Italian
4enaissan
ce.
French
Fate
Gothic
was
greatly
influenced
by the
constructio
n of large
town
churches,
which
were made
necessary
by a steady
growth in
the
population.
The days
of the
great
cathedrals
and
abbeys,
however,
was not
over yet.
There was
now
further
building
wor! at
many of
them,
including
those of
Troyes,
-h,lons,
$u*erre,
Deau*,
Toul,
Tours,
5rl%ans,
4ode&, and
Det&.
5thers,
although
complete,
were
remodeled
or
e*tended
and
reached a
more up
todate
form.
E*amples
include
those at
$miens,
)enlis,
)ens,
Evreu*,
and
4ouen.
In
+antes,
however, the
gigantic
cathedral was
totally
redesigned and
half complete
as late as the
Fate Gothic
period Qsee
right@. +antes,
which in the
8:th century
increasingly
too! over the
role of capital
of 'rittany,
wanted to erect
a main church
appropriate to
the town.s
importance. In
8C;C the du!e
and the bishop
together laid
the foundation
stone of a new
cathedral.
'uilding began
with the twin
towered west
front, which
was completed,
along with the
nave Qthough
not the nave
vault@, in 8C<2.
'ut then wor!
carne to a halt.
5nly in the
81th century
was the central
nave given a
Gothic vault
and the south
transept built
and it was only
during the
period from
82;: to 82<8,
when the
Gothic 4evival
was at its
height, that the
cathedral was
completed with
the building of
the choir,
together with
its
ambulator
y and a
newly
designed
circle of
five
radiating
chap%is.
Further
building in
the Fate
Gothic
style was
not
automatic,
for the
theoreticia
ns of the
Gothic
4evival
accepted
only the
forms of
the early
8;th
century. It
is a piece
of good
fortune
that the
choir of
+antes
continGes
with the
repertoire
of forms
used in the
nave,
forms
which
supporters
of Gothic
4evival
thought
decadent.
In this
way
France
preserved
the only
Fate
Gothic
episcopal
church
that, in its
over
whelming
massivene
ss, is the
e#ual of
8;th
century
cathedrals.
)tylisti
cally, the
building is
representa
tive of
Fate
Gothic.
Thus the
countless
threadli!e
tori and
edges
which,
alternating
with the
thin
cavettos,
determine
the surface
of the
load
bearing
structures,
run on up
into the
arches and
vaults
without
any
hori&ontal
separation.
In
accordanc
e with
Fate
Gothic
compositi
onal
principies,
piers,
arcade
soffits,
and vault
shafts are
fused into
single
unified
masses.
+everthel
ess the
architect
understoo
d how to
sep,rate
the bays
clearly
from each
other, in the
spirit of 8;th
century Gothic,
by designing
vaults and
shafts as a
framewor!
which seems,
in
818
-l%ry, +otre>ame 5""5)ITE7
9nd #uarter of the 8:th century "aris, parish church of )t.Ntienne
shortly after 8C2; duDont, 8C<98L9L
-hoir
its clear and coherent three
dimensionality, to be #uite
independent of thewalls.
Even the choir of the $bbey of
Dont)t.Dichel Qsee above, left@,
begun in 8CCL but only finished
between 8:33 and 8:98, follows
the scheme of the cathedral. Aith
its deep radiating chap%is, its high
welllit triforium, its slender vault
supports, and its (forest of piers(
created by the buttressing, this
building proves a translation of
the choir of Nvreu* into the forms
of Fate Gothic.
+otre>ame of -l%ry Qsee
above, right@ was begun in the
second #uarter of the 8:th century
and completed shortly after the
death of =ing Fouis MI in 8C2;.
Fouis gave substantial financial
support to the building, raised it to
the status of a royal chapel,
bought it in 8C1;, and chose it as
his final resting place. The ground
plan, with ambulatory but without
radiating chap%is and triangular
vault sections, was influenced by
+otre>ame in "aris. The
elevation in the central nave, with
vast empty wall surfaces between
low arcades and a high clerestory,
is that of a monumental parish
church.
5ne of the most significant
wor!s from the period of the
transition from Fate Gothic
Qwhich survived a long time in
France@ to the 4enaissance is the
nave of the "aris parish church of
)t.NtienneduDont, built
between 8:23 and 8L9L. Aith its
enormous arcades and low
clerestory it repeats in
4enaissance forms the layout of
the choir, which was built
between 8C<9 and 8:C3 Qsee
opposite@. Aith pointed arcades
cutting into columnar piers, and
the (flaming( tracery wor! of the
windows, this nave is still
completely indebted to Fate
Gothic. The enormous
heightening of the arcades is
reminiscent of the cathedral of
'ourges, while the raised gallery
in the aisles, which weaves around
the smooth pillars li!e
wic!erwor!, may have been
inspired by the cathedral in
4ouen. First mentioned in 8:C8,
the uni#ue choir screen, which
spans the central nave in a wide
openwor! arch, is completely in
the spirit of the -atholic -hurch.s
Tridentine reform of the liturgy,
for it allows a clear view of the
choir for those attending mass. $
stro!e of genius is the idea of the
two spiral staircases that lead to
this choir screen. Ainding round
the eastern pillars of the
819
5""5)ITE, T5" FEFT7 5""5)ITE, T5" 4IG?T7
Nvreu*, -athedral of +tre>ame Hean Femoyne
+orth front, ca. 8:33 $len]on, +tre>ame
Aestfront, 8:3L8L
5""5)ITE, '5TT5D FEFT7 Toul, -athedral of )t.Ntienne Aestfront,
8CL3ca. 8:33
crossing several times, they lead into the gallery surrounding the inner
choir.
