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Nehru Institute of Technology

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
APPLIED !D"A#LI$% AND PNE#MATI$%
!ear& III %emester '
UNIT I FLUID POWER SYSTEMS AND FUNDAMENTALS
UNIT II HYDRAULIC SYSTEM & COMPONENTS
UNIT III DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
UNIT IV PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
UNIT V DESIGN OF PNEUMATIC CIRCUITS
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UNIT I FLUID POWER SYSTEMS AND FUNDAMENTALS
What is fluid !"#$%
)lui* po+er is energy transmitte* an* controlle* ,y means of a pressur i-e* flui*.
either li/ui* or gas0 The term flui* po+er applies to ,oth hy*raulics an* pneumatics0
y*raulics uses pressuri-e* li/ui*. for e1ample. oil or +ater2 pneumatics uses
compresse* air or other neutral gases0 )lui* po+er can ,e effecti3ely com,ine* +ith
other technologies through the use of sensors. trans*ucers an* microprocessors0
H!" fluid !"#$ "!$&s
Pascal4s La+ e1presses the central concept of flui* po+er& 5Pressure e1erte* ,y
a confine* flui* acts un*iminishe* e/ually in all *irections05
An input force of 16 poun*s 78809 N: on a 1;s/uare;inch 7<085 cm
(
: piston *e3elops a pressure of
16 poun*s per s/uare inch 7psi: 7<90=5 >N?m
(
or <90=5 @Pa: throughout the container0 This
pressure +ill allo+ a 16;s/uare;inch piston to support a 166;poun* 788809 N: +eight0 The
forces
are proportional to the piston areas0
Th# ad'a(ta)#s !f fluid !"#$
)lui* po+er systems pro3i*e many ,enefits to users inclu*ing&
Multili*ati!( a(d 'a$iati!( !f f!$*#+Linear or rotary force can ,e multiplie* from
a
fraction of an ounce to se3eral hun*re* tons of output0
Eas,- a**u$at# *!(t$!l+!ou can start. stop. accelerate. *ecelerate. re3erse or position
large forces +ith great accuracy0 Analog 7infinitely 3aria,le: an* *igital 7on?off:
control are possi,le0 Instantly re3ersi,le motion;+ithin less than half a re3olution;can
,e achie3e*0
Multi+fu(*ti!( *!(t$!l+A single hy*raulic pump or air compressor can pro3i*e po+er
an* control for numerous machines or machine functions +hen com,ine* +ith
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flui* po+er manifol*s an* 3al3es0
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Hi)h h!$s#!"#$- l!" "#i)ht $ati!+Pneumatic components are compact an*
light+eight0 !ou can hol* a fi3e horsepo+er hy*raulic motor in the palm of your
han*0
L!" s##d t!$.u#+#nli>e electric motors. air or hy*raulic motors can pro*uce large
amounts of tor/ue 7t+isting force: +hile operating at lo+ spee*s0 %ome hy*raulic an*
air
motors can e3en maintain tor/ue at -ero spee* +ithout o3erheating0
C!(sta(t f!$*# !$ t!$.u#+This is a uni/ue flui* po+er attri,ute0
Saf#t, i( ha/a$d!us #('i$!(0#(ts+)lui* po+er can ,e use* in mines. chemical
plants. near e1plosi3es an* in paint applications ,ecause it is inherently spar>;free an*
can tolerate high temperatures0
Esta1lish#d s t a (d a $ d s a(d #()i(##$i()+The flui* po+er in*ustry has esta,lishe* *esign
an* performance stan*ar*s for hy*raulic an* pneumatic pro*ucts through N)PA.
the National )lui* Po+er Association an* I%O. the International Organi-ation for
%tan*ar*i-ation0
Fluid !"#$ ali*ati!(s
M!1il#2 ere flui* po+er is use* to transport. e1ca3ate an* lift materials as +ell as
control or po+er mo,ile e/uipment0 En* use in*ustries inclu*e construction.
agriculture. marine an* the military0 Applications inclu*e ,ac>hoes. gra*ers. tractors.
truc> ,ra>es an* suspensions. sprea*ers an* high+ay maintenance 3ehicles0
I(dust$ial2 ere flui* po+er is use* to pro3i*e po+er transmission an* motion
control for the machines of in*ustry0 En* use in*ustries range from plastics +or>ing
to paper pro*uction0 Applications inclu*e metal+or>ing e/uipment. controllers.
automate* manipulators. material han*ling an* assem,ly e/uipment0
A#$!sa*#2 )lui* po+er is use* for ,oth commercial an* military aircraft. spacecraft
an* relate* support e/uipment0 Applications inclu*e lan*ing gear. ,ra>es. flight
controls. motor controls an* cargo loa*ing e/uipment0
Fluid !"#$ $!du*ts
) lu i* p o + e r p ro *u c t s are sol* as in*i3i*ual components or as systems for the original
e/uipment manufacturing. maintenance. repair an* replacement mar>ets0
A typical flui* po+er system inclu*es the follo+ing components&
y*raulic pump or air compressor. +hich con3erts mechanical po+er to flui* po+er0
$ylin*er or motor. +hich con3erts flui* po+er to linear or rotary mechanical po+er0
'al3es. +hich control the *irection. pressure an* rate of flo+0
)ilters. regulators an* lu,ricators. +hich con*ition the flui*0
Manifol*s. hose. tu,e. fittings. couplings. etc0. +hich con*uct the flui*
,et+een components0
%ealing *e3ices. +hich help contain the flui*0
Accumulators an* reser3oirs. +hich store the flui*0
Instruments such as pressure s+itches. gauges. flo+ meters. sensors an*
trans*ucers. +hich are use* to help monitor the performance of a flui* po+er
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system0
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FLUID POWER SYM3OLS4
Li(#s
;continuous line ; flo+ line
;*ashe* line ; pilot. *rain
;en3elope ; long an* short *ashes aroun* t+o or more
component sym,ols0
Ci$*ula$
S.ua$#
Dia0!(d
Mis*#lla(#!us S,01!ls
T$ia()l#
;large circle ; pump. motor
;small circle ; Measuring *e3ices
;semi;circle ; rotary actuator
;one s/uare ; pressure control function
;t+o or three a*Bacent s/uares ; *irectional control
;*iamon* ; )lui* con*itioner 7filter. separator. lu,ricator.
heat e1changer:
;%pring
;)lo+ "estriction
;soli* ; Direction of y*raulic )lui* )lo+
3ASICS OF HYDRAULICS
5Chat is hy*raulics D5
;open ; Direction of Pnematic flo+
y*raulics is the transmission an* control of forces an* motions through the me*ium of
flui*s0 %hort an* simple0
y*raulic systems an* e/uipment ha3e +i*e;sprea* application throughout in*ustry0
)or e1ample&
; machine tool manufacturing
; press manufacturing
; plant construction
; 3ehicle manufacturing
; aircraft manufacturing
; ship,uil*ing
; inBection mol*ing machines
y*raulic to Electrical Analogy
y*raulics an* electrics are analogous. ,ecause they ,oth *eal +ith flo+. pressure an* loa*0
The components in each type of circuit perform similar functions an* therefore can ,e relate*.
a fe+ e1amples are liste* ,elo+&
'arious forms of energy are con3erte* to accomplish mechanical mo3ement in the inBection
mol*ing machine0 Electrical energy is con3erte* to mechanical energy. +hich in turn
is con3erte* to hy*raulic energy to operate an* control the mo3ing components of the
machine0 The hy*raulic energy is con3erte* to mechanical energy to achie3e the final *esire*
result. +hich may ,e 5mol* clamping pressure5 or 5material inBection50 The figure a,o3e
summari-es the energy con3ersions for an inBection mol*ing machine0 $lic> on the thum,nail
for a larger 3ie+0
Pas*al5s La"
Pascal4s La+ states that a pressure acting on a confine* flui* is transmitte* e/ually an*
un*iminishe* in all *irections0 In the figure ,elo+. a 16 poun* force acting on a 1 s/uare
inch area generates a pressure of 16 poun*s per s/uare inch 7psi: throughout the container
acting e/ually on all surfaces0
This principle is important to remem,er. that the pressure in any portion of an hy*raulic system
is e/ual throughout that system0 This statement is 3ali* +ith the omission of the force of
gra3ity. +hich +oul* ha3e to ,e a**e*. accor*ing to the flui* le3el0 Due to the pressures that
hy*raulic systems operate at. this smaller
amount nee* not ,e consi*ere* e0g0 a A( foot hea* of +ater appro1imately e/uals 1805 psi0 7a
16 meter hea* of +ater appro1imately e/uals 1 ,ar0:
Force Transmission in Hydraulics
One of the main advantages on the use of hydraulic to power our molding machinery is
the efficient transmission of forces.
If force F1 i s exerted on surface A1, pressure p is created. (p = 1!.
A1
"ince pressure affects all parts of the system e#ually, therefore pressure p is applied to
surface area A$.
Force F$ will e#ual pressure p x surface area A$ (F$ = p x A$!, and transposing that formula
for p E F$
A$.
"ince p = 1 therefore F$ = 1
A1 A$ A1.
In the diagram %elow, the following relationships hold& hl
"$
E A$
A1
E F$
F1
'here " E piston stro(e
A= piston area
F = force
F1 F2
4
51
A6
If A1 = 1 s#uare inch and A$ = 1) s#uare inches, then a force of F1 = 1) pounds can support
a force of F$ E 1)) pounds.
*owever, the stro(es of the pistons are inversely proportional to their surface areas .
If the smaller piston were moved in the direction of "1 %y 1) inches, then the larger piston will
only move 1 inch in the direction of "$.
