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International Journal of Pavement Engineering
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Prediction of flow rutting in asphalt concrete layers
Safwat F. Said
a
, Hassan Hakim
a
, Erik Oscarsson
b
& Mattias Hjort
a
a
Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute, Highway Engineering , Linkping,
Sweden
b
Department of Technology and Society , Lund University , Lund, Sweden
Published online: 04 Apr 2011.
To cite this article: Safwat F. Said , Hassan Hakim , Erik Oscarsson & Mattias Hjort (2011) Prediction of flow rutting in asphalt
concrete layers, International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 12:6, 519-532, DOI: 10.1080/10298436.2011.559549
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2011.559549
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Prediction of ow rutting in asphalt concrete layers
Safwat F. Said
a
*, Hassan Hakim
a
, Erik Oscarsson
b
and Mattias Hjort
a
a
Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute, Highway Engineering, Linkoping, Sweden;
b
Department of Technology and
Society, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
(Received 16 April 2010; nal version received 28 January 2011)
This paper evaluates an approach for predicting rut formation in asphalt concrete (AC) layers. The approach is based on a
linear viscoelastic model for predicting permanent vertical strain in AC layers subjected to a moving load. The input data are
tyre pressure, loading speed, lateral wandering of loading wheel, shear modulus and phase angle of AC layer. The analytical
approach takes into consideration the change in material characteristics in respect of temperature and changes in the air void
content of AC layers due to repeated loading. The approach is veried by a full-scale accelerated loading test at different
temperatures. The approach has shown good agreement as regards the prediction of ow rutting in AC layers. In addition,
the approach is capable of calculating rutting proles including the upheaval, which is important for estimating rut depth.
Keywords: modelling; asphalt concrete; ow rutting; viscoelastic; shear modulus; phase angle
1. Introduction
In spite of the generally cold climate in Sweden, the
temperature in exible pavement can reach 508C at the
pavement surface (,308C in the binder layer), and ow
rutting is, therefore, one of the most frequent types of
distress on high-volume roads. For example, Figure 1
illustrates rutting on the E4 motorway, which is the main
road between the north and south of Sweden and down into
Europe. The rutting is primarily due to the use of bitumen
binders with relatively high penetration (160/220 and
70/100 according to EN 12591 2009). Flow rutting is
dened as an excessive deformation in the wheel paths,
which gradually increases with increasing number of
vehicle load repetitions. Flowrutting in an asphalt concrete
(AC) layer is caused by two mechanisms: densication,
which is a decrease in volume and increase in density of an
AC layer, and shear deformation with formation of
upheavals, which are displacements of material caused by
load-induced shear stresses. In addition to trafc history
and climate factors, ow rutting is affected by the
properties of asphalt mixtures, especially at high
temperatures and under loading of relatively long duration,
when the mix properties are dominated by the viscous
character of the material (Sybilski 1996, Blab and Harvey
2002). Flexible pavements should, therefore, be designed,
among other things, with respect to resistance and to
permanent deformation. Read and Whiteoak (2003)
pointed out that reduction in permanent strain can be
achieved by stiffening the bitumen so that the viscoelastic
response of the AC is reduced and/or by increasing the
elastic component of the bitumen, thereby reducing the
viscous component. Elastic and viscous components can be
measured by means of the phase angle of the material under
test conditions (Read and Whiteoak 2003, Bahia 2009,
Biligiri et al. 2010). Addition of bitumen modiers has the
purpose of improving one or both of these properties.
Therefore, both stiffness and phase angle, and conse-
quently viscosity, should ideally be accounted for in a
permanent deformation model for AC.
Figure 2 shows typical test results from a repeated
load test. It can be seen that the permanent deformation
development can be divided into three zones: initial,
secondary and tertiary. The mechanism of permanent
deformation (ow rutting) in AC layers was described by
many investigators, for example Eisenmann and Hilmer
(1987), Sousa et al. (1991), Verstraeten (1995), Kaloush
and Witczak (2002), Blab and Harvey (2002), NCHRP 1
37A (2004) and Oscarsson (2007). The initial deformation
zone is primarily caused by an increase in density, called
post-compaction fromrepeated trafc loading. Some of the
initial deformation is also related to plastic deformation
(NCHRP 137A 2004). This zone might be chiey related
to construction work (Bjorklund 1984, Eisenmann and
Hilmer 1987) due to shortcomings in compaction. In the
secondary zone, the deformation grows with time although
at a decaying rate (depending on the stress level). The
deformation is primarily related to the lateral movement of
material associated with minor changes in AC properties.
The lateral movement or displacement of material is
induced by repeated shear stresses. In the third (tertiary)
ISSN 1029-8436 print/ISSN 1477-268X online
q 2011 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2011.559549
http://www.tandfonline.com
*Corresponding author. Email: safwat.said@vti.se
International Journal of Pavement Engineering
Vol. 12, No. 6, December 2011, 519532
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zone, the deformation rate increases rapidly, indicating a
type of failure.
Rutting in the AC layers of pavements can be
estimated by a number of models (Sousa et al. 1991,
Verstraeten 1995). In the case of AC layers, rutting
originates primarily from shear deformations in the layer
under trafc loading. Linear viscoelastic theory that makes
use of shear deformation was adopted by several
investigators. Bjorklund (1984) studied a linear visco-
elastic approach for behaviour of AC when subjected to a
moving load on a halfspace. The asphalt mix property is
dened through the steady state viscosity of the AC
material (zero-shear-rate viscosity, ZSV) in which the ratio
of shearing stress to the rate of shearing strain is constant
and called Newtonian behaviour. Hopman (1996) devel-
oped a linear viscoelastic multi-layer program called
VEROAD for analysis of stresses and strains in pavements.
Hopman used Burgers model for determination of the
viscoelastic properties of AC. Viscoelastic models have
the capability to discriminate between different bitumi-
nous materials under moving loads and, therefore, give
reasonable pavement responses (stress and strain; Hopman
1996, Hopman et al. 1997, Nilsson 2001), which are
important for evaluating mixes against ow rutting. The
constitutive relationship used in MEPDG (NCHRP 1-37
2004) to predict rutting in the AC layer is based upon
analysis of laboratory repeated load permanent defor-
mation tests. Both plastic and resilient strains of the
asphalt material as a function of temperature, rate of
loading and number of load applications are used to
predict rutting. The CalME software (Deacon et al. 2002,
Ullidtz et al. 2008) has adopted a shear-based approach for
predicting rutting in the AC layer. The permanent shear
strain is determined from repeated shear tests at constant
height as a function of the shear stress, the elastic shear
strain and the number of load applications.
Bjorklunds approach and VEROAD are capable in
predicting rutting prole, including the upheavals, which is
valuable in predicting rut depth. In Bjorklunds approach,
rutting caused by post-compaction (decrease in volume)
and ow rutting (no change in volume) is calculated
separately, showing the effect of each mechanism alone,
which is interesting for future development. MEPDG and
CalME use a power function in simulating rut development
with respect to the load applications. Interesting feature
produced in CalME is an incremental recursive procedure
in which the materials properties are updated in terms of
damage for each time increment and used as input to the
next time increment.
In this work, the algorithms of a linear viscoelastic
model reported by Bjorklund (1984) were adapted for
prediction of permanent vertical strain in AC layers
subjected to a moving load using ZSV (Newtonian
Figure 1. Flow rutting on the E4 motorway.
Initial
P
e
r
m
a
n
e
n
t

