Rustichelli Et Al. (AAPG Bulletin)

Sedimentologic and
diagenetic controls on
pore-network characteristics
of OligoceneMiocene
ramp carbonates (Majella
Mountain, central Italy)
Andrea Rustichelli, Emanuele Tondi, Fabrizio Agosta,
Claudio Di Celma, and Maurizio Giorgioni
ABSTRACT
This article addresses the controls exerted by sedimentologic
and diagenetic factors on the preservation and modification of
pore-network characteristics (porosity, pore types, sizes, shapes,
and distribution) of carbonates belonging to the Bolognano
Formation. This formation, exposed at the Majella Mountain,
Italy, is composed of OligoceneMiocene carbonates depos-
ited in middle- to outer-ramp settings. The carbonates consist
of (1) grainstones predominantly composed of either larger
benthic foraminifera, especially Lepidocyclina, or bryozoans;
(2) grainstones to packstones with abundant echinoid plates
and spines; and (3) marly wackestones to mudstones with
planktonic foraminifera.
The results of this field- and laboratory-based study are
consistent with skeletal grain assemblages, grain sizes, sorting,
and shapes, all representing the sedimentologic factors respon-
sible for high values of connected primary macroporosity in
grainstones deposited on the high-energy, middle to proximal
outer ramp. Cementation, responsible for porosity reduction
and overall macropore shape and distribution in grainstones
to packstones deposited on the intermediate outer ramp, was
mainly dependent on the following factors: (1) amount of
echinoid plates and spines, (2) grain size, (3) grain sorting and
shapes, and (4) clay amount. Differently, in the wackestones
AUTHORS
Andrea Rustichelli Geology Division,
School of Science and Technology, University of
Camerino, Via Gentile III da Varano, Camerino
(Macerata), Italy; andrea.rustichelli@unicam.it
Andrea Rustichelli is a postdoctoral researcher at
the University of Camerino, Italy. He gained his
B.S. and M.S. degrees and Ph.D. in geological
sciences from the University of Camerino. His
research activity is mainly addressed to the strat-
igraphic, sedimentologic, and structural charac-
terizations of fractured carbonate reservoirs.
Emanuele Tondi Geology Division, School
of Science and Technology, University of
(Macerata), Italy; emanuele.tondi@unicam.it
Emanuele Tondi is an associate professor in
structural geology at the University of Camerino,
Italy. His research activity is mainly addressed
to the study of brittle deformation and on its
applications to solving regional and seismotec-
tonic problems, as well as the recovery of geo-
fluids from the subsurface. He is codirector of
the Reservoir Characterization Project.
Fabrizio Agosta Department of Geologi-
cal Sciences, University of Basilicata, Viale
dellAteneo Lucano 10, Potenza, Italy;
fabrizio.agosta@unibas.it
Fabrizio Agosta is an assistant professor at the
University of Basilicata, Italy. He joined the uni-
versity in 2010. He received his B.S. degree from
the University of Catania (Italy) in 1997, his
M.S. degree from Saint Louis University (Mis-
souri) in 2006, and his Ph.D. from Stanford
University (California) in 2006. He is codirector
of the Reservoir Characterization Project.
Claudio Di Celma Geology Division,
School of Science and Technology, University of
(Macerata), Italy; claudio.dicelma@unicam.it
Claudio Di Celma is a researcher at the University
of Camerino, Italy. He gained his degree in geo-
logical sciences from the University of Camerino
and his Ph.D. in earth sciences from the Uni-
versity of Pisa. His research interests include se-
quence stratigraphy, predictive stratigraphy, and
basin analysis. Claudio is currently working on
the sedimentology and stratigraphic architecture
of deep-water siliciclastic systems.
Copyright 2013. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
Manuscript received May 3, 2012; provisional acceptance July 2, 2012; revised manuscript received July
9, 2012; final acceptance July 31, 2012.
DOI:10.1306/07311212071
AAPG Bulletin, v. 97, no. 3 (March 2013), pp. 487524 487
to mudstones, laid down on the low-energy, distal outer ramp,
matrix is the key sedimentologic factor responsible for low
values of scattered macroporosity and dominance of micro-
porosity. The aforementioned results may be useful to improve
the prediction of reservoir quality by means of mapping, sim-
ulating, and assessing individual carbonate facies with peculiar
pore-network characteristics.