A$#a a(d F!$*#
As the clamp piston is mo3e* for+ar* *uring the clamp close function. the pressure
*e3elope* acts upon the clamping piston +hich has a certain si-e or area0
A ,asic formula in hy*raulics states that pressure multiplie* ,y area to +hich that pressure
is applie* e/uals force0 i0e0 pressure 1 area E force
p 1 A E )
The formula can ,e manipulate* to calculate any one of the three 3aria,les p. A or ). if any
of the other t+o 3aria,les are >no+n0
As follo+s&
p 1 A E )
) ? p E A
) ? A E p
P$#ssu$#
y*raulic pressure is generate* +hen a flo+ing flui* meets resistance +hich is generally
relate* to the loa* that is ,eing mo3e*0
A force is applie* 3ia the le3er to pro*uce system pressure 7p E )?A or ) E p 1 A:0
If more force is applie*. the system pressure rises until the loa* mo3es. if the loa* remains
constant the pressure +ill increase no further0 The loa* can therefore ,e mo3e* if the
necessary pressure is generate*0 The spee* at +hich the loa* mo3es +ill ,e *epen*ent upon
the 3olume of flui* +hich is fe* to the loa* cylin*er0 )or e1ample. as the mol* is opening or
closing. the pressure generate* in the system represents the resistance of the toggle le3er to
mo3ement0 A**ing to that resistance +oul* ,e the +eight 7i0e0 mass: of the mol* an* toggle
le3er an* also the friction ,et+een the toggle le3er ,ushings an* the tie,ars0 Chen the t+o
mol* hal3e s touch an* the toggle ,egins to straighten out. the increasing pressure
represents that +hich is re/uire* to stretch the tie,ars in the generation of a particular clamp
force0 %imilarly +hen inBecting material into the mol* the pressure generate* in the inBection
system represents the resistance of the inBection ram to mo3ement0 A**ing to that resistance
+oul* ,e the mass of the inBection ram an* scre+. the friction ,et+een all mo3ing
components an* the resistance of the plastic melt as it is force* /uic>ly into the mol* ca3ity0
P$#ssu$# C!(t$!l
In or*er to safeguar* the system. pressure relief 3al3es are installe*0 The 3al3es ser3e to limit
the amount of pressure that can *e3elop in the hy*raulic system since the 3arious hy*raulic
components are e1pensi3e an* they are su,Bect to pressure limitations ,efore failure occurs0
One characteristic of flui* flo+ that is important to note here is that flo+ occurs al+ays in the
path of least resistance0 Pressure +oul* continue to rise in the circuit consistent +ith the loa*
,eing mo3e*0 The pressure relief 3al3e is al+ays set to allo+ flo+ to tra3el through the relief
3al3e
+ell ,efore pressure rises a,o3e safe le3els an* causes *amage to the system an* its
components0 In other +or*s. the path of least resistance is employe* here to safeguar* the
system after the other mo3ements ha3e ta>en place0
P$#ssu$# O'#$$id#
An e1tremely important concept to un*erstan* a,out pressure relief 3al3es is their pressure
o3erri*e characteristics0 Pressure o3erri*e is the *ifference ,et+een the pressure at +hich the
relief 3al3e Bust starts to crac> open an* the pressure at the full open position0 )or *irect
acting pressure relief 3al3es this pressure *ifferential can ,e as high as A6F an* proportional
pressure relief 3al3es range from
16F ; (6F0
P$#ssu$# I(t#(sifi*ati!(
Another important concept to >eep in min* is that of pressure intensification0 This la+
of hy*raulics is often forgotten +hen trou,leshooting hy*raulic circuits0
)or e1ample. if t+o pistons of *ifferent si-e are connecte* ,y a ro*. the pressure e1isting on the
smaller area +ill al+ays ,e greater0 This principle also applies to the cap si*e an* the ro* si*e
of a normal *ou,le acting piston0
If P1 E 1.666 psi an* A1 E 16 s/uare inches. then )1 E 16.666 poun*s of force0
If )1 E 16.666 poun*s of force an* if A( E 5 s/uare inches. then P( E (.666
psi0
S##d i( H,d$auli*s
The spee* of a hy*raulic component can ,e calculate* ,ase* on the formula ,elo+&
)or e1ample. gi3en the con*itions ,elo+ the inBection piston. therefore the scre+. +ill mo3e at
A095 inches per secon*0 o+e3er. this spee* +ill not ,e possi,le if the pressure relief
3al3e opens0
H,d$!d,(a0i*s
As +ell as un*erstan*ing the concept of spee* in hy*raulics. it is also important to ha3e some
insight into flo+ characteristics0 )or e1ample. the *ra+ing ,elo+ sho+s that +hen oil is
flo+ing through *ifferent *iameter pipes an e/ual 3olume flo+s in an e/ual unit of time0 If that
is true an* if the sha*e* /uantity G1 e/uals the sha*e* /uantity G(. then 3elocity '( must ,e
greater than 3elocity '10
As the *iameter of the pipe *ecreases. the flo+ rate +ill increase0 %pecifically. if the pipe
*iameter *ecreases ,y one half in the *irection of oil flo+. the cross sectional area +ill
*ecrease ,y four times. an* 3isa 3ersa0 Oil flo+ 3elocity through *ifferent pipe si-es can ,e
calculate* using the formula&
The same gallons per minute +ill ha3e to tra3el 8 times faster through the smaller pipe0
Another important concept in hy*ro*ynamics is ho+ flui*s flo+ ,ase* on certain critical
flo+
spee*s or as the result of meeting restrictions to flo+ such as ,en*s in the pipe or
system components0
One goal in the initial *esign of hy*raulic po+er transmission systems is to encourage
laminar flo+ as much as possi,le since an increase in tur,ulence +ill increase flo+ resistance
an* hy*raulic losses as +ell0 The *iagram ,elo+ illustrates the concept of tur,ulent flo+0
Although tur,ulent flo+ is +asteful in most hy*raulic applications. it is *esira,le to ha3e
tur,ulence in the oil flo+ as it tra3els through the heat e1changer for cooling purposes0 If
tur,ulence e1ists as the oil flo+s through the heat e1changer. more of the oil molecules
come into contact +ith the heat e1changer cooling tu,es an* more efficient cooling is the
result0
Di$#*ti!(al C!(t$!l
One of the main a*3antages of hy*raulic ,ase* systems is that the oil flo+ *irection is easily
controlle*0 The *ra+ing ,elo+ sho+s a piston ,eing e1ten*e*. hel* stationary an* then
retracte*. simply ,y changing the position of a *irectional 3al3e0 E3en though the *ra+ing is
simple in nature. it still *emonstrates the principle in3ol3e* in *irectional control0 In a**ition to
simple *irectional control 3al3es. +e also employ proportional *irectional control 3al3es on
some machines to control the clamp opening an* closing function0
R#,(!ld7s (u01#$
The "eynol*s Num,er is a non *imensional parameter *efine* ,y the ratio of
*ynamic pressure 7H u
(
: an* shearing stress 7I u ? L: an* can ,e e1presse* as
"e E 7H u
(
: ? 7I u ? L:
E H u L ? I
E u L ? J 71:
+here
"e E "eynol*s Num,er 7non;*imensional:
H E * e n s it y 7>g?m
A
. l,
m
?ft
A
:
u E 3elocity 7m?s. ft?s:
I E * yn a m ic 3 is c o s it y 7Ns?m
(
. l,
m
?s ft:
L E characteristic length 7m. ft:
J E >ine mat ic 3is co s it y 7m
(
?s. ft
(
?s:
Da$*,7s E.uati!(
The frictional hea* loss can ,e calculate* using a mathematical relationship that is
>no+n as DarcyKs e/uation for hea* loss0 The e/uation ta>es t+o *istinct forms0 The first form
of DarcyKs e/uation *etermines the losses in the system associate* +ith the length of the pipe0
7A;18:

f
E f L 3
(
D ( g
+here& f E friction factor 7unitless:
L E length of pipe 7ft:
D E *iameter of pipe 7ft:
3 E flui* 3elocity 7ft?sec:
g E gra3itational acceleration 7ft?sec
(
:
E1ample& DarcyKs ea* Loss E/uation A pipe 166 feet long an* (6 inches in *iameter contains
+ater at (66L) flo+ing at a mass flo+ rate of 766 l,m?sec0 The +ater has a *ensity of <6
l,m?ft
A
an* a 3iscosity of 10=79 1 16
;7
l,f;sec?ft
(
0 The relati3e roughness of the pipe is
60666690 $alculate the hea* loss for the pipe0
UNIT II HYDRAULIC SYSTEM & COMPONENTS
Pu0 t,#s
There are essentially three *ifferent types of positi3e *isplacement pump use* in
hy*raulic systems0
Gear pumps
The simplest an* most ro,ust positi3e *isplacement pump. ha3ing Bust t+o mo3ing parts.
is the gear pump0 Its parts are non;reciprocating. mo3e at constant spee* an* e1perience a
uniform force0 Internal construction. sho+n in )igure (07. consists of Bust t+o close meshing
gear +heels +hich rotate as sho+n0 The *irection of rotation of the gears shoul* ,e carefully
note*2 it is the opposite of that intuiti3ely e1pecte* ,y most people0
As the teeth come out of mesh at the centre. a partial 3acuum is forme* +hich *ra+s flui*
into the inlet cham,er0 )lui* is trappe* ,et+een the outer teeth an* the pump housing. causing
a continual transfer of flui* from inlet cham,er to outlet cham,er +here it is *ischarge* to
the system0
Pump *isplacement is
*etermine* ,y& 3olume of flui*
,et+een each pair of teeth2 num,er
of teeth2 an* spee* of rotation0
Note the pump merely *eli3ers a
fi1e* 3olume of flui* from inlet
port to outlet port for each
rotation2 outlet port pressure is
*etermine* solely ,y *esign of the
rest of the system0
Performance of any pump is
limite* ,y lea>age an* the a,ility
of the pump to +ithstan* the
pressure *ifferential ,et+een inlet
an* outlet ports0 The gear pump
o,3iously re/uires closely meshing gears. minimum clearance ,et+een teeth an* housing.
an* also ,et+een the gear face an* si*e plates0 Often the si*e plates of a pump are *esigne* as
*eli,erately replacea,le +ear plates0 Cear in a gear pump is primarily cause* ,y *irt particles
in the hy*raulic flui*. so cleanliness an* filtration are particularly important0
The pressure *ifferential causes large si*e loa*s to ,e applie* to the gear shafts at 85M to
the centre line as sho+n0 Typically. gear pumps are use* at pressures up to a,out 156 ,ar an*
capacities of aroun* 156 gpm 7<751 min
;1
:0 'olumetric efficiency of gear pumps at =6F is
lo+est of the three pump types0
There are some 3ariations of the ,asic gear pump0 In )igure (09. gears ha3e ,een
replace* ,y lo,es gi3ing a pump calle*. not surprisingly
The )igure is another 3ariation calle* the
intemal gear pump. +here an e1temal *ri3en
gear +heel is connecte* to a smaller internal
gear. +ith flui* separation as gears *isengage
,eing performe* ,y a crescent;shape*
moul*ing0 !et another 3ariation on the
theme is the gerotor pump of )igure (0=,.