s
t
r
a
i
n

p
Load repetitions
Secondary
Tertiary
Figure 2. Typical test results from repeated load test.
S.F. Said et al. 520
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behaviour) of AC material. Although the AC characteristic
is non-linear (non-Newtonian behaviour) for the environ-
mental conditions under which ow rutting develops, see
for example Uzan (1996). The procedure developed in
this study for calculation of the permanent deformation
of AC layers is called permanent deformation of AC layer
for roads (PEDRO). The approach is evaluated using a
full-scale accelerated loading test (heavy vehicle simu-
lator, HVS) at different temperatures. The permanent
deformations of the AC layers were measured separately
at intervals of wheel passages for verication of the
approach. In order to verify the adapted model in this
work, two test sections were built at VTI (the Swedish
National Road and Transport Research Institute in
Linkoping). This work is limited to prediction of rutting
in AC layers.
2. Objective
The purpose of this study is to evaluate an analytical
approach for predicting ow rutting in AC layers using a
full-scale accelerated loading test with HVS. The
structural sections are instrumented for measurement of
the deformation in each AC layer. The predictive model,
PEDRO, is based on the number of passages of wheel
loads, the pavement structure and the mixture properties at
various temperatures. The aim is to present a procedure
(model) which can be used in routine engineering work to
evaluate ow rutting in AC pavement layers.
3. Mechanistic rutting approach
Bjorklund (1984) proposed the use of a linear viscoelastic
theory to calculate permanent vertical strain caused by a
moving wheel load over a viscoelastic halfspace. The
permanent vertical strain at a particular point in the AC
layer can be calculated as a function of the steady state
viscosity of AC as well as trafc load and speed. The ZSV
of the AC was determined from oscillatory shear test of
AC cores in evaluation of an AC layers resistance to
rutting. The permanent deformation of each layer or sub-
layer is then integrated over the AC layer.
The permanent vertical strain (1
p
), encountered in the
initial and secondary zones, can be calculated at various
depths and transversal positions in the pavement structure
under a moving load. The relationship, Equation (1), was
described by Bjorklund (1984) for the calculation of
permanent vertical strain as follows:
1
p

s
0
1 22v
Vh
A
Re

z ix
2
a
2
q
2z ix

s
0
z
Vh
A
Re 1 2
z ix

z ix
2
a
2
p
" #
;
1
where 1
p
represents the permanent vertical strain (mm/m);
s
0
, tyre pressure (Pa); a, radius of contact area (m); n,
Poissons ratio; z, depth from road surface (m); V, vehicle
speed (m/s); h
A
, ZSV of asphalt mix (Pa s); x, distance
from loading centre (m); i