Those living in the Fate Gothic era saw the completion of many
churches on which wor! had been interrupted for a long time. $s the
lu*ury of a large main front could normally be afforded only after the
completion of the church, the architects of the 8:th and 8Lth centuries
were particularly in demand for wor! on fronts during the Fate Gothic
era. They often responded brilliantly. 5ne of the earliest fronts of
French Fate Gothic is that of the cathedral of Tours, on which wor! was
carried out from about 8CC3 until 8:;1 Qsee left@. It was only a matter of
giving a new finish to a 4omanes#ue twintowered front. The guiding
principie for this embellishment carne from the ?igh Gothic fronts of
$miens and 4ouen, in which the rows of tall statues in the portal recess,
rows that flow around the buttresses, already emphasi&ed the main
vertical a*es. The openwor! gables, the rose window, and the statue
niches on the buttresses all give the impression of ?igh Gothic models
translated into Flamboyant. The towers, however, introduce a stri!ing
contrast. $s the center of a regin that was open very early to the forms
of the 4enaissance, a regin moreover with many castles, Tours
furnished its cathedral front with opentiered towers whose small
crowned domes proclaim the message of the new style far out over the
landscape.
$lthough situated on territory belonging to the ?oly 4om,n Empire,
the cathedral at Toul in Forraine had been closely associated, ever since
wor! on it began in the early 8;th century, with the Gothic style of
4eims. The west front, completed in the late 8:th century, is one of the
great achievements of Fate Gothic Qsee opposite, bottom left@.
-onstructed from 8CL3 until shortly before 8:33, according to a unified
plan, this west front is also a variation of ?igh Gothic models. Dore
intensively than in these models, however, in Toul the mass of the
buttresses is reduced by the angular setting of the side buttresses, which
gradually taper as they rise, the result being a unified, rhythmic, and
flowing construction. Each tier of the octagonal towers, from top to
bottom, is ringed by niches whose tracery is as fine as goldsmiths.
wor!. The huge gables that brea! up the dividing line of the stories, and
especially the large gable above the rose window, deepen the
impression of harmonious unity that is especially characteristic of this
front.
+ormandy has always been a landscape graced with many towers,
and it is no wonder that there are Fate Gothic e*amples. >uring this
period, tower foundations that already e*isted were often completed, as,
for e*ample, over the crossing of )t.5uen in 4ouen Qsee page 811,
left@. $bove the second s#uare story, which belongs to the Early
Flamboyant of the 8CC3s, the octagonal tower constructed under $bbot
'ohier Qin office 8C<98:8:@ rises li!e a gigantic crown, surrounded by
four crner turrets to which it is connected by elegantly curved flying
buttresses. The high octagon that crowns the tower of +otre>ame in
-audebecen-au*, a church begun in 8;29, is constructed according to
the same principie Qsee page 811,
right@. ?ere, however, the number of ornamental turrets is doubled, so
that in each case two for!ed flying buttresses swing out from each side
of the polygon. This polygon, begun in 8C<8, is completed by a spire
finished around 8:93. Encircled by two crowns, and having si*teen
sides as a result of additional changes, the spire is covered in a fine
tracery. Aith such wor!s monumental architecture increasingly
approached the (miniature architecture( of the goldsmith.
$lthough the variations in Fate Gothic fronts are enormous, they are
almost always new interpretations of older models. The north transept
fagade of Nvreu* -athedral Qsee above, left@, begun around 8:33, and a
spar!ling display of flowing tracery shapes, would not be conceivable
without the south fagade of +otre>ame in 4ouen, 823 years older. The
transept farades of the cathedral in )ens Qsee page 81L@, constructed
between 8C<3 and 8:81, enable the central rose window, despite its
integration into a gigantic tracery window, to return to the prominent
position it had lost since the end of the 8;th century. 5n the west side of
+otre>ame in $lengon Qsee above, right@ the porch, which since the
89th century had occasionally been included in Gothic farades, achieves
dominance by covering the whole of the end wall. The vaulted front
section, crowned by filigree tracery, has the appearance of a gigantic
choir screen. This clearly illustrates one of the results of having a free
choice of the most varied possibilities, an important concern of Fate
Gothic. $s motifs become interchangeable, less and less consideration
is given to their meaning. In $lengon, something normally a part of the
(interior decoration( has become a dominant part of the e*terior.
81:
!"m"Mffl#&"""##$i
I
-
%* &
5""5)ITE7
)ens, -athedral of )t.Ntienne
)outh transept front, 8C<38:89
4ouen, )t.5uen
-rossing tower, ca. 8CC38:8:
-audebecen-au*, +otre>ame Facade with tower 8;29late
8Lth century
811
>inant, +otre>ame, 8991C1 ?uy, +otre>ame, 8;8811
Ground plan Qleft@ -hoir
5ate Gotic
Arcitecture in te
Xeter"ands:
Arcitecture as an
?Q!ression of Ci0ic
Se"f-Confidence
?istorically, the
+etherlands, or the Fow
-ountries, covered what is
now ?olland, 'elgium, and
the northernmost part of
France. Throughout the
Diddle $ges the
+etherlands formed a
distinctive cultural entity
even though it was divided
linguistically and politi
cally. Thus the !ing of
France ruled over >utch
spea!ing Flanders, while
Frenchspea!ing ?ennegau
and 'rabant and ?olland
belonged to the ?oly
4om,n Empire.
