http://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Ozone_depletion
Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady
decline of about 4% per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer), and
a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar regions. The latter
phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena,
there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events.
The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning, but the most important
process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens.
[1]
The main source of these halogen
atoms in the stratosphere is photodissociation of man-made halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants,
and foam-blowing agents (CFCs, HCFCs, freons, halons). These compounds are transported into the
stratosphere after being emitted at the surface.
[2]
Both types of ozone depletion have been observed to
increase as emissions of halo-carbons increased.
CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Since the
ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (280315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from
passing through the Earth's atmosphere, observed and projected decreases in ozone have generated
worldwide concern leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs, halons,
and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It is suspected that
a variety of biological consequences such as increases in skin cancer, cataracts,
[3]
damage to plants, and
reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure
due to ozone depletion.

http://www.epa.gov/ozone/science/process.html
The Process of Ozone Depletion



The ozone depletion process begins when CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS) are emitted
into the atmosphere(1). Winds efficiently mix the troposphere and evenly distribute the gases. CFCs are
extremely stable, and they do not dissolve in rain. After a period of several years, ODS molecules reach the
stratosphere, about 10 kilometers above the Earth's surface (2).
Strong UV light breaks apart the ODS molecule. CFCs, HCFCs, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, and
other gases release chlorine atoms, and halons and methyl bromide release bromine atoms (3). It is these
atoms that actually destroy ozone, not the intact ODS molecule. It is estimated that one chlorine atom can
destroy over 100,000 ozone molecules before it is removed from the stratosphere (4).




















Ozone is constantly produced and destroyed in a natural cycle, as shown in the above picture, courtesy of
NASA GSFC. However, the overall amount of ozone is essentially stable. This balance can be thought of as a
stream's depth at a particular location. Although individual water molecules are moving past the observer,
the total depeth remains constant. Similarly, while ozone production and destruction are balanced, ozone
levels remain stable. This was the situation until the past several decades.
Large increases in stratospheric chlorine and bromine, however, have upset that balance. In effect, they
have added a siphon downstream, removing ozone faster than natural ozone creation reactions can keep
up. Therefore, ozone levels fall.
Since ozone filters out harmful UVB radiation, less ozone means higher UVB levels at the surface. The more
the depletion, the larger the increase in incoming UVB. UVB has been linked to skin cancer, cataracts,
damage to materials like plastics, and harm to certain crops and marine organisms. Although some UVB
reaches the surface even without ozone depletion, its harmful effects will increase as a result of this
problem.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it possesses
elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals and
infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with the
water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Governments have made efforts since the 1970s to
reduce the release of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also be
produced naturally by lightning strikes and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions. The chemicals
in acid rain can cause paint to peel, corrosion of steel structures such as bridges, and erosion of stone
statues.

http://geography.about.com/od/globalproblemsandissues/a/acidrain.htm
Acid rain is rain consisting of water droplets that are unusually acidic because of atmospheric pollution -
most notably the excessive amounts of sulfur and nitrogen released by cars and industrial processes. Acid
rain is also called acid deposition because this term includes other forms of acidic precipitation such as
snow.
Acidic deposition occurs in two ways: wet and dry. Wet deposition is any form of precipitation that
removes acids from the atmosphere and deposits them on the Earths surface. Dry deposition polluting
particles and gases stick to the ground via dust and smoke in the absence of precipitation. This form of
deposition is dangerous however because precipitation can eventually wash pollutants into streams, lakes,
and rivers.
Acidity itself is determined based on the pH level of the water droplets. PH is the scale measuring the
amount of acid in the water and liquid. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 with lower pH being more acidic
while a high pH is alkaline; seven is neutral. Normal rain water is slightly acidic and has a pH range of 5.3-
6.0. Acid deposition is anything below that scale. It is also important to note that the pH scale is logarithmic
and each whole number on the scale represents a 10-fold change.
Today, acid deposition is present in the northeastern United States, southeastern Canada, and much of
Europe including portions of Sweden, Norway, and Germany. In addition, parts of South Asia, South Africa,
Sri Lanka, and Southern India are all in danger of being impacted by acid deposition in the future.
Causes and History of Acid Rain
Acid deposition can occur via natural sources like volcanoes but it is mainly caused by the release of sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxide during fossil fuel combustion. When these gases are discharged into the
atmosphere they react with the water, oxygen, and other gases already present there to form sulfuric acid,
ammonium nitrate, and nitric acid. These acids then disperse over large areas because of wind patterns
and fall back to the ground as acid rain or other forms of precipitation.
The gases responsible for acid deposition are normally a byproduct of electric power generation and the
burning of coal. As such, it began entering the atmosphere in large amounts during the Industrial
Revolution and was first discovered by a Scottish chemist, Robert Angus Smith, in 1852. In that year, he
discovered the relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England.
Although it was discovered in the 1800s, acid deposition did not gain significant public attention until the
1960s and the term acid rain was coined in 1972. Public attention further increased in the 1970s when the
New York Times published reports about problems occurring in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in
New Hampshire.
Effects of Acid Rain
After studying the Hubbard Brook Forest and other areas today, there are several important impacts of
acid deposition on both natural and man-made environments. Aquatic settings are the most clearly
impacted by acid deposition though because acidic precipitation falls directly into them. Both dry and wet
deposition also runs off of forests, fields, and roads and flows into lakes, rivers, and streams.
As this acidic liquid flows into larger bodies of water, it is diluted but over time, acids can accrue and lower
the overall pH of the body. Acid deposition also causes clay soils to release aluminum and magnesium
further lowering the pH in some areas. If the pH of a lake drops below 4.8, its plants and animals risk death
and it is estimated that around 50,000 lakes in the United States and Canada have a pH below normal
(about 5.3 for water). Several hundred of these have a pH too low to support any aquatic life.
Aside from aquatic bodies, acid deposition can significantly impact forests. As acid rain falls on trees, it can
make them lose their leaves, damage their bark, and stunt their growth. By damaging these parts of the
tree, it makes them vulnerable to disease, extreme weather, and insects. Acid falling on a forests soil is
also harmful because it disrupts soil nutrients, kills microorganisms in the soil, and can sometimes cause a
calcium deficiency. Trees at high altitudes are also susceptible to problems induced by acidic cloud cover as
the moisture in the clouds blankets them.
Damage to forests by acid rain is seen all over the world, but the most advanced cases are in Eastern
Europe. Its estimated that in Germany and Poland, half of the forests are damaged, while 30% in
Switzerland have been affected.
Finally, acid deposition also has an impact on architecture and art because of its ability to corrode certain
materials. As acid lands on buildings (especially those constructed with limestone) it reacts with minerals in
the stones sometimes causing it to disintegrate and wash away. Acid deposition can also corrode modern
buildings, cars, railroad tracks, airplanes, steel bridges, and pipes above and below ground.
What's Being Done?
Because of these problems and the adverse effects air pollution has on human health, a number of steps
are being taken to reduce sulfur and nitrogen emissions. Most notably, many governments are now
requiring energy producers to clean smoke stacks by using scrubbers which trap pollutants before they are
released into the atmosphere and catalytic converters in cars to reduce their emissions. Additionally,
alternative energy sources are gaining more prominence today and funding is being given to the
restoration of ecosystems damaged by acid rain worldwide.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming
Global warming is the unequivocal and continuing rise in the average temperature of Earth's climate
system.
[2]
Since 1971, 90% of the increased energy has been stored in the oceans, mostly in the 0 to 700m
region.
[3]
Despite the oceans' dominant role in energy storage, the term "global warming" is also used to
refer to increases in average temperature of the air and sea at Earth's surface.
[4]
Since the early 20th
century, the global air and sea surface temperature has increased about 0.8 C (1.4 F), with about two-
thirds of the increase occurring since 1980.
[5]
Each of the last three decades has been successively warmer
at the Earth's surface than any preceding decade since 1850.
[6]