21
p
:
The model can take changes in volume or compres-
sibility of asphalt mix into consideration using Poissons
ratio during the loading history. The model, as presented is
Equation (1), consists of two terms: one for calculation of
compressibility representing the initial zone when a
substantial change in volume is expected and one for
calculation of the ow rutting part of the deformation
when almost no change in volume is expected. At the end
of the rst zone (Figure 2), Poissons ratio is supposed to
reach 0.5 and then the term for compressibility vanishes.
This does not necessarily mean that Poissons ratio is 0.5
during the entire test but implies that the AC layer behaves
as a viscoelastic material in dilatation without a permanent
change in volume (Bjorklund 1984). Figure 3 illustrates
the distribution of permanent vertical strains for both terms
of the relationship in relation to the depth from the surface.
Depending on the variables, the maximum permanent
vertical strain (1
p
) occurred at a depth of 512 cm from the
surface. Other investigators also found that the shear
deformation in pavement is greatest in the upper part of
pavements and gradually decreased in lower parts. See for
example the State-of-the-Art report by Sousa et al. (1991)
and Monismith et al. (2006). Figure 4 illustrates an
example of permanent vertical strain in a semi-innite AC
layer subjected to HVS loading at 12 km/h with a single-
wheel load of 60 kN and a tyre pressure of 900 kPa under
the assumption that viscosity is constant at 1 GPa s.
Positive strains give rise to rutting in the wheel path and
negative strains give rise to upheavals at the sides of the
wheel path.
The ZSV of the AC layers was calculated as a function
of the shear modulus and phase angle of the AC mixtures
in respect of the test conditions. Mix properties were
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
Term 1
Term 2
Term 1&2
20.0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
Permanent vertical strain 10
9
Figure 3. Contribution of terms 1 and 2 of Equation (1) to
permanent vertical strain distributions in relation to depth in
pavement.
International Journal of Pavement Engineering 521
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determined experimentally by testing cores from AC
layers in the laboratory. The ZSV of AC mixtures which is
needed to calculate rutting using the viscoelastic model
has to be determined for temperatures in the eld.
Investigators using viscoelastic models earlier used simple
rheological models related to binder viscosity for
estimation of the AC viscosity (Collop et al. 1992). For
Newtonian material (steady state viscosity), the complex
viscosity of material h
*
is equal to the complex shear
modulus of material G
*
divided by angular frequency.
Sybilski (1996) and Anderson et al. (2002) used frequency
sweep test on asphalt binders to determine the ZSV using
the cross model. Sybilski (1996) used ZSV to characterise
asphalt binders with respect to rutting resistance of AC
mixtures in the laboratory. For the determination of the
ZSVof AC materials, Oscarsson and Said (2010) analysed
data from frequency sweep shear test on AC specimen and
the use of the Cross model. However, as noted above in the
range of temperatures of interest in pavement applications,
the asphalt materials behave as non-Newtonian material
and the viscosity is thus a function of temperature and
loading time. A correction factor is, therefore, needed to
account for non-Newtonian behaviour of asphalt binder
(Bonaquist et al. 1998, NCHRP 2004).
In this work, the ZSV (h
*
0
) is determined as the
absolute viscosity related to the loss of compliance of
shear modulus (J
00
) at low angular frequencies (Bjorklund
1984, Anderson et al. 2002, Mezger 2006). Oscarsson and
Said (2010) described a procedure for estimation of the
ZSV of AC material based on loss compliance of shear
modulus (J
00
) determined as the imaginary part of Equation
(2) (Chehab and Kim 2009). The value of h
v
is determined
by Equation (5) and making use of Cross model, Equation
(6), for estimation of the ZSV and constants K and m
(Sybilski 1996, Anderson et al. 2002)
G
0
v iG
00
v J
0
v 2iJ
00
v 1; 2
G
0
G
*