The decisive influence
on the art and architecture
of the +etherlands was the
e*ceptional economic
success the ,rea en/oyed
during the late Diddle $ges,
with early forms of
industriali&ation and capi
talism developing from the
end of the 8;th century,
particularly in the cloth and
wool industries. $s part of a
developed money economy,
the ruling groups in the
towns and cities became
economically and politically
powerful, and through their
unprecedented wealth
sought to cr%ate imposing
monuments to their success.
These often too! the form of
fine buildings, secular as
well as sacred. In ,reas
where stone was available,
this led, from the 8Cth
century onwards, to
buildings distinguished by
rich architectural
ornamentation. In the coastal
,reas of Flanders and
?olland, on the other hand,
where there was an absence
of stone, a bric! architecture
was created which in its
monumental sparseness
reflected on an aesthetic
level the somber monotony
of the fat landscape.
From the beginning, the
Gothic church architecture
of the +etherlands was
modeled on the ma/or
cathedrals in the neigh
boring regions of FranceO
$rtois, "icardy, and
-hampagne. Thus as early
as the beginning of the 8;th
century the large churches
built in the ,rea of the
)chelde and Daas were
based on the typical French
designOa large aisled
church with transepts, choir,
and ambulatory, whose nave
was three stories high
Qarcades, triforium, and
clerestory@. This model was
nevertheless simplified in
one important respect7
instead of being supported
by piliers cantonn.s, the
arcades are supported by
simple round columns. The
decisive factor here was
probably less the sturdy
round column used in many
earlier, 89thcentury French
buildings than the slim
pillarli!e support which, on
the threshold between Early
and ?igh Gothic, was used
in )oissons -athedral as
well as in some -istercian
churches Qfor e*ample
Fongpont and 6illersla
6ille@.
$ particularly beautiful
e*ample of Early Gothic
architecture in the
+etherlands is the collegiate
church of +otre>ame in
>inant on the Deuse, in
what is now 'elgium Qsee
above, left@. 'uilt between
8991 and 89C1, the choir,
when measured against
contemporary buildings in
the heartland of French
Gothic, displays some old
fashioned characteristics
such as group windows
instead of tracery windows
and vault ribs that rest on
corbels. The triforium,
however, with its slim
arcades, is similar to those
at )oissons, -hartres, and
4eims. The slender columns
of the arcades in the apse,
allowing an unobstructed
view of the large windows
in the ambulatory Qwhich
has no chap%is@, are
particularly refined. ?ere
the ,rea behind the choir
arcades was translated into
an elegant lightfilled shell,
a characteristic feature of
French architecture since
$bbot )uger.s abbey church
of )t.>enis.
The former collegiate
church of Decheln, now a
cathedral, was started with
the choir in 8;C9 Qsee
opposite, left@. ?ere a
church type was created
which was to be repeated
many times, a type
characteri&ed both by the
adoption of the style of
8;thcentury French cathe
drals Qthough without the
two towers at the west front@
and by the use, above all in
the interior, of a rich
decoration consisting mostly
of delicate tracery elements.
The ground plan of
ambulatory with seven
radiating chap%is and the
threestory elevation of the
nave followed classic
French models.
"articularly in its
columns, the collegiate
church of +otre>ame in
?uy Qsee above, right@, built
between 8;88 and 8;11,
also follows the )oissons
e*ample from the late 89th
century. 'ut the thin, grid
li!e triforium arcades, as
well as the gallery in front
of the clerestory, are
probably derived from the
regional Gothic architecture
of 'urgundy. The choir in
the form of an apse without
ambulatory, as well as the
two mighty towers flan!ing
the choir, are reminiscent of
8;thcentury churches in
Forraine Qfor e*ample Toul
-athedral and )t.6incent in
Det&@. 5n the outside, there
is an impressive east end
which provides a clear
contrast between the slender
soaring windows of the
completely gla&ed choir and
the fat s#uare towers, with
their ponderous succession
of low stories whose
windows are for the most
part blind.
The strong round
columns, the only element
of regionalism here, form
the solid foundation of a
delicate, filigree
architecture. $ thin, closely
interlaced, networ! of
tracery was used to cover
the inside of the building
with a single coherent layer,
which appears not only on
the usual elements of the
elevation, but also on the
spandrels of the
812
arcades0 it veils the triforium and filis the windows of the clerestory and the
blind sections of wall alongside.
)uch fine latticewor!, which uses the arch and foilshapes of the French
style rayonnant, here made its first appearance on -ontinental Europe. In
England this decorative principie had been used a little earlier, and with e#ual
consistency, in the reconstruction of the 4omanes#ue choir of Gloucester
-athedral Qsee page 8CL@, wor! on which began in the 8;;3s. Hust as at
Gloucester, at Decheln the 4omanes#ue structure was covered with a Gothic
filigree net consisting of small units of tracery that spread over the threepart
elevation. English influence cannot be e*cluded. Indeed, the patterns on the
arcade spandrels and the sections of wall above them loo! li!e enlargements
of the wafer motif familiar in English church architecture since the 8;th
century. In Decheln, English decorative e*uberance and a French basic plan
carne together in a new unity. The result is the socalled ('rabant Gothic,( a
style which did not, however, remain restricted to 'rabant.