Scientific understanding of the cause of global warming has been increasing. In its fourth assessment (AR4
2007) of the relevant scientific literature, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported
that scientists were more than 90% certain that most of global warming was being caused by increasing
concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human activities.
[7][8][9]
In 2010 that finding was
recognized by the national science academies of all major industrialized nations.
[10][A]
Affirming these
findings in 2013, the IPCC stated that the largest driver of global warming is carbon dioxide (CO
2
) emissions
from fossil fuel combustion, cement production, and land use changes such as deforestation.
[11]
Its 2013
report states
Human influence has been detected in warming of the atmosphere and the ocean, in changes in the global
water cycle, in reductions in snow and ice, in global mean sea level rise, and in changes in some climate
extremes. This evidence for human influence has grown since AR4. It is extremely likely (95-100%) that
human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century. - IPCC
AR5 WG1 Summary for Policymakers
[12]

Climate model projections were summarized in the 2013 Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). They indicated that during the 21st century the global
surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 C (0.5 to 3.1 F) for their lowest emissions scenario
using stringent mitigation and 2.6 to 4.8 C (4.7 to 8.6 F) for their highest.
[13]
The ranges of these estimates
arise from the use of models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations.
[14][15]

Future climate change and associated impacts will vary from region to region around the globe.
[16][17]
The
effects of an increase in global temperature include a rise in sea levels and a change in the amount and
pattern of precipitation, as well as a probable expansion of subtropical deserts.
[18]
Warming is expected to
be strongest in the Arctic, with the continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely
effects of the warming include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves, droughts and
heavy rainfall; ocean acidification; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes. Effects
significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the loss of habitat
from inundation.
[19][20]

Proposed policy responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction, adaptation to its
effects, building systems resilient to its effects, and possible future climate engineering. Most countries are
parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
[21]
whose ultimate
objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) climate change.
[22]
Parties to the
UNFCCC have adopted a range of policies designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
[23][24][25][26]
and to
assist in adaptation to global warming.
[23][26][27][28]
Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in
emissions are required,
[29]
and that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 C (3.6 F) relative
to the pre-industrial level.
[29][B]
Reports published in 2011 by the United Nations Environment
Programme
[30]
and the International Energy Agency
[31]
suggest that efforts as of the early 21st century to
reduce emissions may be inadequate to meet the UNFCCC's 2 C target.
Emissions of greenhouse gases grew 2.2% per year between 2000 and 2010, compared with 1.3% per year
from 1970 to 2000.
[32]



alpha b answered 6 years ago









Audit:
A systematic evaluation to determine if programs and related activities achieve planned
expectations .
The review or challenging of written programs; documentation of activities; corrective
actions; trends.
An aid to determining the correlations between documented procedures and activities and
actual execution.
A potential assistance in identifying root cause, which can lead to long term corrective
action.

Inspection:
An assessment at a "moment in time" which identifies positive and negative conditions.
An extensive physical examination of a facility and its equipment and observation of
practices in order to collect information to determine compliance with plant programs.
Structured to initiate immediate corrective action, when it is required.
Structured to often lead to an evaluation of programs and systems.


An inspection is an evaluation or assessment on products, it involves measurements or
tests to conform the product to meet the specified requirements and standard.
Audit is an evaluation on organization, system, process, project or production line. Quality
audits are performed to verify conformance to standards through review of objective
evidence. A system of quality audits may verify the effectiveness of a quality management
system and verify the existence of objective evidence showing conformance to required
processes.





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