INTRODUCTION
Worldwide, more than 50% of the natural reservoirs (i.e., min-
eral and hydrothermal waters, geothermal fluids, oil, and gas)
consist of carbonate rocks (Schlumberger Ltd., 2007). Unlike
other types of reservoir rocks (e.g., siliciclastics), carbonates
include a wider variety of facies because of their peculiar bio-
genic nature and reactivity to fluids (diagenetic modifica-
tions). Carbonates are, indeed, the result of a multitude of
biological and ecological processes that may determine a wide
variety of types, sizes, shapes, and loci of production of sedi-
ments, which change over time (evolution of life). Biological
and ecological processes responsible for the production of
carbonates produce wave-resistant carbonate structures (i.e.,
reefs) and can profoundly affect facies belts and platformtypes
(e.g., Schlager, 2005, and references therein). In siliciclastic
rocks, despite a more complex mineralogical composition, grain
size mainly reflects the energy of the depositional environment,
whereas sediments and grains are less variable through time,
not being as dependent on biological and ecological processes
(Schlager, 2005). The greater chemical reactivity of metastable
carbonate minerals implies that the original sedimentologic
rock properties are modified by diagenetic processes such as
mechanical and chemical compaction, cementation, dissolu-
tion, and mineral transformations (Choquette and Pray, 1970;
Ehrenberg and Nadeau, 2005; Schlager, 2005; Hollis et al.,
2010). Hence, the nature, organization, and shapes of carbon-
ate components (i.e., grains, crystals, cements, pores) result in
complex rocks with highly variable reservoir petrophysical
properties (i.e., porosity, permeability, water and oil satura-
tion, and others; Lucia, 1999; Ehrenberg and Nadeau, 2005;
Schlager, 2005). It is therefore essential, when dealing with
carbonate reservoirs, to consider the geologic controls, includ-
ing diagenetic history, on porosity, pore types, shapes, sizes,
and connectivity. All these factors, indeed, may strongly affect
the permeability and other petrophysical properties of the
rocks (Anselmetti and Eberli, 1999; Kenter et al., 2006; Hollis
et al., 2010).
Maurizio Giorgioni Shell Italia E&P,
Piazza dellIndipendenza 11B, Rome, Italy;
maurizio.giorgioni@shell.com
Maurizio Giorgioni received his M.Sc. degree
in engineering from the University of Rome in
1987. He is currently working as the petro-
physics lead for the Nonoperated Ventures of
Shell in Europe. His interests include the for-
mation evaluation in naturally fractured car-
bonates with an emphasis on the quantitative
use of image logs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the AAPG Editor Stephen E. Laubach,
Ralf J. Weger, and one anonymous reviewer for
their elaborate and constructive reviews of the
manuscript. We also thank Maria Mutti, Gianluca
Frijia, and Dr. Jessica Zamagni of the Depart-
ment of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Uni-
versity of Potsdam, for their support during the
laboratory analyses and data interpretation.
We thank Mauro Alessandroni and Paolo Vallesi
for their help during the field analyses. This work
has been supported by the Reservoir Charac-
terization Project and the Ministero dellIstru-
zione, dellUniversit e della Ricerca, Progetti di
Rilevante Interesse Nazionale 2009 (national
coordinator, Emanuele Tondi).
The AAPG Editor thanks the following reviewers
for their work on this paper: Ralf J. Weger and an
anonymous reviewer.
EDI TOR S NOTE
Color versions of Figures 114 may be seen in
the online version of this article.
488 Sedimentologic and Diagenetic Controls on Pore-Network Characteristics
This study integrates the results of field and
laboratory analyses to assess the most important
sedimentologic and diagenetic factors controlling the
preservation and modification of the pore-network
characteristics (i.e., porosity, pore types, sizes, shapes,
and distribution) in OligoceneMiocene, skeletal-
dominated ramp carbonates exposed at the Majella
Mountain, central Italy. Quantitative estimations
and new attempts for correlations among several
sedimentologic (grain size, sorting, shape factor),
compositional (percentages of different types of
grains and cements), and pore-network parameters
(porosity and some pore geometrical descriptors)
are proposed in this article.
The ultimate goal is to contribute to a better
interpretation of depositional units, characterized
by peculiar pore-network characteristics, which may
constitute reservoirs or seals in skeletal-dominated
carbonate ramp systems. This could provide some
additional criteria useful for reservoir quality eval-
uation, a key and critical theme to most organiza-
tions that are involved in geofluids management in
carbonates.
GEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK
The Majella Mountain is an east-verging, thrust-
related anticline formed in the Pliocene and is
composed of several MesozoicCenozoic carbon-
ate units related to different marine settings (plat-
form, slope, basin, and ramp) originally pertaining
Figure 1. Geologic framework of the Majella Mountain. (A) Geologic map of the Majella Mountain (modified from Ghisetti and Vezzani, 1997).
(B) Cross section of the carbonate succession exposed at the Majella Mountain (modified from Vecsei, 1991). Fm = Formation; sl = sea level.