+here the crescent moul*ing is *ispense*
+ith ,y using an internal gear +ith one less
tooth than the outer gear +heel0 Internal gear
pumps operate at lo+er capacities an*
pressures 7typically 76 ,ar: than other pump
types0
Vane pumps
The maBor source of lea>age in a gear pump arises from the small gaps ,et+een teeth.
an* also ,et+een teeth an* pump housing0 The 3ane pump re*uces this lea>age ,y using spring
7or hy*raulic: loa*e* 3anes slotte* into a *ri3en rotor. as illustrate* in the t+o e1amples of
)igure
(0160 In the pump sho+n in )igure (016a. the rotor is offset +ithin the housing. an* the
3anes constraine* ,y a cam ring as they cross inlet an* outlet ports0 Necause the 3ane tips
are hel* against the housing there is little lea>age an* the 3anes compensate to a large *egree
for +ear at 3ane tips or in the housing itself0 There is still. ho+e3er. lea>age ,et+een rotor
faces an* ,o*y si*es0 Pump capacity is *etermine* ,y 3ane thro+. 3ane cross sectional
area an* spee* of
rotation0
The *ifference in pressure ,et+een
outlet an* inlet ports cr eates a se3er e lo
a* o n t he 3anes an* a large si*e lo a* o n
the rotor shaft +hich can lea* to ,earing
failure0 The pump in )igure (016a is
conse/uently >no+n as an un,alance* 3ane
pump0 )igure
(016, sho+s a ,alance* 3ane pump0 This
features an elliptical cam ring together +ith
t+o inlet an* t+o outlet ports0 Pressure
loa*ing still occurs in the 3anes ,ut the t+o
i*entical pump hal3es create e/ual ,ut
opposite forces on the rotor. lea*ing to -ero net force in the shaft an* ,earings0 Nalance*
3ane pumps ha3e much impro3e* ser3ice li3es o3er simpler un,alance* 3ane pumps0
$apacity an* pressure ratings of a 3ane pump are generally lo+er than gear pumps.
,ut re*uce* lea>age gi3es an impro3e* 3olumetric efficiency of aroun* =5F0
In an i*eal +orl*. the capacity of a pump shoul* ,e matche* e1actly to loa*
re/uirements0 E1pression (0( sho+e* that input po+er is proportional to system pressure an*
3olumetric flo+ rate0 A pump +ith too large a capacity +astes energy 7lea*ing to a rise in
flui* temperature: as e1cess flui* passes through the pressure relief 3al3e0
Pumps are generally sol* +ith certain fi1e* capacities an* the user has to choose the ne1t
largest si-e0 )igure (011 sho+s a 3ane pump +ith a*Busta,le capacity. set ,y the positional
relationship ,et+een rotor an* inner casing. +ith the inner casing position set ,y an e1ternal
scre+0
Piston pumps
A piston pump is superficially similar to a motor car engine. an* a simple single cylin*er
arrangement +as sho+n earlier in )igure (0(,0 %uch a simple pump. ho+e3er. *eli3ering a
single pulse of flui* per re3olution. generates unaccepta,ly large pressure pulses into the
system0
Practical piston pumps therefore employ multiple cylin*er an* pistons to smooth out flui*
*eli3ery. an* much ingenuity goes into *esigning mult icylin*er pumps +hich are
surprisingly compact0
)igure (01( sho+s one form of ra*ial piston pump0 The pump consists of se3eral
hollo+ pistons insi*e a stationary cylin*er ,loc>0 Each piston has spring;loa*e* inlet an* outlet
3al3es0 As the inner cam rotates. flui* is transferre* relati3ely smoothly from inlet port to the
outlet port0
Actuators
A hy*raulic or pneumatic system is generally concerne* +ith mo3ing. gripping or
applying
force to an o,Bect0 De3ices +hich actually achie3e this o,Becti3e are calle* actuators. an* can
,e split into three ,asic types0
Linear actuators. as the name implies. are use* to mo3e an o,Bect or apply a force in
a straight line0 "otary actuators are the hy*raulic an* pneumatic e/ui3alent of an electric
motor0 This chapter *iscusses linear an* rotary actuators0
The thir* type of actuator is use* to operate flo+ control 3al3es for process control of
gases. li/ui*s or steam0 These actuators are generally pneumatically operate* an* are
*iscusse* +ith process control pneumatics in $hapter 70
Li(#a$ a*tuat!$s
The ,asic linear actuator is the cylin*er. or ram. sho+n in schematic form in )igure 5010
Practical constructional *etails are *iscusse* later0 The cylin*er in )igure 501 consists of
a piston. ra*ius ". mo3ing in a ,ore0 The piston is
connecte* to a ro* of ra*ius r +hich *ri3es the loa*0
O,3iously if pressure is applie* to port O 7+ith port !
3enting: the piston e1ten*s0 %imilarly. if pressure
is applie* to port ! 7+ith port P 3enting:. the piston
retracts0
The force applie* ,y a piston *epen*s on ,oth the
area an* the applie* pressure0 )or the e1ten* stro>e. area A is
gi3en ,y 5A4"
(
0 )or a pressure P applie* to port O. the
e1ten* force a3aila,le is&
)c; P 7r "
e
0 7501: Fig A mass supported by a
cylinder
The units of e1pression 501 *epen* on the system ,eing use*0 If %I units are use*. the
force is in ne+tons0
E1pression 501 gi3es the ma1imum achie3a,le force o,taine* +ith the cylin*er in a
stalle* con*ition0 One e1ample of this occurs +here an o,Bect is to ,e grippe* or shape*0
In )igure 50( an o,Bect of mass M is lifte* at constant spee*0 Necause the o,Bect is not
accelerating. the up+ar* force is e/ual to Mg ne+tons 7in %I units: +hich from e1pression
501 gi3es the pressure in the cylin*er0 This is lo+er than the ma1imum system pressure2 the
pressure *rop occurring across flo+ control 3al3es an* system piping0 Dynamics of systems
similar to this are *iscusse* later0
There are fi3e ,asic parts in a cylin*er2 t+o en* caps 7a ,ase cap an* a ,earing cap: +ith
port connections. a cylin*er ,arrel. a piston an* the ro* itself0 This ,asic construction allo+s
fairly simple manufacture as en* caps an* pistons are common to cylin*ers of the same
*iameter. an* only 7relati3ely: cheap ,arrels an* ro*s nee* to ,e change* to gi3e *ifferent
length cylin*ers0 En* caps can ,e secure* to the ,arrel ,y +el*ing. tie ro*s or ,y threa*e*
connection0 Nasic constructional *etails are sho+n in )igure 50=0
The inner surface of the ,arrel nee*s to ,e 3ery smooth to pre3ent +ear an* lea>age0
Qenerally a seamless *ra+n steel tu,e is use* +hich is machine* 7hone*: to an accurate finish0
In applications +here the cylin*er is use* infre/uently or may come into contact +ith
corrosi3e materials. stainless steel. aluminium or ,rass tu,e may ,e use*0
Pistons are usually ma*e of cast iron or steel0 The piston not only transmits force to the
ro*. ,ut must also act as a sli*ing ,eating in the ,arrel 7possi,ly +ith si*e forces if the ro* is
su,Bect to a lateral force: an* pro3i*e a seal ,et+een high an* lo+ pressure si*es0 Piston
seals are generally use* ,et+een piston an* ,arrel0 Occasionally small lea>age can ,e
tolerate* an* seals are not use*0 A ,eating surface 7such as ,ron-e: is *eposite* on to the
piston surface then hone* to a finish similar to that of the ,arrel0
The surface of the cylin*er ro* is e1pose* to the atmosphere +hen e1ten*e*. an* hence
lia,le to suffer from the effects of *irt. moisture an* corrosion0 Chen retracte*. these
antisocial materials may ,e *ra+n ,ac> insi*e the ,arrel to
cause pro,lems insi*e the cylin*er0 eat treate*
chromium alloy steel is generally use* for
strength an* to re*uce effects of corrosion0
A +iper or scraper seal is fitte* to the en*
cap +here the ro* enters the cylin*er to remo3e
*ust particles0 In 3ery *usty atmospheres e1ternal
ru,,er ,ello+s may also ,e use* to e1clu*e *ust
7)igure 50=a: ,ut these are 3ulnera,le to
puncture an* splitting an* nee* regular inspection0
The ,eating surface. usually ,ron-e. is fitte*
,ehin*
the +iper seal0 Fig Single-acting
cylinder
An internal sealing ring is fitte* ,ehin* the ,eating to pre3ent high pressure flui* lea>ing
out along the ro*0 The +iper seal. ,earing an* sealing ring are sometimes com,ine* as
a cartri*ge assem,ly to simplify maintenance0 The ro* is generally attache* to the piston
3ia a
threa*e* en* as sho+n in )igures 50=, an* c0 Lea>age can occur aroun* the ro*. so seals
are again nee*e*0 These can ,e cap seals 7as in )igure 50=,: +hich com,ine the roles of
piston an* ro* seal. or a static O ring aroun* the ro* 7as in )igure 50=c:0
En* caps are generally cast 7from iron or aluminium: an* incorporate threa*e* entries
for ports0 En* caps ha3e to +ithstan* shoc> loa*s at
e1tremes of piston tra3el0 These loa*s arise not
only from flui* pressure. ,ut also from >inetic
energy of the mo3ing parts of the cylin*er an*
loa*0
These en* of tra3el shoc> loa*s can ,e
re*uce* +ith cushion 3al3es ,uilt into the en*
caps0 In the cylin*er sho+n in )igure 5016. for
e1ample. e1haust flui* flo+ is unrestricte*
until the plunger Fig A simple cylinder
Fig Cylinder cushioning
Fig Two-stage telescopic piston
The stro>e of a simple cylin*er must ,e less than ,arrel length. gi3ing at ,est an
e1ten*e*?retracte* ratio of (&10 Chere space is restricte*. a telescopic cylin*er can ,e use*0
)igure 501( sho+s the construction of a typical *ou,le;acting unit +ith t+o pistons0 To
e1ten*. flui* is applie* to port A0 )lui* is applie* to ,oth si*es of piston 1 3ia ports O an* !.