cos f; 3
G
00
G
*

sin f; 4
h
v

1
2vJ
00
v
: 5
As v ! 0 then h
v
ZSV,
h
v

h
0
1 Kv
m
; 6
where G
*
is the dynamic shear modulus (MPa); G
00
, loss
component of shear modulus (MPa); G
0
, storage com-
ponent of shear modulus (MPa); f, phase angle in degrees;
J
00
, loss compliance of shear modulus (MPa
21
); J
0
, storage
compliance of shear modulus (MPa
21
); h
0
, ZSV (MPa s);
h
v
, viscosity (MPa s); v, angular frequency (rad/s); K and
m, constants.
The rut depth is calculated by integrating the
permanent deformation over the thickness of the AC
layer or layers. However, the effects of densication/
hardening/ageing of asphalt mixes are also crucial for rut
prediction. These effects result in better resistance of AC
(increased stiffness) to permanent deformation and should
be taken into consideration as accurately as possible for a
good prediction of rutting.
3.1 Stiffening of mix due to post-compaction
It is worth bearing in mind that using physical properties of
AClayers to predict rutting (or deterioration in general) is a
dilemma. Asphalt concrete materials change many of their
Figure 4. Illustration of permanent vertical strain in m1 in a semi-innite AC layer without lateral wander. Upper and lower sections
represent terms 1 and 2, respectively, in Equation (1).
S.F. Said et al. 522
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mechanical properties over time due to post-compaction
(densication due to trafc loading), ageing and hardening
or curing (Nunn 1996, Jacobson and Hornwall 1999,
NCHRP2004, Said2005, SwedishCode 2005, Wiman et al.
2009) and this cannot be ignored in prediction models.
Stiffening of AC, especially during the early life of the
pavement, is usual and must be considered in theoretical
model for prediction of pavement deterioration. Most of the
stiffening occurs during the rst year and subsequently only
moderate changes are expected. For example, Figure 5
shows changes in air void content in relation to mix type,
initial air void content and age at a temperature of 258C. Air
void content decreases signicantly with time after
construction, depending on the initial air void content.
However, Ullidtz et al. (2008) reported the average
decrease in air voids over the rst 12 months, for the top
and bottom lifts fromcores, and was found to be 0.36 of the
original air voids. The effect of post-compaction or
densication (decrease in air voids due to loading) on the
shear characteristics of asphalt material should, therefore,
be taken into consideration when the tested specimens are
taken from areas not subjected to trafc.
In a trial to study the effect of degree of compaction on
the stiffness modulus of a frequently used mix, Karlstrand
and Neander (2006) quantied the increase in the stiffness
moduli of specimens with decreasing air void content as
shown in Figure 6. The stiffness moduli of laboratory-
compacted dense AC (ABb 16 160/220) specimens at
different compaction levels were measured using the
indirect tensile test. The compaction levels were adapted to
the decrease in air void content encountered in the eld
during the initial period, which is about 12 years
depending on trafc volume (Jacobson and Hornwall
1999). The relationship between stiffness modulus and air
void content (Figure 6) was used in correction of shear
moduli and phase angles of the specimens. Equation (7) was
developed based on the Karlstrand and Neander (2006)
work to calculate the increase in stiffness modulus in
correlation with decrease in air void content. Decrease in
phase angle, inrespect of decrease inair voidcontent, canbe
predicted by means of the relationship between stiffness
modulus and phase angle (in respect of change in stiffness
modulus), the so-called black diagram (Francken and
Vanelstraete 1997). Verication of the relationship by
testing further mixes and cores will be useful
DS DV4:374e
0:0445T
; 7
where DSis the change instiffness modulus (%); DV, change
in air void content (%); T, AC temperature (8C).
Figure 5. Relative importance of initial air void content in relation with time at a mean annual air temperature (NCHRP 2004).
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
Air void content (%)
S
t
i
f
f
n
e
s
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
M
P
a
)
10C
5C
20C
Figure 6. Relationships between stiffness moduli and air void
content at different temperatures for dense AC (Karlstrand and
Neander 2006).
International Journal of Pavement Engineering 523
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4. Testing programme
4.1 HVS testing
The VTI-accelerated loading facility, HVSNordic
(Wiman and Erlingsson 2008), is a linear full-scale mobile
road-testing machine (HVS Mark IV). The facility has a
heating/cooling system that uses air media. The HVS was
used to apply single-wheel loads of 60 ^ 0.5 kN using a
wide base tyre with a tyre pressure of 900 ^ 30 kPa. The
test wheel travels at a speed of 12 ^ 0.3 kmh
21
with bi-
directional loading. Lateral wander was accomplished with
a normal distribution of ^350 mmand a standard deviation
of 123 mm. The HVS test was performed inside a climate-
controlled chamber in three constant temperature phases.
The test started at 108C, which was then increased to 20 and
308C. The loadings were halted when the temperature was
changed. In this investigation, two test pavements were
constructed in a pit (5 m 15 m with a depth of 3 m). The
pavement section is 8 mlong and the speed is constant over
6 m of the section. Each test-pavement section in this study
was thus 3 m long as shown in Figure 7. The pavement
sections were constructed in the summer of 2004 and tested
between December 2004 and March 2005. For more
details, see Wiman (2010).
4.2 Structure and materials
The two exible pavement sections consisted of a standard
AC pavement section according to Swedish norms and an
enhanced AC pavement section. The enhanced structure
was expected to have higher resistance to rutting. The
exible structures consist of three AC layers: wearing,
binder and asphalt base layer constructed on an unbound
base layer and a layer of ne sand in the testing pit. The
two structures were practically identical except that the
binder layer of the enhanced AC section was polymer
modied. The pavement structures are shown in Figure 7
and asphalt mix properties are presented in Table 1.
Further details can be found in Wiman (2010) and
Oscarsson (2010). During the construction of the
pavement sections, displacement sensors were installed
in the structures (Wiman 2010). A total of 18 coil pairs of
deformation sensors were used to measure permanent
vertical deformation in the full-scale section. Three pairs
per each asphalt layer and structure were used. The
inductive coil sensors are called 1-mu, where 1-mu is an
acronym for strain (1) measuring unit, pronounced emu
(Janoo et al. 1999), and were manufactured at VTIs
laboratory. To measure vertical displacement at one point
in an asphalt layer, one coil is attached to the bottom and
one to the surface of the AC layer at the mid-point of the
wheel track, for sending and receiving signals. The
locations of 1-mu are illustrated in Figure 7. A loose coil
was used at the pavement surface to measure permanent
deformation in the wearing course.
4.3 Shear characteristics
Figure 8 shows the shear test device used in this work. A
cylindrical specimen is glued between two steel plates
with epoxy glue. One of the plates can be exposed to
sinusoidal or repetitive loading over a range of
frequencies. Briquette specimens of 150 mm in diameter
may be tested. The thickness of the specimen should be
,1/4 of the diameter to come close to pure shear state
(Lundberg 1956). It is thus possible to test thin specimens
at actual pavement layer thickness. Further information on
the shear test can be found in Said (2004).
Test specimens were cored from all AC layers after
accelerated loading with HVS outside the loaded area.
Cylindrical specimens were 150 mm in diameter with a
maximum thickness of 40 mm. Specimens were tested by
sinusoidal loaded shear test (oscillatory test). The
temperatures chosen for the test were 210, 0, 10, 25 and
408C with an accuracy of ^0.58C and the frequencies
were 0.05, 0.1, 1, 5, 10 and 20 Hz. The master curves were
obtained using the timetemperature superposition
Figure 7. The standard and enhanced AC structures with
locations of the strain measuring units (1-mu) along the pavement
sections.
Table 1. Properties of the asphalt mixes according to their recipes (Oscarsson 2010).
Mix type ABT ABb ABbm AG
Maximum aggregate size (mm) 11 22 22 22
Binder content (%) 6.5 5.0 5.0 4.5
Bitumen type Pen 70/100 Pen 70/100 Pen 70/100 modied Pen 160/220
S.F. Said et al. 524
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principle using Arrhenius approach (Francken and
Vanelstraete 1997). The test results obtained for all four
asphalt mixes, with at least two specimens per mix (in all
10 specimens tested at six frequencies and ve
temperatures), are presented in Figures 9 and 10. Figures
9 and 10 show the master curves of shear moduli tting to
a sigmoidal function and phase angles tting to a beta
function (Biligiri et al. 2010), respectively, for all mixes.
The variation of the shear modulus and the phase angle at
frequency ( f ) and temperature (T) is expressed as a
function of reduced variable (log a
T
f ). These results
indicate signicant differences between the layer mixes.
The master curve approach was used for calculation of the
shear modulus and phase angle of AC layers (wearing,
binder and base courses). Values of shear moduli and
phase angles of AC layer mixes were used to calculate the
ZSVof AC mixes in respect of HVS testing temperatures
for use in prediction of rut depth using Equation (1). The
estimated ZSVof the AC layers (described in Section 3) is
shown in Figure 11. The ZSV results indicate, as master
curves of shear moduli and phase angles, signicant
differences between the layer mixes.
On the basis of laboratory measurements and the
inuence of stiffening noted earlier (Section 3.1), Table 2
shows the assumed changes in air void content at the end
of the initial zone. The asphalt mixes ABT, ABb and
ABbm are dense mixes and a 1% decrease in their air void
content at 208C is taken to be reasonable. The base course
Figure 8. Shear box for AC.
10
100
1000
10000
7 7 2 3 5 3 1 1 3 5 7
7 5 3 1 1 3 5 7 7 5 3 1 1 3 5 7
S
h
e
a
r