Rustichelli et al. 489
to the northernmost sector of the Apulian Platform
realm (Figure 1; Vecsei et al., 1998; Ghisetti and
Vezzani, 2002; Scisciani et al., 2002). The study
area is located along the northern flank of the
Majella Mountain (Figure 1A), where Upper Cre-
taceous to upper Miocene slope-to-ramp carbon-
ates of the Tre Grotte, Orfento, Santo Spirito, and
Bolognano formations crop out (Figure 2). These
carbonates, which are unconformably capped by
Messinian to lower Pleistocene marine siliciclastic
deposits, are crosscut by Pliocene normal faults,
mainly northwest-southeast trending (Agosta et al.,
Figure 2. (A) Facies map and (B) stratigraphic scheme of the carbonate stratigraphic units cropping out in the study area. Fm =
Formation.
2009). In the study area, evidence of fault-related
hydrocarbon invasion of carbonate rocks is wide-
spread, mainly within the Bolognano Formation
(Agosta et al., 2010).
The Bolognano Formation
The OligoceneMiocene Bolognano Formation rep-
resents the most recent stratigraphic unit making
up the carbonate succession of the Majella Moun-
tain (Vecsei and Sanders, 1999). This formation
includes carbonate facies characterized by a wide
variability in pore types and distribution, resulting
in porosity values ranging fromapproximately 0 to
more than 30%(Anselmetti et al., 1997; Rustichelli,
2010; Rustichelli et al., 2012). Within the Bolognano
Formation, the relatively shallow-water, skeletal-
dominated stratigraphic horizons are predominantly
composed of benthic foraminifera, bryozoans, echi-
noid and mollusk fragments and, in the stratigraph-
ically upper part, red algae (i.e., Lithothamnion);
deeper water stratigraphic horizons mainly consist
of marly limestones with planktonic foraminifera
(Figure 2; Vecsei and Sanders, 1999; Pomar et al.,
2004; Brandano et al., 2012).
Mutti et al. (1997, 1999), Vecsei and Sanders
(1999), and Brandano et al. (2012) suggested an
isolated low-angle (homoclinal or slightly distally
steepened) carbonate ramp as a depositional setting
for Bolognano Formation carbonates. The presence
in the skeletal assemblages of subtropical red algae
and larger benthic foraminifera (LBF), such as Le-
pidocyclina, Amphistegina, Operculina, Miogypsina,
and Heterostegina, implies subtropical conditions
during the deposition of the Bolognano Formation
(Pomar et al., 2004; Brandano et al., 2012), as for all
coeval OligoceneMiocene carbonates of the Med-
iterranean area (Brandano and Corda, 2002; Wilson
and Vecsei, 2005; Brandano et al., 2009; Westphal
et al., 2010). These types of carbonate rocks were
interpreted by the same authors as formed under a
wide range of trophic conditions (from oligome-
sotrophic to eutrophic), as evidenced by the pre-
dominance of mixotrophic calcareous organisms
Figure 3. Scheme of the internal stratigraphic architectures of facies associations A, B, C, and E of the Bolognano Formation. Note the
cyclic alternations of bed packages belonging to different facies. Facies association D is not considered because it lacks a significant
number of representative outcrops and its facies are too variable.
(i.e., LBF) supported in some cases by high amounts
of suspension feeders (i.e., bryozoans).
The first contribution to the literature on the
Bolognano Formation by Crescenti et al. (1969)
distinguished and characterized this formation
solely based on a lithostratigraphic approach. Only
at the end of the 1990s, after the development of
sequence stratigraphy as a new paradigm within
which to interpret sedimentary successions, were
a few sequence-stratigraphic studies conducted for
the carbonate succession of the Majella Mountain,
as a whole, and for the Bolognano Formation, in
particular. Vecsei et al. (1998) subdivided the car-
bonate succession of the Majella Mountain into six
second-order supersequences. Among these, the en-
tire Bolognano Formation represents the youngest
supersequence, which is subdivided into four third-
order sequences individually made up of both rel-
atively shallow-water and deep-water carbonates
(Vecsei and Sanders, 1999).
ANALYTICAL METHODS
Both field work and laboratory analyses were needed
to obtain an exhaustive stratigraphic, sedimen-
tologic, and petrographic characterization of the
studied carbonates.The field work included (1)
geologic mapping (at a 1:5000 scale) of the study
area, approximately 25 km
2
(10 mi
2
) (Figures 1A,
2A), aimed at subdividing the studied carbonate
succession into a hierarchical systemof stratigraphic
units (Figures 2, 3); and (2) stratigraphic and sedi-
mentologic logging performed along the largest
outcrops, laterally and vertically extensive from tens
to hundreds of meters. Inparticular, characterization
of stratigraphic elements (i.e., geometries, thick-
nesses, and lateral extents of individual beds and bed
packages; type and lateral extents of physical strati-
graphic surfaces) anddefinitionof vertical andlateral
relationships among distinct stratigraphic units were
aimed at defining the stratigraphic architecture of
the studied carbonate succession at different scales,
using a sequence-stratigraphic approach.