,ut the *ifference in areas ,et+een si*es of piston 1 causes the piston to mo3e to the right0
To retract. flui* is applie* to port N0 A fle1i,le connection is re/uire* for this port0 Che n piston
( is *ri3en fully to the left. port ! is no+ connecte* to port N. applying pressure to the fight
; han* si*e of piston 1 +hich then retracts0
The construction of telescopic cylin*ers re/uires many seals +hich ma>es maintenance
comple10 They also ha3e smaller force for a gi3en *iameter an* pressure. an* can only tolerate
small si*e loa*s0
Pneumatic cylin*ers are use* for metal forming. an operation re/uiting large forces0 Pressures
in pneumatic systems are lo+er than in hy*raulic systems. ,ut large impact loa*s can ,e
o,taine* ,y accelerating a hammer to a high 3elocity then allo+ing it to stri>e the target0
%uch *e3ices are calle* impact cylin*ers an* operate on the principle illustrate* in )igure
501A0 Pressure is initially applie* to port
Fig An impact cylinder
N to retract the cylin*er0 Pressure is then applie* to ,oth ports A an* N. ,ut the
cylin*er remains in a retracte* state ,ecause area O is less than area !0 Port N is then 3ente*
rapi*ly0 Imme*iately. the full piston area e1periences port A pressure0 Cith a large
3olume of gas
store* ,ehin* the piston. it accelerates rapi*ly to a high 3elocity 7typically 16m s
;l
:0
R!ta$, a*tuat!$s
"otary actuators are the hy*raulic or pneumatic e/ui3alents of electric motors0 )or
a gi3en tor/ue. or po+er. a rotary actuator is more compact than an e/ui3alent motor. cannot
,e *amage* ,y an in*efinite stall an* can safely ,e use* in an e1plosi3e atmosphere0 )or
3aria,le spee* applications. the comple1ity an* maintenance re/uirements of a rotary
actuator are similar to a thyristor;con;trolle* D$ *ri3e. ,ut for fi1e* spee* applications. the
A$ in*uction motor 7+hich can. for practical purposes. ,e fitte* an* forgotten: is simpler to
install an* maintain0
A rotary actuator 7or. for that matter. an electric motor: ca n ,e *efine* in terms of
the tor/ue it pro*uces an* its running spee*. usually gi3en in re3s per minute 7rpm:0
Definition of tor/ue is illustrate* in )igure 50((. +here a rotary motion is pro*uce* against
a force of ) ne+tons acting at a ra*ial *istance * metres from a shaft centre0 The
*e3ice is then pro*ucing a tor/ue T gi3en ,y the e1pression5
Fig Rotary actuator symbols
Fig A gear motor
Fig A vane motor
Fig Vane operation in hydrauic motor
Fig !imited motion rotary actuators
Ali*ati!(
The operational spee* of an actuator is *etermine* ,y the flui* flo+ rate an* the actuator area
7for a cylin*er: or the *isplacement 7for a motor:0 The physical *imensions are generally fi1e*
for an actuator. so spee* is controlle* ,y a*Busting the flui* flo+ to 7or restricting flo+ from: the
actuator0 "otary actuator spee* can also ,e controlle* ,y altering s+ash plate angle0 The
compressi,ility of air. normally a*3antageous +here smooth operation is concerne*. ma>es
flo+ control more *ifficult for pneumatic than hy*raulic systems0 Although techni/ues
*escri,e* ,elo+ can ,e applie* in pneumatics. precise slo+;spee* control of a pneumatic
actuator is achie3e* +ith e1ternal *e3ices *escri,e* later0There are essentially four +ays in
+hich flui*
flo+ can ,e controlle*0The first is sho+n in )igure 50A6. +here a pump *eli3ers a flui* 3olume '
per minute0 Necause the pump is a fi1e* *isplacement *e3ice this 3olume of flui* must go
either ,ac> to the tan> or to the actuator0 Chen the control 3al3e mo3es from its centre
position. the actuator mo3es +ith a 3elocity&
+here A is the piston area0 If pump *eli3ery 3olume ' can ,e a*Buste* 7,y altering s+ash
plate angle. say.: and the pump fee*s no other *e3ice. no further spee* control is nee*e*0
Fig Speed control by pump volume
UNIT III DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
Types of control 3al3e
There are essentially three types of control 3al3e2 poppet 3al3es spool 3al3es an* rotary 3al3es0
POPPET VALVES
In a poppet 3al3e. simple *iscs. cones or ,alls are use* in conBunc;tion +ith simple
3al3e seats to control flo+0 allo+s flui* to flo+ from port P to port A0 Chen the ,utton is
release*. spring an* flui* pressure force the ,all up again closing the 3al3e0 )ig sho+s the
construction an* sym,ol of a *isc seal A?( poppet0 Cith the push,utton release*. ports A an* "
are lin>e* 3ia the hollo+ push,utton stem0 If the push,utton is presse*. port " is first seale*.
then the 3al3e *isc pushe* *o+n to open the 3al3e an* connect ports P an* A0 As ,efore.
spring an* flui* pressure from port P closes the 3al3e0 The 3al3e construction an* sym,ol
sho+n in )ig is a poppet changeo3er 8?( 3al3e using t+o stems an* *isc 3al3es0 Cith the
push,utton release*. ports A an* " are lin>e* 3ia the hollo+ left;han* stem an* ports P an* N
lin>e* 3ia the normally;open right han* *isc 3al3e0
Chen the push,utton is presse*. the lin> ,et+een ports A an* " is first close*. then
the lin> ,et+een P an* N close*0 The lin> ,et+een A an* P is ne1t opene*. an* finally the
lin> ,et+een N an* " opene*0 Chen the push,utton is release*. air an* spring pressure puts the
3al3e ,ac> to its original state0 Poppet 3al3es are simple. cheap an* ro,ust. ,ut it is generally
simpler to manufacture 3al3es more complicate* than those sho+n in )igure 8011 ,y using
spool 3al3es0 )urther. a maBor *isa*3antage of poppet 3al3es is the force nee*e* to operate
them0 In the poppet 3al3e of )igure 8016. for e1ample. the force re/uire* on the push,utton to
operate the 3al3e is P 1 a ne+tons0 Large capacity 3al3es nee* large 3al3e areas. lea*ing to
large operating force0 The high pressure in hy*raulic systems thus ten*s to pre3ent use of
simple poppet 3al3es an* they are. therefore. mainly foun* in lo+ pressure pneumatic systems0
Fig Simple "" poppet valve
Fig A #" poppet valve
SPOOL VALVES
%pool 7or sli*e: 3al3es are constructe* +ith a
spool mo3ing hori-ontally +ithin the 3al3e
,o*y. as sho+n for the 8?( 3al3e in
)igure
801(0 "aise* areas calle* 4lan*s4 ,loc> or
open ports to gi3e the re/uire* operation0
The operation of a spool 3al3e is generally
,alance*0 In the 3al3e construction in
)igure
801(,. for e1ample. pressure is applie* to
opposing faces D an* E an* lo+ tan>
pressure to faces ) an* Q0 There is no net
force on the spool from system pressure.
allo+ing the spool
to ,e easily mo3e*
Fig A $" poppet valve
Fig Four-way spool valve
Fig Four-way spool valve
)ig is a changeo3er 8?( spool 3al3e0 $omparison of the 3al3es sho+n in )igures 801( an*
801A sho+s they ha3e the same ,o*y construction. the only *ifference ,eing the si-e an*
position
of lan*s on the spool0 This is a maBor cost;sa3ing a*3antage of spool 3al3es2 *ifferent
operations can ,e achie3e* +ith a common ,o*y an* *ifferent spools0 This
o,3iously re*uces manufacturing costs0 )ig sho+s 3arious forms of three position changeo3er
3al3es2 note. again. these use one ,o*y +ith *ifferent functions achie3e* ,y *ifferent lan*
patterns0 %pool 3al3es are operate* ,y shifting the spool0 This can ,e achie3e* ,y ,utton. le3er
or stri>er. or remotely +ith a solenoi*0 %elf;centring can easily ,e pro3i*e* if springs are
mounte* at the en* of the spool shaft0 %olenoi*;operate* 3al3es commonly +or> at (8 ' D$
or 116 ' A$0 Each has its o+n a*3antages an* *isa*3antages0 A D$ po+er supply has to ,e
pro3i*e* for (8 ' D$ solenoi*s. +hich. in largesystems. is su,stantial an* costly0 Operating
current of a (8 ' solenoi*is higher than a 116 ' solenoi*4s0 $are must ,e ta>en +ith plant
ca,ling to a3oi* 3oltage *rops on return legs if a common single line return is use*0
$urrent through a D$ solenoi* is set ,y the +in*ing resistance0 $urrent in an A$
solenoi*. on the other han*. is set ,y the in*uctance of the +in*ings. an* this is usually
*esigne* to gi3e a high inrush current follo+e* ,y lo+ hol*ing current0 This is achie3e* ,y
using the core of the solenoi* 7lin>e* to the spool: to raise the coil in*uctance +hen the spool
has mo3e*0 One si*e effect of this is that a Bamme* spool results in a permanent high current
+hich can *amage the coil or the *e3ice *ri3ing it0 Each an* e3ery A$ solenoi* shoul*
,e protecte* ,y an in*i3i*ual fuse0 D$ solenoi*s *o not suffer from this characteristic0
A ,urne* out D$ solenoi* coil is almost un>no+n0 Chate3er form of solenoi* is use*
it is 3ery useful +hen fault fin*ing to ha3e local electrical in*ication ,uilt into the
solenoi* plugtop0 This allo+s a fault to ,e /uic>ly i*entifie* as either an electrical or hy*raulic
pro,lem0 )ault fin*ing is *iscusse* further in $hapter 90 A solenoi* can e1ert a pull or push of
a,out 5 to
16 >g0 This is a*e/uate for most pneumatic spool 3al3es. ,ut is too lo+ for *irect operation
of large capacity hy*raulic 3al3es0 ere pilot operation must ,e use*. a topic *iscusse* later0
Fig Three position %our-way valves
ROTARY VALVES
"otary 3al3es consist of a rotating spool +hich aligns +ith holes in the 3al3e casing to gi3e
the re/uire* operation0 )ig sho+s the construction an* sym,ol of a typical 3al3e +ith centre
off action0 "otary 3al3es are compact. simple an* ha3e lo+ operating forces0 They are.