The second large church building in the 'rabant style, the Fieb
frauen!irche in $ntwerp Qsee above, right@, was begun in 8;:9, its design a
reaction to that of Decheln. ?ere (stretched bays( characteri&e the ground
plan. In other words, here in $ntwerp the usual transversely oblong nave
bays used in Decheln were replaced by bays e*tended longitudinally. There
are no other such e*amples in basilica construction e*cept in the
Dediterranean Gothic architecture of Italy and -atalonia. This arrangement
results in a broad hallli!e space that stands in mar!ed contrast to space
created in the usual Gothic cathedral. In contrast, the ground plan of the apse,
with its ambulatory and five radiating chap%is, follows the e*ample of 4eims
-athedral. The high veil of arcades inserted between the flying buttresses on
the outside of the choir chap%is is also reminiscent of 4eims.
Internally, however, the elevation in $ntwerp is divided into /ust two
stories. The arcades are supported by compound piers, not by round columns
as at Decheln, and the overall height of the elevation is accentuated in its
middle by a hori&ontal band of tracery above the
81<
Aillem van =essel
s.?ertogenbosch, )t. Hohn,
begun 8;13s -hoir
arcades. The windows are positioned in deep niches which are lin!ed in their lowest section by a tunnelli!e passageway that runs through the wall.
This form of doublelayered clerestory wall is of a form that was standard in llth and 89thcentury $nglo+orman 4omanes#ue architecture and
later was even a feature of English Gothic architecture. The $ntwerp clerestory bears comparison with the one in the west end of Aells -athedral
from the 8823s0 the same model was also used in the transepts of -hester -athedral in the 8;C3s. This form of clerestory does not open up the
whole of the space across the bay in favor of stronger wall sections.
$s at Decheln, the ,reas of the wall above the arches are covered with ornamentation. In contrast to the slightly older e*ample of Decheln,
however, $ntwerp includes not /ust a close!nit pattern of decoration, but also a series of identical lancets that stretch down to the nave arches, their
points and rosettes, together with the #uatrefoils of the balustrade, forming a clear hori&ontal band along the elevation. Kltimately this pattern of
decoration had also originated in England. The walls of the transept in -hester would need only to be covered with the small decorations and foil
forms of the !ind dating from between about 89<3 and 8;;3Oas originally found, for e*ample, in the window spandrels of )t. )tephen.s -hapel in
Aestminster "alace in FondonOto produce the elevation of $ntwerp.
Vet $ntwerp -athedral is anything but an unimaginative copy of English models. Its apse, its buttressing, and its dual tower facade show that it
remains deeply indebted to French Gothic architecture. Doreover, the forms ta!en from English architecture are interpreted in an original way. The
decorative lattice placed on the walls, for e*ample, does not become an independent surface hiding the structure of the building. 5n the contrary,
all the decorative elements are subordinate to the important structural elements. This emphasis on structure, together with the hallli!e e*panse
produced by the long bays, produces impressive architecture. The monotony of its forms is intentional. It is evidence of a fundamental attitude
which, in the final instance, strives for overwhelming monumentality, something also characteristic of the ?igh Gothic architecture of France.
'rabant Gothic architecture was the only form of European architecture of the 8Cth and 8:th centuries which successfully combined English and
French elements in a purposeful way. In $ntwerp -athedral, in particular, this resulted in a wor! of supreme harmony and balance. Even so, most of
the later ma/or buildings of 'rabant Gothic architecture followed the threestory classic elevation of Decheln and did without the double clerestory
wall with passageway. +evertheless, the architects of particularly lavish buildings considered $ntwerp to be a model in one respect at least7 the use
of compound piers rather than round columns. )t. Hohn.s church in s.?ertogenbosch Qsee left@, begun in the 8;13s, was designed to compete with
8;thcentury models such as the cathedrals of $miens and -ologne, particularly in the richness of the decoration used on the outside. The figurative
decoration of the buttressing and the
823
Fouvain, )t. "eter, begun ca. 8C33 ?alle, Fiebfrauen!irche, 8;2<8C3<
6iew from southeast
>elft, +ieuwe =er!, 8C:;1L
gablets
over the
windows
Qnow
completel
y
renewed
but
following
the
original
design@ is
uni#ue.
)t.
Hohn.s
church,
which is,
after
Decheln
and
$ntwerp,
the most
important
creation
of
'rabant
Gothic
architectu
re,
became a
decisive
influence
on several
subse#ue
nt
buildings.
This is
true
above all
of two
coKegiate
churches7
)t. "eter.s
in
Fouvain
Qsee
above,
left@,
where
building
started
around
8C33 and
the choir
was
complete
d no later
than
8CC2, and
)t.
Aaudru
in Dons,
begun in
8C:3, and
in effect a
copy of )t.
"eter.s,
built :3
years
earlier.
+ot all
lavish Fate
Gothic
buildings
in the
northern
+etherland
s were
based on a
cathedral
model,
however.
The choir
of the
pilgrimage
church of
?alle Qsee
above,
center@,
built 8;2<
8C3<, is an
aisleless
church with
chap%is that
are set
between
the pier
buttresses.
Ahat loo!s
li!e an
ambulatory
from the
outside
turns out to
be merely a
row of
chap%is.