Eighty hand samples (8 per facies) of the ten
more-representative facies were collected for sub-
sequent laboratory analyses. These analyses used
the following methods:
1. Petrographic analysis of 80 thin sections (1 per
sample) using an optical polarizing microscope
(Nikon Eclipse E600) to qualitatively document
the sedimentologic (e.g., grain types, textures)
and diagenetic characteristics (e.g., cement types
anddistribution; compactionevidence), as well as
the types and distribution of macropores (pores
with diameters >20 mm; Anselmetti et al., 1998)
using classifications from Choquette and Pray
(1970), Lucia (1999), and Lny (2006)
2. Cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy on ten
selected polished thin sections (1 per facies) to
assess the diagenetic environments in which
cements precipitated; operating conditions for
the Cambridge Image Technology Ltd., UK
(CITL) Cold Cathode Luminescence (model
8200 Mk3A) were maintained at approximately
22-kV beam energy and 0.8-mA beam current
3. Dissolution of powders of 30 selected rock sam-
ples (3 per facies) using diluted hydrochloric
acid to determine the insoluble residue (vol. %)
4. X-ray diffraction analysis of powders of 20 se-
lected rock samples (2 per facies) using a KM-4
KUMA diffractometer equipped with diffracted
beam graphite monochromator to determine the
mineralogical composition of the studied rocks;
the copper tube was operated at 40-kV beam
energy and 25-mA beam current and spectra
were recorded in the 2-theta angular range from
3 to 65C with a 0.02 step and 1.5s per step
counting time.
Digital image analysis of microphotographs
(one per thin section), using Image-J 1.32 software,
was conducted to quantify the sedimentologic rock
parameters (grain size, sorting, shape factor), the
percentages of different rock components (grains,
matrix, cements, two-dimensional [2-D] porosity),
as well as some pore geometrical descriptors (i.e.,
perimeter over area [PoA] and dominant pore size
[DomSize]; sensuWeger et al., 2009). Specifically,
in the following text, as a grain size, we refer to the
mean value of the measured diameters assuming
that the individual grains are characterized by
rounded shapes. In contrast, sorting is expressed
as an inclusive graphic standard deviation, s
i
(sensu Folk and Ward, 1957; Flgel, 2004):
s
i
F
84
F
16
=4+F
95
F
5
=6:6 1
where F represents the logarithm on base 2 of the
meangrainsize, according tothe Wentworth-Udden
scale. This parameter is compared with the chart
edited by Longiaru (1987) (in Flgel, 2004) for a
qualitative classification of the carbonate rocks
(e.g., well sorted). Shape factor, instead, is ex-
pressed as the mean value of the dimensionless
ratio between the perimeter (P) of each individual
grain and a parameter proportional to its area
(2

pA
p
). The shape factor represents the grain cir-
cularity in two dimensions; the value of 1 is asso-
ciatedwitha circular grain(spherical inthree dimen-
sions [3-D]), whereas higher values are related to
more-elliptical grains. The percentages of the dif-
ferent rock components were calculated by auto-
matic point counting, based on recognition of
chromatic differences on each thin-section photo-
micrograph. Amounts of 2-D intergranular and
intragranular porosities were automatically deter-
mined, taking advantage of their different size
ranges for a given facies. Pore geometrical descrip-
tors DomSize and PoA represent the dominant
2-D pore size and the 2-Dpore-network complex-
ity, respectively. Pore geometrical descriptor PoA
is the ratio between the total perimeter that en-
closes the pore space on a thin section and the total
pore-space area. Generally, a small PoAvalue indi-
cates the overall low specific surfaces (rounded
shapes) of the pores. Pore geometrical descriptor
DomSize is determined as the upper boundary of
pore sizes of which 50% of the porosity on a thin
section is composed. This parameter provides an
indication of the pore-size range that dominates the
sample. The quantification of these two pore geo-
metrical descriptors is critical because they can be ef-
ficiently linked to physical properties of carbonates,
in particular, to permeability and sonic velocity.