ho+e3er.
lo+ pressure *e3ices an* are conse/uently mainly use* for han* operation in pneumatic systems0
Fig Rotary Valves
PILOT-OPERATED VALVES
Cith large capacity pneumatic 3al3es 7particularly poppet 3al3es: an* most hy*raulic 3al3es.
the operating force re/uire* to mo3e the 3al3e can ,e large0 If the re/uire* force is too large for
a solenoi* or manual operation. a t+o;stage process calle* pilot operation is use*0
The principle is sho+n in )igure 801<0 'al3e 1 is the main operating 3al3e use* to mo3e a ram0
The operating force re/uire* to mo3e the 3al3e. ho+e3er. is too large for *irect operation ,y a
solenoi*. so a secon* smaller 3al3e (. >no+n as the pilot 3al3e. has ,een a**e* to allo+ the
main 3al3e to ,e operate*
Fig Pilot-operated valve
,y system pressure0 Pilot pressure lines are
normally sho+n *otte* in circuit *iagrams.
an* pilot ports on main 3al3es are *enote* P.
!. O an* so on0 In )ig pilot port P is
*epressurise* +ith the solenoi* *eenergise*.
an* the ram is retracte*0 Chen the solenoi* is
energi-e* 3al3e
( changes o3er. pressurising P2 causing 3al3e 1
to energise an* the ram to e1ten*0 Although
pilot operation can ,e achie3e* +ith separate
3al3es it is more usual to use a pilot?main
3al3e assem,ly manufacture* as a complete
rea*yma*e unit0 )igure 8017 sho+s the peration of a pilot;operate* A?( pneumatic 3al3e0 The
solenoi* operates the small pilot 3al3e *irectly0 Necause this 3al3e has a small area. a lo+
operating force is re/uire*0 The pilot 3al3e applies line pressure to the top of the control 3al3e
causing it to mo3e *o+n. closing the e1haust port0 Chen it contacts the main 3al3e *isc there
are t+o forces acting on the 3al3e stem0 The pilot 3al3e applies a *o+n+ar*s force of P 1 D.
+here
P is the line pressure an* D is the area of the control 3al3e0 Line pressure also applies an up+ar*s
force P 1 E to the stem. +here E is the area of the main 3al3e0 The area of the control 3al3e. D.
is greater than area of the main 3al3e E. so the *o+n+ar*s force is the larger an* the 3al3e
opens0 Chen the solenoi* *e;energises. the space a,o3e the control 3al3e is 3ente*0 Line an*
spring pressure on the main 3al3e causes the 3al3e stem to rise again. 3enting port A0
A hy*raulic 8?( pilot;operate* spool 3al3e is sho+n in )ig The en*s of the pilot spool in
most hy*raulic pilot;operate* 3al3es are 3isi,le from outsi*e the 3al3e0 This is useful from a
maintenance 3ie+point as it allo+s the operation of a 3al3e to ,e chec>e*0 In e1treme cases the
3al3e can ,e chec>e* ,y pushing the pilot spool *irectly +ith a suita,ly si-e* ro* 7+el*ing ro*
is i*eal R:0 $are must ,e ta>en to chec> solenoi* states on *ual solenoi* 3al3es ,efore
attempting manual operation0 O3erri*ing an energise* A$ solenoi* creates a large current
+hich may *amage the coil. 7or ,lo+ the fuse if the solenoi* has correctly installe* protection:0
CHECK VALVES
$hec> 3al3es only allo+ flo+ in one *irection an*. as such. are similar in operation to electronic
*io*es0 The simplest construction is the ,all an* seat arrangement of the 3al3e in )ig.
commonly use* in pneumatic systems0 The right angle construction in )ig is ,etter suite* to the
higher pressures of a hy*raulic system0 )ree flo+ *irection is normally mar>e* +ith an arro+
on the 3al3e casing0 A chec> 3al3e is represente* ,y the graphic sym,ols in )ig0 The sym,ol in
)ig is rather comple1 an* the simpler sym,ol in )ig is more commonly use*0
Fig Construction o% a pilot-operated #" valve
Fig Pilot-operated valve
Fig Chec& valves
Fig Chec& valve symbols
illustrates se3eral common applications of chec> 3al3es0 )ig sho+s a com,ination pump.
use* +here an application re/uires large 3olume an* lo+ pressure. or lo+ 3olume an* high
pressure0 A typical case is a clamp re/uire* to engage /uic>ly 7high 3olume an* lo+ pressure:
then grip 7minimal 3olume ,ut high pressure:0 Pump 1 is the high 3olume an* lo+ pressure
pump. an* pump ( the high pressure pump0 In high 3olume mo*e ,oth pumps *eli3er to the
system. pump 1 *eli3ering through the chec> 3al3e ' A0 Chen high pressure is re/uire*. line
pressure at O rises operating unloa*ing 3al3e ' 1 3ia pilot port P ta>ing pump 1 off loa*0 Pump
( *eli3ers the re/uire* pressure set ,y relief 3al3e ' (.+ith the chec> 3al3e pre3enting flui*
lea>ing ,ac> to pump 1 an* '10)ig sho+s a hy*raulic circuit +ith a pressure storage
*e3ice calle* an accumulator 7*escri,e* in a later chapter:0 ere a chec> 3al3e allo+s the
pump to unloa* 3ia the pressure regulating 3al3e. +hile still maintaining system pressure from
the accumulator0
A spring;operate* chec> 3al3e re/uires a small pressure to open 7calle* the crac>ing
pressure: an* acts to some e1tent li>e a lo+ pressure relief 3al3e0 This characteristic can ,e use*
to a*3antage0 In )ig pilot pressure is *eri3e* ,efore a chec> 3al3e. an* in )ig a chec> 3al3e
is use* to protect a ,loc>e* filter ,y *i3erting flo+ aroun* the filter +hen pressure rises0 A
chec> 3al3e is also inclu*e* in the tan> return to pre3ent flui* ,eing suc>e* out of the tan>
+hen the pump is turne* off0
PILOT-OPERATED CHECK VALVES
The cylin*er in the system in )ig shoul*.
theoretically. hol* position +hen the
control 3al3e is in its centre. off. position0 In
practice. the cylin*er +ill ten* to creep
,ecause of lea>age in the control 3al3e0 $hec>
3al3es ha3e e1cellent sealage in the close*
position. ,ut a simple chec> 3al3e cannot ,e
use* in the system in )ig ,ecause flo+ is
re/uire* in ,oth *irections0 A pilot;operate*
chec> is similar to a ,asic chec> 3al3e ,ut
can ,e hel* open
permanently ,y application of an e1ternal pilot pressure signal0 There are t+o ,asic forms
of
pilot;operate* chec> 3al3es. sho+n in )ig They operate in a similar manner to ,asic
chec> 3al3es. ,ut +ith pilot pressure *irectly opening the 3al3es0 In the 8$ 3al3e sho+n in
)ig inlet pressure assists the pilot0 The sym,ol of a pilot;operate* chec> 3al3e is sho+n
in )ig The cylin*er application of )igure 80(( is re*ra+n +ith pilotoperate* chec> 3al3es in
)ig The pilot lines are connecte* to the pressure line fee*ing the other si*e of the cylin*er0 )or
any cylin*er mo3ement. one chec> 3al3e is hel* open ,y flo+ 7operating as a normal chec>
3al3e: an* the other is hel* open ,y pilot pressure0 )or no re/uire* mo3ement. ,oth chec>
3al3es are close* an*
the cylin*er is loc>e* in
position0
Fig Chec& valve applications
Fig System re'uiring a chec& valve( )n the o%% position the load
*creeps*
RESTRICTION CHECK VALVES
The spee* of a hy*raulic or pneumatic actuator can ,e controlle* ,y a*Busting the rate at +hich
a flui* is a*mitte* to. or allo+e* out from. a *e3ice0 This topic is *iscusse* in more *etail in
$hapter 5 ,ut a spee* control is often re/uire* to ,e *irection;sensiti3e an* this re/uires the
inclusion of a chec> 3al3e0
A restriction chec> 3al3e 7often calle* a throttle relief
3al3e in pneumatics: allo+s full flo+ in one *irectio n
an* a re*uce* flo+ in the other *irection0 )igure 80(8a
sho+s a simple hy*raulic 3al3e an* )igure 80(8, a
pneumatic 3al3e0 In ,oth. a nee*le 3al3e sets restricte* flo+
to the re/uire* 3al3e0 The sym,ol of a restriction chec>
3al3e is sho+n in )ig sho+s a typical application in +hich
the cylin*er e1ten*s at full spee* until a limit s+itch ma>es.