'ut the
niches in
the
clerestory
wall and
their partial
veiling
with free
standing
tracery
latticewor!
clearly
show that
English
e*amples
were once
again put to
use Qa
comparable
church is
that of
'ridlington
in northeast
England,
dating from
the last
#uarter of
the 8;th
century@.
The
choir of the
+ieuwe
=er! in
>elft Qsee
above,
right@,
erected
between
8C:; and
8C1L, also
displays
this
systematic
use of
niches in
the
clerestory
wall, which
has
windows
only in its
upper half.
5riginally
tracery
veils
covered the
blind part
of the
niches, as
can be seen
from the
traces of
fi*ings in
the soffit
profile.
Aith its
sturdy
round
columns,
ambulatory,
and
triforium
arcades set
under the
nave
windows,
the interior
of the choir
of the
+ieuwe
=er! must
have been
more li!e
the
coKegiate
church in
Decheln at
that time
than is the
case today.
The west
end of
+otre>ame
du )abln in
'russels,
begun in
the second
half of the
8:th century,
also copies
the e*ample
of Decheln,
while the
choir, which
was begun in
8C33, is still
very much in
the tradition
of the
French 8;th
century
Gothic
(glass cage.(
$s these
and many
other
e*amples
show, real
development
stopped in
the
+etherlands
around
8;:3. The
deliberately
conservative
references
to the classic
?igh Gothic
cathedral
found their
e*pression,
until the end
of the 8:th
century,
largely in an
adherence to
the French
style
rayonnant5
Even the
monastery
church of
'rou near
'ourgen
'resse Qsee
page 829,
left@, built
from 8:8; to
8:;9, is a
conservative
building in
architectural
terms,
despite its
stellar vault.
>esigned
by the
'russels
architect
Foys van
'oghem,
it was
commissi
oned by
the
?absburg
regent of
the
+etherlan
ds,
Dargaret
of
$ustria.
?ere
contempo
rary Fate
Gothic
architectu
re is
represent
ed
primarily
by the
opulent
decoratio
n running
wild on
the
roodscree
n, choir
stalls, and
the
famous
tombs.
There has
been little
attempt
so far to
see! an
e*pla
nation for
this
bac!ward
loo!ing
architectu
re, but it
is clear
that the
rich
patrons
preferred
to stic! to
tried and
tested
models
and were
not
willing to
entertain
e*travaga
nt styles.
It is no
coinciden
ce that the
Gothic
architectu
re of
'rabant
mostly
re/ected
the
complicat
ed stellar
and
reticulate
d vaults
which
were
being
built
everywhe
re else in
the 8:th
century.
In this
respect,
the sober
middle
class
groups
ruling the
wealthier
towns and
cities
e*ercised
an
important
influence
not only
on the
parish
churches,
but also
on the
urban
coKegiate
churches.
In
$ntwerp
and
'russels,
the same
family
Sames
crop up in
the lists of
the
coKegiate
chapters as
in the
register of
the town
magistratur
e, and in
Decheln
and
Fouvain,
the tower
of the
coKegiate
church was
also the
stadstoren,
or -effroi
&unicipal,
the place
where all
important
municipal
documents
were
828
Foys van 'oghem
'rou, monastery church, 8:8;;9
4oodscreen
$ntwerp, Fiebfrauen!irche,
begun 8;:9
!ept.
This
function
coincide
d with
that of
being the
architect
ural
symbol
of the
town and
its
citi&ens,
a fact
that
helps to
e*plain
why the
late
medieval
church
towers of
the
+etherla
nds
became
virtual
s!yscrap
ers.
)ince the
municipa
lity
placed
great
valu% on
high
church
towers,
facades
with two
towers
tend to
be the
e*ceptio
n in the
Gothic
architect
ure of
the
+etherla
nds.
Even
in
$ntwerp,
where
the large
collegiat
e church
of the
Fieb
frauen!irch
e was given
a huge,
fivea*is
west front
with two
towers, and
was thus
built in the
manner of
the (perfect
cathedral,(
only the
north tower
was finally
built to its
full height,
in the first
#uarter of
the 8Lth
century Qsee
above,
right@. It is
of
outstanding
beauty, its
delicate
structure
ma!ing it
loo! li!e a
great piece
of delicate
goldsmith.s
wor!. $s on
a Gothic
monstrance,
slim
pinnacles
surround
the top two
stories,
which are
lin!ed to
the
octagonal
body of the
tower and
its
transparent
crown by
delicate
tracery
bridges.
The
character of
the
$ntwerp
octagon, as
for many
other
towers in
the
+etherlands
, was
established
by Ktrecht.s
cathedral of
)t. Dartn
Qsee
opposite,
bottom
left@. 'egun
in 89:C on
the basis of
the classic
?igh
Gothic
cathedral
QTournai
and
-ologne
can be
#uoted in
this
conte*t@,
this
cathedral
was given a
huge west
tower in the
8Cth
century,
which was
built in
front of the
west end.
The tower
collapsed in
8L1C. $s a
single
tower 889
meters Q;L2
feet@ high,
it did not fit
into the
standard
concept of
a Gothic
cathedral,
but it must
neverthe
less have
been highly
impressive.
+ot for
nothing
was it
depicted in
the
paradisia
cal
landscap
e which
surround
s the
worship
of the
mystical
Famb of
God on
the
Ghent
Altarpie
ce of the
van Eyc!
brothers
Qsee
pages
C32
C3<@.