To assess microporosity (pores with diameter
<20 mm), measurements of connected 3-D total
porosity were performedon 15samples (3 per each
of the most representative facies) by means of the
Micromeritics Multivolume Helium Pycnometer
1305. According to Anselmetti et al. (1998), mi-
croporosity can be easily calculated as the differ-
ence between 3-D(macroporosity + microporosity)
and 2-D values (macroporosity). Considering that
the bulk of porosity (98%) is connected in all
analyzed facies (Antonino Cilona, 2010, personal
communication), the bulk of the measured 2-D
porosity can be inferred as connected and, mostly,
fully comparable with 3-D porosity.
Finally, test shape variation (T/D) of Amphis-
tegina was used to constrain the paleobathymetry
of the depositional environments according to the
oligomesotrophic model proposed by Mateu-Vicens
et al. (2009):
Z
om
2:046 T=D
2:293
2
where Z
om
represents water depth and T/D is the
thickness-to-diameter ratio of individual Amphis-
tegina tests. A total of 64 Amphistegina specimens
(8 per facies) were measured in thin sections. The
preservation levels of LBF tests have been used to
estimate the amount of sediment transport along the
ramp. This is based on the studies of Beavington-
Penney (2004) on the abrasion of Nummulites as in-
dicators of transport processes. Assessments are
given using the Beavington-Penney taphonomic
scale (BPTS).
STRATIGRAPHY
On the basis of a variety of diagnostic characteris-
tics (i.e., dominant biota in skeletal grain assem-
blages and internal bedding architecture), the car-
bonates of the Bolognano Formation exposed in
the study area (Figure 2) have been subdivided
into five mappable facies associations (A, B, C, D,
and E), related to specific depositional environ-
ments. Facies associations include several facies
that are distinguishable from each other based on
their differences in rock texture and dominant grain
size (Figure 3). These differences can be related
to minor variations in the depositional processes
and/or other factors (e.g., water depth and energy,
Table 1. Stratigraphic and Sedimentologic Characteristics of the Stratigraphic Units Analyzed in this Study*
Facies Associations T (m)
Facies
Code T (m) % Vol. Lithologic Description Depositional Components
A Lepidocyclina
grainstones
3540
(Al)
Al1 0.12.0 29 Whitish to grayish, medium- to
coarse-grained bioclastic grainstones
(in some cases, pinkish or reddish
because of hydrocarbon invasion)
LBF** as complete tests and fragmented.
Less abundant bryozoan fragments and
echinoid plates and spines. Rare
fragments of red algae and smaller
benthic foraminifera (Rotalia, Neorotalia,
and Cibicides), as complete tests and
fragmented.
Al2 0.12.0 11 Whitish to yellowish, fine-grained
bioclastic grainstones
Red algal fragments and echinoid plates
and spines. Poorly distinguishable
fragments of LBF, bryozoans, and
smaller benthic foraminifera.
4060
(Au)
Au1 0.12.0 28 Whitish to grayish, medium- to
(commonly reddish or blackish
LBF (mainly Lepidocyclina,
less abundant Amphistegina and
Operculina, and rare Miogypsina) as
complete tests and fragmented.
Au2 0.12.0 31 Whitish to grayish medium-grained
bioclastic grainstones (commonly
reddish or blackish because of
hydrocarbon invasion)
Less abundant bryozoan fragments
and echinoid plates and spines. Rare
fragments of lamellibranchs and smaller
benthic foraminifera (Rotalia, Neorotalia,
Lenticulina, and Cibicides) as complete
tests and fragmented. Sporadic red
algae and Ditrupa.
Au3 23 1 Whitish to grayish, medium- to
with centimeter-size disarticulated
valves of lamellibranchs and echinoid
spines (commonly reddish or blackish
4
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B Bryozoan
grainstones
1015 B 1015 100 Whitish to grayish, medium-grained
bioclastic grainstones (commonly
reddish or blackish because of
hydrocarbon invasion)
Bryozoan fragments with minor amounts
of LBF (mainly Amphistegina and
Operculina, rare Miogypsina and sporadic,
probably reworked, Lepidocyclina) as
complete tests and fragmented; echinoid
plates and spines, fragments of
lamellibranchs, and smaller benthic
foraminifera (Rotalia, Lenticulina, and
Cibicides) as complete tests and fragmented.
Sporadic red algae and Ditrupa.
C Echinoid
grainstones
to packstones
35 C1 0.11.0 52 Grayish to yellowish, fine-grained
bioclastic grainstones
Echinoid plates and spines, (poorly
distinguishable) fragments of LBF,
bryozoans, smaller benthic foraminifera
(Rotalia, Lenticulina, Cibicides, textularids),
and lamellibranchs. Planktonic foraminifera
(Globigerinoides, Globoquadrina, Globigerina,
Globorotalia, Catapsydrax) and red algal
fragments. Poorly abundant micrite-clay
matrix. Intense bioturbation (Thalassinoides).