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
M
P
a
)
10
100
1000
10000
S
h
e
a
r

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
M
P
a
)
10
100
1000
10000
S
h
e
a
r

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
M
P
a
)
10
100
1000
10000
S
h
e
a
r

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
M
P
a
)
AG 22
ABbm
ABb
ABT
X=log(aT*Fr) X=log(aT*f)
X=log(aT*Fr) X=log(aT*Fr)
Figure 9. Master curves for shear moduli of AC mixes represented by sigmoidal function with several samples per mix at T
ref
108C.
International Journal of Pavement Engineering 525
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.
2
5
5
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a
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mix AG is an open-graded mix with an air void content of
about 7% according to the recipe. A 3% decrease in air
void content is, therefore, expected at 208C. The decrease
in air void content at 108C is estimated to be 0.5% for all
four mixes. The long-term effect of decreases in air voids,
presented in Figure 5, is not implemented in this work due
to the absence of data, which should have an impact on rut
growth. The measured and the adjusted values of the shear
moduli and phase angles in respect of decrease in air void
content are presented in Table 3. (Mix properties at 308C
were not analysed due to excessive rutting during the HVS
testing.) These adjustments have resulted in the increase in
the shear moduli and in the decrease in the phase angles,
which have a signicant effect on the calculated viscosities
and by extension on the predicted rut depth.
According to Equation (1), Poissons ratio has a
signicant effect on the predicted rutting in the initial
zone. Sayegh (1967) reported that Poissons ratio of the
AC mixes varies approximately between 0.1 and 0.5
depending on the temperature and frequency of the test.
Nilsson (2001) has shown that Poissons ratio of the
asphalt material is highly dependent on the strain,
temperature and frequency of the test. Consequently, in
this work, the assumed Poissons ratios are 0.20 and 0.35
at 10 and 208C, respectively. However, further investi-
gation of change of Poissons ratio with load applications
would be an improvement to PEDRO.
In this work, the test sections were tested several
months after the AC layers were laid, and cored specimens
were tested by means of shear tests at about the same time.
It was, therefore, concluded that a great part of the early
ageing and/or hardening should have occurred before the
start of the HVS and laboratory testing, and the effects of
long-term ageing over a long period in-service (several
years) had not occurred in this work since the HVS testing
ABT
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
X=Log (a
T
, f)
P
h
a
s
e