829
The
tower of
the
Fiebfrau
en!irche
in 'reda
Qsee
opposite,
top
right@,
built in
8CL2
8:3<, is
also
indebted
to the
Ktrecht
model.
Fi!e the
Ktrecht
towerO
and
almost
all other
+etherla
nds
towersO
it does
not have
the
pierced
pyramida
l spire
that
crowns
the great
towers of
Germ,n
Gothic
churches.
)ince in
the
+etherla
nds the
towers
have
several
s#uare
stories,
and are
thus
proportio
nately
much
higher
than
Germ,n
towers
Qsee
Freiburg
Dinster,
page 933@,
the octagon
is
considered
to be the
real
conclusin,
even if an
onion
shaped
wooden
dome is
placed on
top, as in
'reda and
elsewhere
Qin 'reda
the original
dome dated
from 8:3<,
but the
dome was
rebuilt with
a changed
shape after
a fire in
8139@.
Dany of
the great
church
towers of
the
+etherlands
were
conceived
from the
beginning
as s#uare
bloc!s.
Thus the
tower of the
collegiate
church of
$iresurla
Fys Qsee
opposite,
bottom
right@ is by
no means
an isolated
case.
-onstructed
between
8:L< and
8L;C, it
imitates the
large
church
towers of
the
neighboring
town of )t.
5mer, built
in the 8:th
century,
that is, the
tower of the
abbey
church of
)t.'ertin,
which
collapsed in
8<C1, and
the tower of
+otre
>ame
-athedral.
$fter being
destroyed
in war, the
upper
sections of
the tower
were rebuilt
in 81;::3
in a stylistic
mi*ture of
Gothic and
4enaissanc
e forms, a
combinatio
n that must
have
characteri&e
d the tower
from the
beginning.
The tower
nevertheles
s remains
indebted in
its structure
to the
principies
of late
medieval
architecture
Oa good
e*ample of
appro
priate
restoration
at the time
of Fouis
M6 Q818:
1C@.
Gothic
secular
architecture
appeared
in
particula
rly
magnific
ent forms
in the
+etherla
nds, no
great
surprise
in view
of the
wealth
and
political
self
confiden
ce of the
middle
class
groups
who
governed
the
'5TT5D FEFT7 'reda, Fiebfrauen!irche, 8CL28:3<
Ktrecht, )t. Dartin.s -athedral,
89:C8:81
Tower
'5TT5D 4IG?T7 $iresurla
Fys, )t."ierre Tower, 8:L<
8L;C,81;::3
region.s towns and cities, groups which played an important role in
civic life. $lso important were buildings such as hospitals and other
charitable institutions.
5ne of the earliest surviving monuments of this !ind is the large
infirmary of the 6an de 'i/lo!e Qin French, de la 'ilo#ue@ -istercian
abbey in Ghent, dating from 89929< Qsee page 82C, left@. Its dimen
sions are 8L by :: meters Q:9 by 823 feet@, and the wooden vault rises
to 82 meters Q:< feet@. These are the dimensions of a ma/or town
church. $nd as in a wor! of sacred architecture, the longitudinal walls
are pierced with complicated tracery windows while the blind and
narrow east wall is covered by monumental mur,is of the Fast )upper
and the -oronation of the 6irgin, wor!s dating from the mid 8Cth
century. These images were meant to encourage those who were sic! or
od to parta!e of the sacrament of the Dass so that they too, li!e the
6irgin, might enter ?eaven.
$long with city walls, the large communal building pro/ects of
towns in the +etherlands were the (halls( 2hallen1 and town halls. The
halls had a dual function as warehouses and as meeting rooms for the
community. In addition, they were often also town halls in the modern
sense, in other words administrative centers. $s the e*pression
of civic pride often too! the widely visible form of huge towers in the
+etherlands, these halletoren, or hall towers, ac#uired more or less the
same function as church towers and became more and more li!e them
in appearance.
There is no fundamental difference between the cathedral towers of
Ktrecht or $ntwerp and the towers of the 'ruges cloth halls or the town
halls of 'russels and $rras. The main architectural problem was the
same7 how to cr%ate a harmonic balance between the s#uare base of the
tower and the octagonal crown. In 'ruges, the cloth hall and the two
s#uare stories of the belfry were built in the last third of the 8;th
century Qsee page 82:@. +ot until 8C292L was the tower with the
octagon raised by more than a third0 until 81C8 it was even crowned
with a spire.
The construction of 'russels town hall was begun in 8C39 Qsee page
82L@, along with the base of the tower. The foundation stone of the
octagon was laid by -harles the 'old in 8CC<, wor! being completed in
8C:C. In its elegance, this secular building far outstrips contemporary
religious architecture. The octagon, divided into three transparent
stories, rises up unhindered between the four strong freestanding
pinnacles that conclude the base and emphasi&e its corners. E*ception
ally for a +etherlandish tower, it is, li!e many of the towers on Germ,n
cathedrals, topped by a tracery spire. Aith its rows of facade statues, its
tracery windows, and, above all, its elabrate tower, whose design was
undoubtedly influenced by religious goldwor!, in particular tower reli
#uaries, 'russels town hall comes very cise to religious architecture.