then e1ten* further at lo+ spee*0 "etraction is at full spee*0
A restriction chec> 3al3e '( is fitte* in one leg of the
cylin*er0 Cith the cylin*er retracte*. limit;operate* 3al3e 'A
is open allo+;ing free flo+ of flui* from the cylin*er as it
e1ten*s0 Chen the stri>er plate
on the cylin*er ram hits the limit. 3al3e 'A closes an* flo+ out of the cylin*er is no+
restricte* ,y the nee*le 3al3e setting of 3al3e '(0 In the re3erse *irection. the chec> 3al3e
on 3al3e '( opens gi3ing full spee* of retraction0
Fig Pilot-operated chec& valves
Fig Restriction chec& valve
SHUTTLE AND FAST EXHAUST VALVES
A shuttle 3al3e. also >no+n as a *ou,le chec> 3al3e. allo+s pres;sure in a line to ,e
o,taine* from alternati3e sources0 It is primariSly a pneumatic *e3ice an* is rarely foun* in
hy*raulic circuits0$onstruction is 3ery simple an* consists of a ,all insi*e a cylin;*er. as sho+n
in )igure 80(5a0 If pressure is applie* to port O. the ,all is ,lo+n to the fight ,loc>ing port !
an* lin>ing ports O an* A0 %imilarly. pressure to port ! alone connects ports ! an* A an*
,loc>s
port O0 The sym,ol of a shuttle 3al3e is gi3en in )ig A typical application is gi3en in )ig +here a
spring return cylin*er is operate* from either of t+o manual stations0 Isolation ,et+een the
t+o stations is pro3i*e* ,y the shuttle 3al3e0 Note a simple T;connection cannot ,e use* as
each
3al3e has its A port 3ente* to the e1haust port0 A fast e1haust
3al3e 7)igure 80(<: is use* to 3ent cylin*ers /uic>ly0 It is primarily
use* +ith spring return 7single;acting: pneumatic cylin*ers0 The
*e3ice sho+n in )igure 80(<a consists of a mo3a,le *isc +hich
allo+s port A to ,e connecte* to pressure port
P or large e1haust port "0 It acts
li>e. an* has the same sym,ol as. a
shuttle 3al3e0 A typical
application
is sho+n in )ig )ast e1haust 3al3es are usually mounte* local
to. or *irectly onto. cylin*ers an* spee* up response ,y a3o
i*ing
any *elay from return pipes an* control 3al3es0 They also
permit simpler control 3al3es to ,e use*0
Fig Pneumatic shuttle valve
Fig Fast e+haust valve
SEQUENCE VALVES
The se/uence 3al3e is a close relati3e of the pressure relief 3al3e an* is use* +here a set
of operations are to ,e controlle* in a pressure relate* se/uence0 )igure 80(7 sho+s a
typical e1ample +here a +or>piece is pushe* into position ,y cylin*er 1 an* clampe* ,y
cylin*er (0 %e/uence 3al3e ' ( is connecte* to
the e1ten* line of cylin*er 10 Chen
this cylin*er is mo3ing the
+or>piece. the line pressure is lo+.
,ut rises once the +or>piece hits the
en* stop0 The se/uence 3al3e opens
once its inlet pressure rises a,o3e a
preset le3el0 $ylin*er ( then operates
to clamp the +or>piece0 A chec>
3al3e across ' ( allo+s ,oth
cylin*ers to retract together(
TIME DELAY VALVES
Pneumatic time *elay 3al3es are use* to *elay operations +here time;,ase* se/uences
are
re/uire*0 )ig sho+s construction of a typical 3al3e0 This is similar in construction to a A?( +ay
pilot;operate* 3al3e. ,ut the space a,o3e the main 3al3e is comparati3ely large an* pilot air is
only allo+e* in 3ia a flo+re*ucing nee*le 3al3e0 There is thus a time *elay ,et+een application
of pilot pressure to port P an* the
3al3e
operation. as sho+n ,y the timing *iagram in
)igure 80(9,0 The time *elay is a*Buste* ,y the
nee*le 3al3e setting0 The ,uilt;in chec> 3al3e
causes the reser3oir space a,o3e the 3al3e to
3ent /uic>ly +hen pressure at P is remo3e* to
gi3e no *elay off0
The 3al3e sho+n in )ig is a normally;
close* *elay;on 3al3e0 Many other time *elay
3al3es 7*elay;off. *elay on?off. normally;
open: can ,e o,taine*0 All use the ,asic
principle of the air reser3oir an* nee*le 3al3e0
The sym,ol of a normally;*ose* time *elay
3al3e is in )ig
Fig Pneumatic time delay valve
PROPORTIONAL VALVES
The solenoi* 3al3es *escri,e* so far act. to some e1tent. li>e an electrical s+itch. i0e0 they can
,e
On or Off0 In many applications it is re/uire* to remotely control spee*. pressure or force 3ia
an
electrical signal0 This function is pro3i*e* ,y proportional 3al3es0 A typical t+o
position solenoi* is only re/uire* to mo3e the spool ,et+een 6 an* 166F stro>e against the
restoring force of a spring0 To ensure pre*icta,le mo3ement ,et+een the en* positions the
solenoi* must also increase its force as the spool mo3es toensure the solenoi* force is larger
than the increasing opposing spring force at all positions0
A proportional
3al3e has a
*ifferent *esign
re/uirement0
The spool
position can ,e
set any+here
,et+een 6F
an* 166F
stro>e ,y
3arying the
solenoi*
current0 To gi3e
a pre*icta,le
response the
solenoi* must
pro*uce a force
+hich is
*epen*ent solely on the The relationship ,et+een coil current force an* stro>e for a
proportional
3al3e solenoi*0 Note the flat part of the cur3e an* the linear relationship ,et+een current
an* force current an* not on the spool position. i0e0 the force for a gi3en current must ,e
constant o3er the full stro>e range0 )urthermore. the force must ,e proportional to the current0
)ig sho+s a typical response0 The force from the solenoi* is oppose* ,y the force from a
restoring spring. an* the spool +ill mo3e to a position +here the t+o forces are e/ual0 Cith a
current of 6075 A. for e1ample. the spool +ill mo3e to 75F of its stro>e0 The spool
mo3ement in a proportional
3al3e is small2 a fe+ mm stro>e is typical0 The 3al3es are therefore 3ery 3ulnera,le to
stiction. an* this is re*uce* ,y using a 4+et4 *esign +hich immerses the solenoi* an* its core in
hy*raulic flui*0
A proportional 3al3e
shoul* pro*uce a flui* flo+
+hich is proportional to the
spool *isplacement0 The spools
therefore use four triangular
metering notches in the spool
lan*s as sho+n on )ig0 As the
spool is mo3e* to the right. port
A +ill progressi3ely lin> to the
tan> an* port N to the pressure
line0 The sym,ol for this 3al3e is
also sho+n0 Proportional 3al3es
are *ra+n +ith parallel lines on
the connection si*es of the 3al3e
,loc> on circuit *iagrams0 )ig
gi3es e/ual flo+ rates to ,oth A
an* N ports0$ylin*ers ha3e
*ifferent areas on the full ,ore
an* annulus si*es
Fig Construction and symbol %or a proportional valve( ,hen used with a cylinder with
"-. %ull bore to annulus area ratio/ hal% the V cutouts will be provided on one o% the P lands
To achie3e e/ual spee*s in ,oth *irections. the notches on the lan*s must ha3e *ifferent
areas0 Cith a (&1 cylin*er ratio. half the num,er of notches are use* on one si*e0 )igure 80A1
sho+s the construction an* sym,ol for a restricte* centre position 3al3e0 ere the e1ten*e*
notches pro3i*e a restricte* 7typically AF: flo+ to tan> from the A an* N ports +hen the 3al3e
is in the centre position0 %o far +e ha3e assume* the spool position is *etermine* ,y the
,alance ,et+een the force from the solenoi* an* the restoring force from a spring0 Chilst this
+ill +or> for simple applications. factors
such as hy*raulic pressure on the spool an* spring ageing mean the repeata,ility is poor0 Direct
solenoi*?spring ,alance is also not feasi,le +ith a pilot?main spool 3al3e0 Chat is really
re/uire* is some metho* of position control of the spool0 To achie3e this. the spool position
must ,e easure*0 Most 3al3es use a *e3ice calle* a Linear 'aria,le Differential Transformer 7or
L'DT: sho+n on )ig The L'DT consists of a soft iron core +hose position is to ,e measure*
surroun*e* ,y three electrical +in*ings0 A high fre/uency 7typically a fe+ >-: A$ signal is
applie* to the centre +in*ing +hich in*uces 3oltages into the other t+o +in*ings0 Chen the core
is central. ' 1 an* ' ( are e/ual ,ut opposite in phase gi3ing -ero 3olts at '
A0
F)G Construction and symbol %or a proportional valve with A and 0 ports lin&ed to tan& in
the null position
HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS
In a simple hy*raulic system. the pump si-e 7*eli3ery rate an* hence motor po+er: is
*etermine* ,y the ma1imum re/uirements
of the actuators0 In )ig a system operates
intermittently at a
Fig a simple system with uneven
demands( To supply this without an
accumulator a .11 . min -2 is re'uired
although the mean %low is only .3 .min
pressure of ,et+een 156 an* (66
,ar. nee*ing a flo+ rate of 166 1 min ;1 for 16 s at a repetition rate of 1 minute0 Cith a simple
system 7pump. pressure regulator an* loa*ing 3al3e: this re/uires a (66 ,ar. 166 1 min ;1
pump 7*ri3en ,y a,out a 56 hp motor: +hich spen*s aroun* 95F of its time unloa*ing to
tan>0 In )igure <0Aa a storage *e3ice calle* an accumulator has ,een a**e* to the system0 This
can store. an* release. a /uantity of flui* at the re/uire* system pressure0 In many respects it
resem,les the operation of a capacitor in an electronic po+er supply0The operation is sho+n in
)igure <0A,0 At time A the system is turne* on. an* the pump loa*s causing pressure to rise as
the flui* is *eli3ere* to the accumulator 3ia the non;return 3al3e ' A0 At time N. +or>ing
pressure is reache* an* a pressure s+itch on the accumulator causes the pump to unloa*0 This
state is maintaine* as non return 3al3e ' A hol*s the system pressure0 The actuator operates
,et+een
times $ an* D0 This *ra+s flui* from the accumulator causing a fall of system pressure0
The pressure s+itch on the accumulator puts the pump on loa* again ,ut it ta>es until time E
,efore the accumulator is charge* rea*y for the ne1t actuator mo3ement at time E An
accumulator re*uces pump re/uirements0 The original system re/uire* a 166 1 min ;1 pump0
Cith an accumulator. ho+e3er. a pump only nee*s to pro3i*e 17 1 min ;1 7that is. 166 1 min
;1 for 16 secs e3ery minute:0 Pump si-e. an* hence motor si-e. ha3e ,een re*uce* ,y a factor
of si1 +ith o,3ious cost an* space sa3ings. plus gains in ancillary e/uipment such as motor
starters an* ca,ling0 There is no gain in the energy use*2 +ith the simple system a 56 hp motor
loa*s for 17F of the time. +ith an accumulator a 16 hp motor loa*s for a,out =6F of the time0
Fig System with an accumulator