a
n
g
l
e

(
d
e
g
r
e
e
)
AG
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
4 2 0 2 4 6 4 2 0 2 4 6
X=Log (a
T
, f)
X=Log (a
T
, f)
4 2 0 2 4 6 4 2 0 2 4 6
X=Log (a
T
, f)
ABbm
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
P
h
a
s
e

a
n
g
l
e

(
d
e
g
r
e
e
)
P
h
a
s
e

a
n
g
l
e

(
d
e
g
r
e
e
)
P
h
a
s
e

a
n
g
l
e

(
d
e
g
r
e
e
)
ABb
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Figure 10. Master curves of phase angles for AC mixes represented by beta function with several samples per mix at T
ref
108C.
1E06
1E+13
1E+12
1E+11
1E+10
V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y

(
P
a
s
)
1E+09
1E+08
1E+07
1E04 1E02 1E+00 1E+02 1E+04 1E+06
Angular frequency (rad/s)
ZSV (20C)
ABbm
ABb
AG
ABT
Figure 11. Viscosity versus angular frequency of AC mixes in
relation to temperature.
Table 2. Assumed changes in air void content due to post-
compaction in relation to temperatures.
Asphalt mix type
Temperature (8C) ABT ABb ABbm AG
10 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
20 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0
S.F. Said et al. 526
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was completed in about 3 months. Otherwise, the ageing
impact should be taken into consideration, i.e. in the eld.
5. Prediction of rutting in accelerated HVS test
5.1 Rut depth growth
The HVS testing started at the lowest temperature by
loading the pavement sections with about 150,000
passages at 108C, 300,000 passages at 208C and 100,000
passages at 308C. Shifting to a higher test temperature was
done until it was certain that the second zone (see Figure 2)
was reached. The measured permanent deformations in
relation to the number of load passages per each AC layer,
using 1-mu coils, are shown in Figures 1315. Many
variations are apparent in the measured deformations.
The permanent deformation in the wheel path is
calculated using Equation (1) for the AC layers at 10 and
208C. (Calculation of rutting at 308C was not done due to
excessive rutting, which is unknown if the mix is in the
initial or tertiary ow zone. The deformation at the surface
of the reference section was greater than 50 mm, and
originated from unbound and bound layers, and this might
result in uneven contact pressure.) For calculation of the
deformation at the initial zone, the end of the rst zone was
determined when the linear zone (secondary zone in
Figure 2) has started. In practice, this is usually
encountered after approximately 1 year of trafc
(Jacobson and Hornwall 1999, Wiman et al. 2009). The
permanent deformation of each layer is determined by
integrating the permanent deformation over the thickness
of the layer. The calculated permanent deformations at the
initial zone and the secondary zone were calibrated to the
rutting data at the HVS test.
K
c
a bT; 8
K
f
c dT; 9
where K
c
is calibration factor for the compressibility; K
f
,
calibration factor for the ow rutting; T, AC temperature
(8C); a, b, c and d, calibration constants.
Calibration constants were found based on curve tting
between measured and calculated deformations for each
zone. Figure 12 shows relationships between measured and
calculated deformations for secondary zone at 208C. It is
evident that the deformations for the binder layers are
underestimated because the calculations are in linear
viscoelastic range. However, the HVS test is in nonlinear
viscoelastic range. The base course layer (AG) shows
unexpectedly overestimated deformations that are com-
mented later. The calibration constants of initial (compres-
sibility) and secondary (ow) zones for wearing, binder
and asphalt base layers are shown in Table 4. The
permanent deformation was calculated for each AC layer
and compared with the measured permanent deformation
of each layer of the HVS testing. Figure 13 shows the
comparison between measured and calculated defor-
mations versus number of load applications in the wearing
course. Measurements from two of the 1-mu gauges out of
a total of six 1-mus were rejected due to inverse values and
large variations in the measurements. The average value of
the four 1-mus was used for calculation of rutting in the
wearing course for both structures because it is the same
mix ignoring the effect of multilayer structure. Calculated
and measured deformations of the binder courses are
illustrated in Figure 14. There is variation in the measured
deformations in both structures, but on average the
Table 3. Measured and adjusted shear characteristics of AC mixes.
Shear modulus (MPa) Phase angle (degrees)
Temperature (8C) ABT ABb ABbm AG ABT ABb ABbm AG
Measured shear characteristics at initial air void content
10 2644 2959 2777 2625 18.8 17.6 15.5 21.9
20 1457 1747 1739 1391 26.5 23.7 20.4 28.1
Adjusted shear characteristics at air void content after post-compaction
10 2734 3060 2872 2715 18.0 16.9 14.9 21.4
20 1612 1934 1924 1835 25.1 22.5 19.3 25.4
Figure 12. Relationships between measured and predicted
deformations for secondary zone at 208C.
International Journal of Pavement Engineering 527
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enhanced binder layer (ABbm) shows less deformation
than the standard binder layer (ABb). The comparisons
between calculated and measured deformations in relation
to the number of load applications at 10 and 208C appear to
be quite reasonable for both layers, despite using the same
calibration factors (K
c
and K
f
) for both binder layers. On
average, the ABb layer shows 50%larger rut depth than the
ABbm layer. This should be the inuence of an increased
viscosity of the ABbmmix by a factor of 1.5 compared with
the viscosity of the ABb mix. The ZSV determined from
the shear properties tested in the laboratory can thus be
useful in the evaluation of a mix property against
permanent deformation. Further investigation on relation-
ship between the ZSVand rut formation in the eld would