The same is true of the tower of $rras town hall Qsee opposite,
right@, which was started in the 8C:3s and completed in the late 8Lth
82;
Ghent, infirmary of 6an de 'i/lo!e
-istercian abbey, 89929< O
$rras, town hall, ca.8C:38:19
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last third of 8;th century8C2L
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82:
82L
'russels, town hall, begun 8C39
5""5)ITE7
Fouvain, town hall, 8CC2L;
Bf" >#
ST?[A ARTOIS
-hristian Freigang
The "apal "alace in $vignon
The residence which the popes built in
the southern French town of $vignon in
the 8Cth century was then, as it is now,
one of the largest fortified palace
comple*es in Europe. Aith the arrival of
the papacy, the town itself suddenly
became an important metrpolis, ma!ing
it the e#ual of Fondon, "aris, 'arcelona,
+aples, or "rague.
-hurch and secular dignitaries had
e*pensive residences built. 5ne of the few
remaining e*amples is the core building
of the "etit "alais Q)mall "alace@, at the
north end of the large s#uare in front of
the "apal "alace. It was the residence of
-ardinal $rnaud de 6ia and served as the
bishop.s palace after his death in 8;;:.
The town.s churches were li!ewise
replaced by large new buildings.
Derchants, diplom,is, lawyers, and,
not least, artists from all over Europe met
in the rapidly growing town, in which
"ope 'oniface 6III founded a university
in 8;3;. In order to provide protection
against the marauding 'randes co&pa'!
nies Qarmies of former mercenaries from
the ?undred Vears. Aar, 8;;18C:;@, the
city walls were reinforced and consid
erably e*tended in the mid 8Cth century,
though, as a telling e*pression of the new
age, gardens and par!s were also laid out
during this development.
Ahat led to the remar!able transfor
mation of $vignonP In 891C the pope had
been given the neighboring territory of
6enaissin Qformerly governed by the
-ounts of Toulouse@ at the end of the
campaign against the -athars Qsee pages
88L881@. Ahen -lement 6 too! up resi
dence in $vignon in 8;3: on the advice of
the French !ing, following conflict with
the Germ,n emperor and growing polit
ical turmoil in 4ome, he was thus also the
temporal ruler of neighboring 6enaissin.
-lement.s successor, Hohn MMII Q8;8L
;C@, 'ishop of $vignon, moved the papal
government permanently to $vignon,
using as his residence the od bishop.s
palace which was situated to the south of
the cathedral of +otre>amede>oms.
It was not until the papacy of 'enedict
MII Q8;;C]9@ that a start was made on
construction of the new imposing papal
fortress, with the "alais 6ieu* Q5d
"alace@, situated to the north, used in
place of the bishop.s palace. The former
consisted of four long wings around an
inner courtyard. $ further freestanding
wing was attached at the southeast
crner, and the comple* was concluded
with the building of the socalled jngel
Tower. -lement 6I Q8;C9:9@ e*tended
$vignon, "apal "alace, north sacristy of
Great -hapel, mid 8Cth century
$vignon, "apal "alace, papal bedchamber
with frescoes, ca. 8;C;
and regulari&ed the site by e*tending
'enedict.s freestanding wing by two
bloc!s, which now formed a further
courtyard, the Grand -our, in the
southern part of the palace. Fater
building wor! that deserves a mention
includes, above all, the laying out under
Krban 6 Q8;L913@ of the large gardens
on the east side of the comple*.
Following the return of the popes to
4ome in 8;11, the antipopes of the
Great )chism continued to use the
residence. From the 8:th century
onwards it was the residence of papal
legates. Its contents were plundered
during the French 4evolution, when the
-astille du /idi barely escaped
destruction. -onsiderable damage was
also done in the 8<th century when the
fortress was used as a prison and
archive. -omprehensive restoration
wor! did not start until 8<3L.
There are numerous documents
relating to the finances of the palace.
These refer to many of the craftsmen
involved in the development of the "apal
"alace. "ierre "oisson from Direpoi*
near -arcassonne, for e*ample, was
ta!en on as the master of wor!s0 Hean de
Fouvres, who is thought to have come
from the north of France, was employed
on the e*tensions under -lement 6I.
'ut few conclusions can be drawn from
these documents as to the precise
function and historical importance of
the building.
Aith its mighty walls and towers, the
"apal "alace is, first and foremost, a
formidable castle7 in his capacity as
temporal lord the pope re#uired real and
appropriate protection. 'ut the
e*tensive fortifications were also a
means of displaying -hurch authority.
5ther e*amples of this can be seen in the
papal fortress in 6illandraut in
southwest France, in the
town palace of Hohn MMII in -ahors, and
in the bishop.s palace in +arbonne.
Fi!e most of these residences for
princes of the -hurch, 'enedict.s palace
did not place great valu% on a strictly
regular plan, in contrast to many castles
of the French !ing Qsuch as the Fouvre,
$vignon, "apal "alace and cathedral of
+otre>amede>oms
Ground plan
and the castles in 6incennes and -arcas
sonne@. This element of display in the
"apal "alace in $vignon is illustrated in
particular by those sections of the
building constructed under -lement 6I.
It becomes especially dear in the facade
of the large western s#uare, where the
large blind arcades in the lower &one are
combined with features such as the
distinctive towers, cantilevered at half
height and crowned with pointed spires,
which emphasi&e the main entrance. )uch
towers framing main entrances are found
in France in many castles belonging to
temporal rulers of this time. Further
more, it was the measures underta!en by
-lement 6I that unified the palace
comple*, giving it a more regular layout
based on the two large courtyards.