Most accumulators operate ,y compressing a gas 7although ol*er an* smaller accumulators
may +or> ,y compressing a spring or lifting a +eight +ith a cylin*er:0 The most common form
is the gasfille* ,la**er accumulator sho+n in )ig Qas is precharge* to some pressure +ith the
accumulator empty of flui* +hen the +hole of the accumulator is fille* +ith gas0 A poppet
3al3e at the accumulator ,ase pre3ents the ,la**er e1tru*ing out into the piping0
Accumulators are si-e* ,y Noyle4s la+ an* a >no+le*ge of the *eman*s of the actuators0 )or t
he e1ample system of )ig
Fig The accumulator
Assuming a precharge of 1(6 ,ar. a charge* accumulator pressure of 196 ,ar an* a fall to a
pressure to 1<6 ,ar *uring the remo3al of 17 liters of flui*& let ' ,e 3olume of accumulator0
This gi3es us the three states illustrate* in )igure <05 to +hich Noyle4s la+ can ,e applie* to
fin* the re/uire* accumulator 3olume0 )rom )ig , an* c using Noyle4s la+&
Chich re*uces to& 1<63E 19673 ; 17: 3 E 15A litres
)rom )ig a& 1(6' E 1<6 1 15A or '; (68 litres
Fig Si4ing an accumulator
ence an accumulator of aroun* (56 litres is re/uire*. +ith a precharge of 1(6 ,ar an*
a pressure s+itch set at 196 ,ar0Accumulators can also ,e use* to act as 4,uffers4 on a system to
a,sor, shoc>s an* snu, pressure spi>es0 Again the accumulator acts in similar manner to a
capacitor in an electronic circuit0 An accumulator. ho+e3er. ,rings an a**itional *anger into
the system. as it is possi,le for high pressures to e1ist in the circuit e3en though the pump has
,een stoppe*0 If a coupling is opene* un*er these circumstances the accumulator *ischarges
all its flui* at +or>ing pressure0 The author spea>s from personal e1perience of ha 3ing
committe* this car*inal sin an* ,eing co3ere* in oil for his mista>eR E1treme care shoul*
therefore ,e ta>en +hen +or>ing on circuits +ith accumulators0 Normally a manual or
automatic ,lo+*o+n 3al3e is inclu*e* to allo+ the accumulator pressure to ,e release*0 The
pressure gauge shoul* ,e o,ser3e* *uring ,lo+*o+n an* no +or> un*erta>en until it is certain
all pressure has ,een release*0 )ig sho+s typical
,lo+*o+n circuits0
)ig Accumulator blowdown circuits( )n
each case %low %romthe accumulator is restricted to prevent an e+plosive decompression
Once a system has +arme* up. a /uic> chec> can ,e ma*e on the state of an accumulator
+ith the flat of the han*0 There shoul* al+ays ,e a significant temperature *ifference ,et+een
the gas
an* the hy*raulic oil an* the oil?gas split can ,e *etecte* ,y the temperature change on the
,o*y of the accumulator0 If the +hole ,o*y is the same temperature something has gone
se3erely +rong +ith the gas ,la**er0 An accumulator is a pressurise* 3essel an* as such
re/uires certification if it contains more than (56 ,ar0litres0 It +ill re/uire a recor*e* e1pert
3isual inspection e3ery fi3e years an* a full 3olumetric pressure test e3ery ten years0
HYDRAULIC COOLERS AND HEAT EXCHANGERS
Despite the occasional use of heaters mentione* earlier. the pro,lem +ith oil
temperature is usually >eeping it down to the re/uire* 56M In small systems. the heat lost
through reser3oir +alls is sufficient to >eep the oil cool. ,ut in larger systems a**itional
cooling is nee*e*0 Ta,le
<01 sho+s typical heat losses from 3arious si-es of reser3oirs0 It shoul* ,e note* that the
relationship ,et+een 3olume an* heat loss 7surface area: is non;linear. ,ecause surface area
increases as the s/uare of the linear *imensions. +hereas 3olume increases as the cu,e0
Table 5eat loss %or various tan& volumes( These are only appro+imate as %ew tan&s are
pure cubes
'ol 71: L7m: %urface area 7m
(
: eat loss 7>C:
(56 60<A 10=9 605
566 609 A0( 106
1.666 106 506 105
(.666 10(5 709 (05
16.666 (015 (A01 1506
UNIT IV PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
COMPRESSOR TYPES
Li>e hy*raulic pumps. air compressors can ,e split into positi3e *isplacement *e3ices
7+here a fi1e* 3olume of air is *eli3ere* on each rotation of the compressor shaft: an* *ynamic
*e3ices such as centrifugal or a1ial ,lo+ers0 The 3ast maBority of air compressors are of
the positi3e *isplacement type0 A compressor is selecte* ,y the pressure it is re/uire* to +or>
at an* the 3olume of gas it is re/uire* to *eli3er0 As e1plaine* in the pre3ious section.
pressure in the recei3er is generally higher than that re/uire* at the operating position. +ith
local pressure regulation ,eing use*0 Pressure at the compressor outlet 7+hich for practical
purposes +ill ,e the same as that in the recei3er: is calle* the +or>ing pressure an* is
use* to specify the compressor0 Pressure at the operating point is calle*. not surprisingly. the
operating pressure an* is use* to specify 3al3es. actuators an* other operating *e3ices0
$are shoul* ,e ta>en in specifying the 3olume of gas a compressor is re/uire* to *eli3er0
E1pression A01 sho+s the 3olume of a gi3en mass of gas to ,e highly *epen*ent on pressure
an* temperature0 Deli3ery 3olume of a compressor is *efine* in terms of gas at normal
atmospheric con*itions0 T+o stan*ar*s >no+n as stan*ar* temperature an* pressures 7%TP: are
commonly use*. although *ifferences ,et+een them are small for in*ustrial users0
The technical normal condition is&
P E 60=9 ,ar a,solute. T E (6M
an* the physical normal condition is&
P E 1061 ,ar a,solute. T E 6M
The term normal temperature and pressure 7NTP: is also use*0"e/uire* *eli3ery 3olume of
a compressor 7in M A min ;1 or ft A min ;1. accor*ing to the units use*: may ,e calculate* for
the actuators at the 3arious operating positions 7+ith healthy safety margins to allo+ for
lea>age: ,ut care must ,e ta>en to ensure this total 3olume is con3erte* to %TP con*ition
,efore specifying the re/uire* compressor *eli3ery 3olume0 A compressor *eli3ery 3olume
can ,e specifie* in terms of its theoretical 3olume 7s+ept 3olume multiplie* ,y
rotational spee*: or effecti3e 3olume +hich inclu*es losses0 The ratio of these t+o 3olumes
is the efficiency0 O,3iously the effecti3e 3olume shoul* ,e use* in choosing a compressor
7+ith. again. a safety margin for lea>age:0 "e/uire* po+er of the motor *ri3ing the compressor
is *epen*ent on +or>ing pressure an* *eli3ery 3olume. an* may ,e *etermine* from
e1pressions (0( an* (050 Allo+ance must ,e ma*e for the cyclic on?off operation of the
compressor +ith the motor ,eing si-e* for on loa* operation an* not a3erage* o3er a perio*
of time0
PISTON COMPRESSORS
Piston compressors are ,y far the most common type of compressor. an* a ,asic
single cylin*er form is sho+n in )igure A0A0 As the piston *escen*s *uring the inlet stro>e
7)igure
A0Aa:. the inlet 3al3e opens an* air is *ra+n into the cylin*er0 As the piston passes the ,ottom
of the stro>e. the inlet 3al3e closes an* the e1haust 3al3e opens allo+ing air to ,e e1pelle* as
the piston rises 7)igure A0A,: )igure A0A implies that the 3al3es are similar to 3al3es in an
internal com,ustion engine0 In practice. spring;loa*e* 3al3es are use*. +hich open an* close
un*er the action of air pressure across them0 One common type uses a 4feather4 of spring steel
+hich mo3es a,o3e the inlet or output port. as sho+n in )ig
A single cylin*er compressor gi3es significant pressure pulses at the outlet port0 This
can ,e o3ercome to some e1tent ,y the use of a
large recei3er. ,ut more often a multi
cylin*er compressor is use*0 These are
usually classifie* as 3ertical or
Fig Single cylinder compressor
hori-ontal in;line arrangements an* the more compact '. ! or C constructions0 A compressor
+hich pro*uces one pulse of air per piston sto>e 7of +hich the e1ample of )igure A0A is
typical: is calle* a singleacting compressor0 A more e3en air supply can ,e o,taine* ,y the
*ou,le acting action of the compressor in )igure A08. +hich uses t+o sets of 3al3es an* a
crosshea* to >eep the piston ro* s/uare at all times0 Dou,le;acting compressors can ,e foun* in
all configurations*escri,e* earlier0
Fig 6ouble-acting compressor
Piston compressors *escri,e* so far go *irect from atmospheric to re/uire* pressure in
a single operation0 This is >no+n as a single stage compressor0 The general gas la+
7e1pression
101=: sho+e* compression of a gas to ,e accompanie* ,y a significant rise in gas temperature0
If the e1it pressure is a,o3e a,out 5 ,ar in a singleacting compressor. the compresse*
air temperature can rise to o3er (66M an* the motor po+er nee*e* to *ri3e the compressor rises
accor*ingly0 )or pressures o3er a fe+ ,ar it is far more economical to use a multistage
compressor +ith cooling ,et+een stages0 )ig sho+s an e1ample0 As cooling 7un*erta>en ,y
a *e3ice calle* an intercooler: re*uces the 3olume of the gas to ,e compresse* at the secon*
stage there is a large energy sa3ing0 Normally t+o stages are use* for pneumatic pressures of
16 to 15 ,ar. ,ut multistage compressors are
a3aila,le for pressures up to aroun* 56
,ar0 Multistage compressors can ,e
manufacture* +ith multicylin*ers as
sho+n in )ig or. more compactly. +ith a
single cylin*er an* a *ou,le *iameter
piston as sho+n in )ig There is contact
,et+een pistons an* air. in stan*ar*
piston compressors. +hich may
intro*uce small amounts of lu,rication
oil Fig Two-stage compressor
from the piston +alls into the air0 This 3ery small contamination may ,e un*esira,le in foo*
an* chemical in*ustries0 )ig sho+s a common +ay of gi3ing a totally clean supply ,y
incorporating a fle1i,le *iaphragm ,et+een piston an* air0
Fig Combined two-stage compressor
Fig 6iaphragm compressor/ used where air must not be
contaminated
SCRE COMPRESSORS
Piston compressors are use* +here high pressures 7T (6 ,ar: an* relati3ely lo+ 3olumes
7U 16.666 m A hr ;1: are nee*e*. ,ut are mechanically relati3ely comple1 +ith many
mo3ing parts0 Many applications re/uire only me*ium pressure 7U 16 ,ar: an* me*ium flo+s
7aroun*
16.666 m A hr;m:0 )or these applications. rotary compressors ha3e the a*3antage of
simplicity.