be valuable for pavement and mix design.
Calculated and measured deformations of the base
course layer are illustrated in Figure 15. Unfortunately,
four out of a total of six 1-mu gauges were non-functional.
Nevertheless, the two 1-mu measurements are taken to be
representative of deformation in both sections, because it
is the same mix. The reason for the relatively small c
constant, less than 1 unit (Table 4), for asphalt base layer in
comparison with the other two layers is not known.
However, it is worth noting that measured temperatures
during the HVS test are missing due to a computer crash
and there was a signicant fall in ambient air temperature
at the time of testing (Figure 16). The operator reported
several adjustments of temperatures in order to keep the
temperature of the binder layer at the test temperature
(^18C). It can, therefore, be concluded that the
temperatures of the base course might have been lower
than the test temperatures due to shortcoming of the
temperature chamber (isolated only from the surface of the
ground). This could have resulted in lower temperature
(,208C) of the base course layer. It is worth mentioning
that when the model is implemented in the eld, the
temperature gradient in the pavement must be treated with
caution.
The total permanent deformation in the AC layers is
the sum of the permanent deformations of the asphalt
layers versus the number of load applications. Figure 17
illustrates the rut depth accumulations in the AC layers for
both sections. It is worth to note in Figure 17 that the
measured rut rate of the two structures at about 350,000
repetitions clearly decreases. This might be caused by a
decrease in temperature as noted earlier. Furthermore, one
can observe that the model predictions are linear in both
the initial and the secondary zones. Using a variable
Poissons ratio instead of a constant value in the prediction
of rutting in the initial zone will result in convexity
Table 4. Calibration constants for pavement layers.
Calibration
factor Constants Wearing Binder
Asphalt
base
K
c
a 2.63 49.05 1.62
b 20.076 22.132 20.025
K
f
c 24.50 7.93 0.76
d 21.182 20.318 20.024
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
No. of load applications 10
3
D
e
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
EMU105 ABT
EMU107 ABT
EMU108 ABT
EMU110 ABT
Predicted
Figure 13. Measured and calculated rut depth development for
wearing course, ABT 12 70/100 mix at 10, 20 and 308C.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
No. of load applications 10
3
D
e
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
EMU111 ABbm EMU117 ABb
EMU113 ABbm EMU119 ABb
EMU115 ABbm EMU121 ABb
Predicted ABbm Predicted ABb
Figure 14. Measured and calculated rut depth development for
binder courses, ABb 22 70/100 and ABb PMB mixes at 10, 20
and 308C.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
No. of load applications 10
3
D
e
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
EMU112 AG
EMU114 AG
Predicted at 10/20C
Figure 15. Measured and calculated rut depth development for
base course mix, AG16 70/100 mix at different temperatures.
S.F. Said et al. 528
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upwards that is comparable with the measured rutting. In
the secondary zone, the development of deformation at a
decaying rate would have been found to be more
comparable with the measured rutting if the effect of
hardening/ageing was included despite the short testing
period. Constant Poissons ratio was used for simplicity
and the effect of hardening/ageing was not considered
because the test lasted only a few months. It is concluded
that the model gives reasonable rut depth values and is
sensitive to mix characteristics and temperature with
regard to resistance to rutting. However, further research
considering the inuence of a variable Poissons ratio, and
ageing would be valuable.
5.2 Inuence of lateral wander
Under a moving wheel load, the asphalt material moves
vertically and horizontally; when calculating rutting under
wheel load, it is, therefore, crucial to include the inuence
of lateral wandering of the trafc. Figure 18 shows the
lateral distribution of wheel load. The lateral distribution
of trafc has a signicant effect on rut and air void
development in bituminous layers. In this work, the lateral
distribution results in about 38% less rut depth for both
structures compared with that if all the wheel passages
loaded only the rut centre based on calculation using the
PEDRO approach. Using PEDRO algorithms, Figure 19
illustrates predicted permanent deformations in initial and
secondary zones with total deformation of each AC layer
during the 208C testing phase. It is clear from Figure 19
that deformation in the rst zone is caused by densication
(no upheaval). Indications of the upheavals in the second
zone are evident in all the layers with the largest upheaval
in the base course layer (AG) in this work. The binder
layer of the reference section (ABb) shows signicantly
larger rut depth and upheaval than the enhanced binder
layer (ABbm). The enhanced asphalt mix layer (ABbm)
shows about 50% less rutting than the conventional asphalt
mix layer (ABb). This is a result of higher viscosity of the
enhanced asphalt mix by a factor 1.5 as reported earlier.
Figure 20 illustrates the normalised measured surface
rutting proles and the calculated deformations in AClayers
of the two structures at the end of the HVS testing at 208C
(include rutting at 10 and 208C). The calculated rutting
proles consist only of deformations in the AC layers.
However, the measured proles consist of deformations in
bound and unbound layers. There are upheavals in the
Figure 16. Ambient air temperatures when testing at 208C (Temperature 2009).
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Number of load applications 10
3
P
e
r
m
a
n
e
n
t