C2 0.11.0 48 Grayish to yellowish, fine- to very
fine-grained bioclastic packstones
Echinoid plates and spines, fragments of LBF,
small benthic foraminifera (rotalids and
textularids) and bryozoans, and planktonic
foraminifera (Globigerinoides, Catapsydrax,
Globoquadrina). Minor amounts of siliceous
sponge spicules and radiolarians. Intense
bioturbation (Thalassinoides and Zoophycos).
Poorly abundant to dominant micrite-clay matrix.
D Echinoid and
planktonic
foraminifera
packstones to
wackestones
810 Whitish to yellowish, very fine-
grained bioclastic packstones to
marly wackestones
E Planktonic
foraminifera
wackestones
to mudstones
6065 E1 0.12.0 55 Grayish, marly wackestones Planktonic foraminifera (Praeorbulina, Orbulina,
Globigerina, Globorotalia, Globigerinoides,
Globoquadrina, Catapsydrax); minor amounts
of radiolarians and siliceous sponge spicules.
Intense bioturbation (Chondrites and
Zoophycos). Dominant micrite-clay matrix.
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Table 1. Continued
Facies Associations Bedding Patterns Depositional Environments Sequence Stratigraphy
A Lepidocyclina
grainstones
Stacks of decimeter- to as much as 4-m
(13 ft)thick cross-bed packages bounded
by subhorizontal, slightly undulatory
truncation surfaces. Each package is
made up of 5- to 80-cm (231-in.)thick,
downward-stepping cross-bed foresets
downlapping (dipping up to 18) toward
west northwest and north northwest, onto
the lower truncation surface. Individual
cross-beds are (1) planar to sigmoidal,
from 1 to 10 m (333 ft) extended in dip
direction and (2) trough-shape, as much
as tens of meters extended in strike
direction. Outcropping truncation surfaces
are from tens to hundreds of meters
laterally extended. Individual bed packages
bounded by truncation surfaces of facies
association A can be composed of (1)
alternations of 10-cm (4-in.) to 2-m
(7-ft)thick bed packages of different
facies or (2) only one facies type (i.e.,
facies association B). No coarsening-fining
upwarding trends were observed.
Middle to proximal outer ramp
(oligomesotrophic subtropical conditions;
water depth, 2050 m [66164 ft]).
Benthic carbonate production (LBF-
dominated) in the oligophotic zone [middle
ramp]). Seaward transport and deposition
of skeletal material by unidirectional
migration of subacqueous dunes.
Facies associations A and B make up the
FSST,** tens of meters thick, which
are part of major depositional sequences.
Individual FSST are composed of high-
frequency sequences, decimeter to meter
thick, made up of cross-bed packages
bounded by truncation (flooding) surfaces.
Individual high-frequency sequences can
be composed of as much as 4-m (13-ft)
thick elementary cycles of facies caused
by high-frequency changes in sea level,
hydrodynamic, and trophic conditions.
B Bryozoan
grainstones
Middle to proximal outer ramp (eutrophic
subtropical conditions; water depth,
2050 m [66164 ft]). Benthic carbonate
production (bryozoan-dominated) under
aphotic conditions (middle to proximal
outer ramp). Seaward transport and
deposition of skeletal material by
unidirectional migration of subacqueous
dunes.
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C Echinoid
grainstones
to packstones
Stacks of laterally extensive, 5- to 70-cm
(28-in.)thick planar beds, which onlap
the truncation surfaces present at the
top of rock bodies composed of facies
associations A and/or B. Facies associations
C, D, and E are composed of alternations
of bed packages of different facies. The
thickness of individual bed packages
ranges from 10 cm (4 in.) to 1 m
Intermediate outer ramp
(oligomesotrophic subtropical
conditions; water depth, 5060 m
[164197 ft]). Seaward transport and
deposition of benthic skeletal material
(produced on the middle-outer ramp)
by action of unidirectional bottom
currents concomitantly to plankton
and mud fallout.
Facies associations C, D, and E make up
the TST,** tens of meters thick, which
are part of major depositional sequences.
Individual TST are composed of as
much as 4-m (13-ft)thick elementary
cycles of facies because of high-frequency
changes in sea level, hydrodynamic,
and trophic conditions.
D Echinoid and
planktonic
foraminifera
packstones to
wackestones
(3 ft; facies association C) and from
10 cm (4 in.) to 2 m (6 ft; facies
association E). No coarsening-fining
upwarding trends were observed.
Intermediate to distal outer ramp
(oligomesotrophic subtropical
conditions; water depth, >50 m
[164 ft]<100 m [328 ft]). Seaward
transport and deposition of benthic
skeletal material (produced on the
middle-outer ramp) by the action of
unidirectional bottom currents,
concomitantly to plankton and
mud fallout.