5verall, the architecture of the "apal
"alace is restrained0 e*#uisite finery
appears in only a few places. Even if the
huge rooms such as the 8Lmeter Q:9
feet@ wide Great -hapel of -lement 6I in
the south wing are technical masterpieces
of the art of vaulting, the individual
structural elements and the tracery
profiles mostly remain sturdy and force
fully rounded Qsee bottom left@. This
comes as a surprise, particularly in view
of the slender pillars and rich inventive
tracery in use in southern France at the
end of the 8;th century. The "apal "alace
primarily represents functional architec
ture that was #uic!ly adapted to the daily
822
life and ceremonial of the papal court. This
represents the real innovation of the building.
Ahen the popes returned to Italy at the end of
the 8Cth century, they used the $vignon plans
for the new residences that were being
created there, eventually even for the
e*tensions of the 6atican "alace.
In the "alais 6ieu* of 'enedict MII, the
most important public functions are grouped
round the courtyard surrounded by open
loggias7 the conclave wing in the south and
the living #uarters of the papal retinue in the
west, followed by the papal chapel in the
north wing. The Trouillas Tower, situated at
the highest point, contained storerooms and
coal cellars, food stores, and, above all, the
armory. The great !itchen was between the
main rooms of the palace in the east wing and
the large consistory, above which was the
main dining hall. The -uria met in the former,
while large formal receptions were held in the
latter.
'ut where were the pope.s prvate
chambersP They were in that southfacing
e*tensin which, connected to the large dining
room, at first contained two smaller assembly
rooms, the parament chamber, where
ecclesiastical vestments were !ept, and the
small dining room. Finally, to the south, carne
the prvate chambers of the pope in the so
called jngel, or "apal, Tower. ?ere the pope
had his bedroom and his studiu&, his prvate
study. The jngel Tower was an independent
unit whose other stories, containing the
treasure chamber and library, were lin!ed
vertically. These prvate chambers, which
were situated on the periphery of the main
building, opened out into successively more
lavish rooms culminating in the large dining
room. This arrangement was something new
and is evidence of a clearly defined
courtly ceremonial employed at the papal
court at this time. It was probably based on the
model of -atalonian castles, in particular the
royal palace of $lmudaina in "alma on
Da/orca.
This ceremonial also involved the building
of a loggia overloo!ing the inner courtyard,
another new element in French castle
architecture, seen here for the first time. The
loggia and courtyard were lin!ed by a broad
flight of steps. Knder -lement 6I, these
changed ceremonial re#uirements were in fact
incorporated e*pansively. 5ther changes
included
e*tending the prvate papal chambers by the
addition of a giant audience hall and a new
papal chapel in the south wing. The lin!
between them was provided by a new and
magnificently painted chamber, the famous
-hambre du -erf Q()tag 4oom(@. From the
Great -hapel in the upper story the pope
would enter a landing which contained the
largest and most elabrate window of the
palace, the socalled Indulgence Aindow
Qrestored@. $ new pope was crowned in an
anteroom to the Great -hapel and then, from
the socalled 'enediction Foggia, he dis
$vignon, "apal "alace and cathedral of +otre
>amede>oms
pensed indulgences and blessings to the large
crowd gathered in the courtyard. 6isiting
dignitaries could approach the pope by means
of the broad ceremonial flight of steps. The
ceremonial developed at the Da/orcan court
clearly served -lement 6I as the model for
this se#uence of courtyard, flight of steps,
loggia, and court chapel.
The "apal "alace was originally richly
decorated, though little of this decoration has
survived. $mong the most important elements
were frescoes by Datteo Giovanetti, who
between 8;;L and 8;L2 was the papal court
painter. 'enedict MII almost certainly called
him to $vignon from 6iterbo. The fact that an
Italian painter, probably from the )ienese
school, was employed to underta!e such
comprehensive painting wor! is characteristic
of a new international appreciation of the arts.
English sculptors were wor!ing in $vignon at
the same time, sculptors from "isa were
wor!ing in 'arcelona, and in "rague
commissions were being given to Italian
painters and mosaicists. This phenomenon
shows the international fame that outstanding
artists en/oyed. The huge frescoes that Datteo
and his fellow painters e*ecuted in the
consistory and the large dining room were
unfortunately destroyed in the Diddle $ges.
The only wor!s to be preserved are the
paintings in the ad/oining chap%is of )t. Hohn
and )t. Dartial and in the prvate apartments
of the pope. The painting of the large audience
chamber remained unfinished. The frescoes in
the chap%is depict the lives of these saints. The
most famous of the frescoes are in the
-hambre du -erf, which were probably
e*ecuted with the help of French painters.
These depict the courtly entertainments of
falconry, stag hunting, and fishing in the
breeding pond Qsee left@, which all seem to be
ta!ing place in a light forest where various
!inds of tree grow. They cr%ate the illusion
that the observers are themselves ta!ing part
in the scenes.
$ similar illusion is created by the mur,is in
the papal bedchamber Qsee opposite page,
bottom right@. ?ere over a painted lower
register, which creates the illusion that the
mur,is above are wall hangings, the high walls
are completely filled with interrwining
creepers and leaves, in between which birds
can be made out. "ainted birdcages wait to be
discovered in the window niches0 they are
mostly empty, as if awaiting the return of their
occupants, now flying in the palace gardens.
$vignon, "apal "alace
Fishin', detail of fresco in -hambre du
-erf, 8;C;
82<