d
e
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
Measured enhanced structure
Measured standard structure
Predicted enhanced structure
Predicted standard structure
Figure 17. Measured and calculated rut depth development in
AC layers at 10, 20 and 308C at HVS test.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

f
r
q
u
e
n
c
y

(
%
)
Laternal position (mm)
Figure 18. Lateral distribution of wheel load during HVS
testing.
International Journal of Pavement Engineering 529
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calculated rutting proles of about 8% of the maximum
rutting of the AC layers for both structures. The measured
proles show clear upheavals in the standard structure of
about 19%of the maximumrutting, but almost no upheavals
of the measured prole for the enhanced structure. The
rutting width between the upheavals peaks in the calculated
proles is about 90cm, which is somewhat narrower than
the measured rutting proles. A broader measured rutting
prole might be an effect of the deformation in the unbound
layers of the structures. According to this study, the
measured deformation in the AC layers (Figure 17) is about
half of the measured surface rutting (Figure 20) for both
structures.
6. Conclusions
This work utilises a linear viscoelastic model for
prediction of permanent vertical strain in AC layers of
pavement subjected to a moving load. The model takes
into consideration both the initial deformation which is
primarily related to densication and the subsequent
deformation that has an almost constant growth rate. The
newly developed approach, PEDRO, which is based on the
linear viscoelastic model, takes into consideration the
change in material characteristics due to densication
(post-compaction) of AC layers as a function of repeated
trafc loading. The analytically based PEDRO approach is
veried by a full-scale accelerated loading test (HVS) at
different temperatures. Flow rutting (permanent defor-
mation) in each AC layer was measured by 1-mu coils and
predicted using the PEDRO procedure.
As expected, the exible pavement with a modied AC
layer showed less rut development than the reference
section in the HVS testing.
The exible structures presented in this work have
shown encouraging agreement between predicted and
measured ow rutting based on loading variables from
HVS testing and laboratory measurements on cores with
regard to temperature variation. The calculated defor-
mation developments versus the measured deformations as
regard number of load repetitions in each AC layers are
presented. The comparisons were shown to be reasonable.
It was demonstrated how sensitive the PEDRO
approach is to mix characteristics and temperature as
well as the importance of the accuracy of the input data for
the model for prediction of rutting.
The lateral wandering of trafc results in signicantly
less rut depth compared with that if the wheel passages
loaded only the rut centre, indicating the importance of the
lateral wandering in prediction of rutting. In addition, the
PEDRO approach is capable of calculating rutting proles
including the upheaval, which is important for estimating
rut depth.
Hardening of asphalt material due to ageing was not
taken into consideration in this evaluation, because the test
was completed in a relatively short time. Hardening as a
function of climate must be incorporated in the approach
for eld evaluation.
1
0
1
2
1
0
1
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
Transversal distance from rut centre (m)
P
e
r
m
a
n
e
n
t

d
e
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
P
e
r
m
a
n
e
n
t

d
e
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
ABT
Zone 1
Zone 2
Total
Transversal distance from rut centre (m)
ABb
Zone 1
Zone 2
Total
1
0
1
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
Transversal distance from rut centre (m)
P
e
r
m
a
n
e
n
t

d
e
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
ABbm
Zone 1
Zone 2
Total
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
Transversal distance from rut centre (m)
P
e
r
m
a
n
e
n
t

d
e
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
AG
Zone 1
Zone 2
Total
Figure 19. Calculated transversal deformations caused by
lateral wander of wheel load at 208C (about 300,000 passes).
S.F. Said et al. 530
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The ZSV is a crucial factor in predicting the permanent
deformation of pavement and the only parameter
describing the inuence of a mix on rut formation
according to the PEDRO model. Further investigation on
determination of ZSV would be an improvement of rut
prediction.
Further investigations regarding increase in stiffness,
and consequently the ZSV of AC layers related to repeated
trafc loading, which results in decrease in air void content
in AC layers, would be helpful for this approach.
In this work, a number of transfer functions (regression
relationships) are used in the prediction model which have
an inuence on the variability of predicted rutting. It is
recommended that this work would be extended with a
sensitivity analysis of variables for future model
improvement.
Validation of this approach under eld conditions
would be valuable for evaluation of the conclusions from
this study. The effect of variation in trafc loading in
correlation to variation in climate and long-term ageing of
asphalt materials should then be included.
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Predicted AC deformation - enhanced structure Predicted AC deformation - standard structure
Measured surface profile - enhanced structure Measured surface profile - standard structure
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Transversal distance from rut centre (m)
Figure 20. Measured surface rutting proles and predicted deformations in AC layers of the standard and enhanced structures at the end
of the 208C period (at 465,000 passes).
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