E Planktonic
foraminifera
wackestones
to mudstones
Distal outer ramp (eutrophic subtropical
conditions; water depth, >50100 m
[164328 ft] or more). Plankton and
mud fallout.
R
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4
9
7
nutrient supply, photic conditions) related to spe-
cific depositional environments (see Table 1 for de-
tailed descriptors of facies associations and facies).
Facies association A, Lepidocyclina grainstones,
is present at two distinct stratigraphic intervals
(lower, Al; upper, Au) within the studied carbon-
ate succession (Figure 2). Stratigraphic interval Al
includes a 35- to 40-m (115131-ft)thick alterna-
tion of two facies: (1) medium- to coarse-grained
bioclastic grainstones (Al1) and (2) fine-grained bio-
clastic grainstones (Al2). The latter facies is more
common in the lower part of facies association Al
(Figure 3). Stratigraphic interval Au includes a 40-
to 60-m (131197-ft)thick alternation of two
dominant facies: (1) medium- to coarse-grained
bioclastic grainstones (Au1) and (2) medium-
grained bioclastic grainstones (Au2; Figure 4A).
A less common facies (Au3; Table 1) (Figure 3),
which differs from Au1 by more abundant echi-
noid spines and disarticulated valves of lamelli-
branchs, as muchas a fewcentimeters in size, is also
present.
Facies association B, bryozoan grainstones, con-
sists of 10- to 15-m (3349-ft)thick medium-
grained grainstones, which mainly differs from fa-
cies association A for the type of biota (bryozoans
vs. LBF, especially Lepidocyclina), dominating the
skeletal grain assemblages (Table 1).
Figure 4. Outcrop view of the more-representative facies associations and facies of the Bolognano Formation, which are exposed in the
study area. (A) Facies association Au (locality, Pian delle Cappelle). (B) Facies association C (locality, Roman Valley Quarry). The dark
beds (highlighted by horizontal arrows) represent fine-grained grainstones (facies C1), whereas the other beds, composed of fine- to
very fine-grained packstones (facies C2), present ubiquitous anostomosed pressure solution seams (highlighted by vertical arrows),
which are parallel and internal to beds. (C) Facies association E (locality, Roman Valley Quarry). The thinnest beds (highlighted by
arrows) represent marly mudstones (facies E2). The more competent (in relief) beds represent marly wackestones (facies E1). The 33-cm
(13-in.) long hammer is for scale (see the black circle).
:
Figure 5. (A) Cross section drawn from mapping of stratigraphic elements on a photomosaic of a wall of the Roman Valley Quarry.
(B) Detail.
Table 2. Diagenetic and Pore-Network Characteristics of the Stratigraphic Units Analyzed in This Study
Facies Associations
Facies
Code Diagenetic Description Early Diagenesis Interpretation Burial Diagenesis Interpretation Pore-Network Characteristics
A
B
Lepidocyclina
grainstones
Bryozoan grainstones
Al1
Al2
Au1
Au2
Au3
B
Moderate amounts of syntaxial
overgrowth calcite cement
around echinoid plates and
spines. Low amounts of
microsparry calcite cement.
Rare presence of iron oxides,
glauconite, and phosphates.
Moderate amounts of syntaxial
overgrowth calcite cement
around echinoid plates and
spines. Low amounts of
microsparry calcite cement.
Iron oxides, glauconite, and
phosphates are commonly
present.
Presence of iron oxides,
glauconite, and phosphates,
pointing to an early marine
diagenesis.
Precompactional precipitation
of the bulk of the syntaxial
overgrowth cements, and
part of microsparry cement,
within a shallow-marine
burial environment (depth,
as much as a few tens of
meters). Cementation was
sourced by dissolution and
neomorphism of early
marine, high-magnesium
cements and aragonitic
biota. Syncompactional
microsparry calcite
cementation was caused by a
Fully connected, uniformly
distributed macropores
with low specific surfaces.
Presence of abundant
intergranular macropores
(0.10.5 mm large) and
smaller (0.050.2 mm large)
intragranular macropores.
Subordinate microporosity.
High two- and three-
dimensional porosity
(especially in facies
association B).
C Echinoid grainstones
to packstones
C1 Abundant syntaxial overgrowth
calcite cement around
echinoid plates and spines.
Minor amounts of microsparry
calcite cement. Rare presence
of iron oxides, glauconite,
and phosphates.
pervasive, overburden-related,
intergranular pressure
solution within a deep
burial environment.
Fully connected, patchily
distributed macropores.
Presence of 0.05- to 0.15-mm
large intergranular and
intragranular macropores.