+ith fe+er mo3ing parts rotating at a constant spee*. an* a stea*y *eli3ery of air
+ithout
pressure pulses0 One rotary compressor. >no+n as the *ry rotary scre+ compressor. is sho+n in
)ig an* consists of t+o intermeshing rotating scre+s +ith minimal 7aroun* 6065 mm:
clearance0 As the scre+s rotate. air is *ra+n into the housing. trappe* ,et+een the scre+s an*
carrie* along to the *ischarge port. +here it is *eli3ere* in a constant
pulse;free stream0 %cre+s in this compressor can ,e
synchroni-e* ,y e1ternal timing gears0 Alternati3ely one
scre+ can ,e *ri3en. the secon* scre+ rotate* ,y contact
+ith the *ri3e scre+0 This approach re/uires oil lu,rication
to ,e spraye* into the inlet air to re*uce friction ,et+een
scre+s. an* is conse/uently >no+n as a +et rotary scre+
compressor0 Cet scre+ construction though. o,3iously
intro*uces oil contamination into the air +hich has to ,e
remo3e* ,y later
oil separation units0 Fig 6ry screw rotary
compressor
ROTARY COMPRESSORS
The 3ane compressor. sho+n in )ig operates on similar
principles to the hy*raulic 3ane pump *escri,e* in $hapter (.
although air compressors ten* to ,e physically larger than
hy*raulic pumps0 An un,alance* *esign is sho+n. ,alance*
3ersions can also ,e constructe*0 'anes can ,e force* out ,y
springs or. more commonly. ,y centrifugal force0 A
single stage 3ane compressor can *eli3er air at up to A ,ar.
a much lo+er pressure than that a3aila,le +ith a scre+ or
piston compressor0 A t+o;stage 3ane compressor +ith large
lo+ pressure an* smaller high pressure sections lin>e* ,y an
intercooler allo+s pressures up to 16 ,ar to ,e o,taine*0
)ig Vane compressor
Fig !i'uid ring compressor
)ig sho+s a 3ariation on the 3ane compressor calle* a li/ui* ring compressor0 The *e3ice uses
many 3anes rotating insi*e an eccentric housing an* contains a li/ui* 7usually +ater: +hich
is flung out ,y centrifugal force to form a li/ui* ring +hich
follo+s the contour of the housing to gi3e a seal +ith no
lea>age an* minimal friction0 "otational spee* must
,e high 7typically A666 rpm: to create the ring0 Deli3ery
pressures are relati3ely lo+ at aroun* 5 ,ar0 The lo,e
compressor of )igure A011 7often calle* a "oots ,lo+er:
is often use* +hen a positi3e *isplacement compressor
is nee*e* +ith high *eli3ery 3olume ,ut lo+ pressure
7typically 1;( ,ar:0 Operating pressure is mainly limite*
,y lea>age ,et+een rotors an* housing0 To operate
efficiently. clearances must ,e 3ery small. an* +ear
lea*s to a rapi* fall in efficiency0
Fig !obe compressor
DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS
A large 3olume of air 7up to 5666 m A min ;1: is often re/uire* for applications such as
pneumatic con3eying 7+here po+*er is carrie* in an air stream:. 3entilation or +here air itself
is one component of a process 7e0g0 com,ustion air for gas?oil ,urners:0 Pressure in these
applications is lo+ 7at most a fe+ ,ar: an* there is no nee* for a positi3e *isplacement
compressor0 Large 3olume lo+ pressure air is generally pro3i*e* ,y *ynamic compressors
>no+n as ,lo+ers0 They can ,e su,*i3i*e* into centrifugal or a1ial types. sho+n in )igure
A01(0 $entrifugal ,lo+ers 7)igure A01(a: *ra+ air in then fling it out ,y centrifugal force0 A
high shaft rotational spee* is nee*e* an* the 3olume to input po+er ratio is lo+er than any
other type of compressor0 An a1ial compressor comprises a set of rotating fan ,la*es as sho+n
in )igure
A01(,0 These pro*u ce 3ery large
3olumes of air. ,ut at lo+ pressure
7less than one ,ar:0 They are
primarily use* for 3entilation.
com,ustion an* process air0 Output
pressures of ,oth types of *ynamic
compressor can ,e lifte* ,y
multistage compressors +ith
intercoolers ,et+een stages0 Diffuser
sections re*uce air entry 3elocity to
su,se/uent stages. there,y
con3erting air >inetic energy to
pressure energy0 Fig 7on-positive displacement compressors
80lowers
AIR RECEIVERS AND COMPRESSOR CONTROL
An air recei3er is use* to store high pressure air from the compressor0 Its 3olume
re*uces pressure fluctuations arising from changes in loa* an* from compressor s+itching0
Air coming from the compressor +ill ,e +arm 7if not actually hotR: an* the large surface area
of the recei3er *issipates this heat to the surroun*ing atmosphere0 Any moisture left in the air
from the compressor +ill con*ense out in the recei3er. so outgoing air shoul* ,e ta>en from
the recei3er top0 )ig sho+s essential features of a
recei3er0
Fig Compressed air receiver
They are usually of cylin*rical construction for strength. an* ha3e a safety relief 3al3e to guar*
against high pressures arising from failure of the pressure control scheme0 Pressure
in*ication an*. usually. temperature in*ication are pro3i*e*. +ith pressure s+itches for control
of pressure an* high temperature s+itches for remote alarms0 A *rain coc> allo+s remo3al
of con*ense* +ater. an* access 3ia a manhole allo+s cleaning0 O,3iously. remo3al of a
manhole co3er is ha-ar*ous +ith a pressurise* recei3er. an* safety routines must ,e
*efine* an* follo+e* to pre3ent acci*ents0 $ontrol of the compressor is necessary to
maintain pressure in the recei3er0 The simplest metho* of achie3ing this is to start the
compressor +hen recei3er pressure falls to some minimum pressure. an* stop the compressor
+hen pressure rises to a satisfactory le3el again. as illustrate* in )ig In theory t+o pressure
s+itches are re/uire* 7+ith t he motor start pressure lo+er than the motor stop pressure:
,ut. in practice. internal hysteresis in a typical s+itch allo+s one pressure s+itch to ,e
use*0 The pressure in the recei3er cycles ,et+een the start an* stop pressure settings0
Fig Receiver pressure control via motor startstop
$ompressors can also ,e controlle* on the inlet si*e0 In the e1ample of )ig an inlet
3al3e is hel* open to allo+ the compressor to operate. an* is close* +hen the air recei3er
hasreache* the *esire* pressure. 7the compressor then forms a near 3acuum on its inlet si*e:0
The 3al3es in )igures can ,e electrically;operate* solenoi* 3al3es controlle* ,y pressure
s+itches. or can ,e pneumatic 3al3es controlle* *irectly ,y recei3er pressure0 The control
metho* is largely *etermine* ,y flo+ rates from recei3er to the loa*7s: an* the capacity of the
compressor0 If the compressor has significant spare capacity. for e1ample. start?stop control is
commonly use*0 If compressor capacity an* loa* re/uirements are closely matche*. on the
other han*. short start?stop cycling may cause premature +ear in the electrical starter for the
compressor motor0 In this situation. e1haust or inlet regulation is preferre*0 Air recei3er si-e is
*etermine* ,y loa* re/uirements. compressor capacity. an* allo+a,le pressure *e3iations in
the recei3er0 Cith the compressor stoppe*. Noyle4s la+ 7e1pression 1017: gi3es the pressure
*ecay for a gi3en 3olume of air *eli3ere* from a gi3en recei3er at a >no+n pressure0 )or
e1ample. if a recei3er of 16 cu,ic metres 3olume an* a +or>ing pressure of 9 ,ar *eli3ers (5
cu,ic metres of air 7at %TP: to a loa*. pressure in the recei3er falls to appro1imately 505 ,ar0
Cith the compressor starte*. air pressure rises at a rate again gi3en ,y e1pression 1017 7+ith
the air mass in the recei3er ,eing increased ,y the *ifference ,et+een the air *eli3ere* ,y
the compressor an* that remo3e* ,y the loa*:0 These t+o calculations gi3e the cycle time of
the compressor +hen com,ine* +ith setting s of the cut;in an* *rop;out pressure s+itches0 If
this is unaccepta,ly rapi*. say less than a fe+ minutes. then a larger recei3er is re/uire*0
Manufacturers of pneumatic e/uipment pro3i*e nomographs +hich simplify these
calculations0 An air recei3er is a pressure 3essel an* as such re/uires regular 3isual an*
3olumetric pressure tests0 "ecor*s shoul* ,e >ept of the tests0