Subordinate microporosity.
Strongly variable two- and
three-dimensional porosity.
C2 Abundant microsparry calcite
cement. Minor amounts of
syntaxial overgrowth calcite
cement around echinoid
plates and spines. Rare
presence of iron oxides,
glauconite, and phosphates.
Dominant microporosity.
Patchily distributed
macropores with high
specific surfaces. Presence
of scattered small (0.05
0.1 mm large) intergranular
and intragranular macropores.
Low two- and three-
dimensional porosity.
5
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Facies association C, echinoid grainstones to
packstones, consists of 3- to 5-m (1016-ft)thick
alternations of two facies, both rich in echinoid
plates and spines: (1) fine-grained bioclastic grain-
stones (C1) and (2) fine- to very fine-grained bio-
clastic packstones (C2; Table 1) (Figures 3, 4B).
Argillaceous to marly beds, as much as 3-cm (1-in.)
thick, are commonly intercalated to the two facies
described above.
Facies association D, echinoid and planktonic
foraminifera packstones to wackestones, is as much
as 10 m(33 ft) thick and crops out sporadically in
the study area (Figure 2A). This facies associa-
tion is composed of a large variety of facies, of
which end members are represented by very fine-
grained bioclastic packstones and marly wacke-
stones (Table 1). Fissile argillaceous to calcareous
marls, arranged in 210-cm (14-in.)thick beds,
are commonly intercalated to the other facies.
Facies association E, planktonic foraminifera
wackestones to mudstones, consists of a 6065-m
(197213-ft)thick alternation of two facies: (1)
marly wackestones (E1) and (2) marly mudstones
(E2; Table 1) (Figures 2, 3, 4C). Both facies have
planktonic foraminifera as predominant skeletal
components of the rocks.
Facies associations A and B are both arranged
in stacks of decimeter to as much as 4-m (13-ft)
thick packages of cross-beds bounded by subhor-
izontal large-scale truncation surfaces (Table 1)
(Figures 3; 4A; 5A, B). However, facies associa-
tions C, D, and E are all arranged in planar beds
(Figure 4B, C), which are laterally extensive and
onlap the truncation surfaces present at the top of
rock bodies composed of facies associations Aand/
or B (Table 1) (Figure 5A, B). Facies associations
A, C, and E are all composed of cyclic alternations
of 10-cm(4-in.) to 2-m(7-ft)thick bed packages
of different facies (Figure 3).
PETROGRAPHIC AND
PORE-NETWORK CHARACTERISTICS
The integration of data provided by different lab-
oratory analyses (optical and CL microscopy, x-ray
diffraction, and digital image analysis) allowed us E
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to characterize (1) the depositional texture and
grain types, (2) the diagenetic modification, and
(3) the pore-network characteristics of the studied
carbonate facies (Tables 13). Facies association D
is not considered in this section because laboratory
analyses yielded poor quality data.
Depositional Textures and Grain Types
Facies associations A, B, and C contain a variety of
calcitic, benthic skeletal grains, mainly in the form
of abraded fragments; only larger and smaller ben-
thic foraminifera are also present as nearly complete
Table 3. Sedimentologic, Compositional, and Pore-Network Data of the Studied Facies*
Facies Code GS** SF** S** MX** Cl** L** B** E** R** PF**
Al1 Mean
value
0.63 1.26 0.77 (m)** 0 0 49.7 3.9 5.4 0.3 0
Range 0.330.75 1.211.3 0.690.9 39.472.5 2.18.8 3.28.8 01.5
Al2 Mean
value
0.15 1.19 0.56 (w/m)** 0 0 0 0 11.7 23.2 0
Range 0.120.21 1.161.21 0.480.75 8.615.2 12.631.2
Au1 Mean
value
0.52 1.31 0.92 (m/p)** 0 0 51.6 20.1 5.2 0 0
Range 0.230.62 1.231.35 0.81.06 42.571.4 11.827.7 411.2
Au2 Mean
value
0.3 1.25 0.83 (m)** 0 0 15.9 26.9 16.6 0 0
Range 0.180.38 1.221.29 0.740.91 10.928.9 17.440.2 11.319.8
Au3 Mean
value
0.47 1.3 0.85 (m)** 0 0 35.3 20.8 14 0 0
Range 0.220.63 1.271.32 0.740.99 29.561.4 1225.4 10.216.2
B Mean
value
0.3 1.22 0.6 (m/w)** 0 0 0.5 44.1 12.8 0 0
Range 0.180.35 1.181.26 0.480.69 01 37.968.8 8.916.5
C1(e) Mean
value
0.21 1.18 0.68 (m/w)** 2.5 0.6 23.4 10.3 35.1 2.9 0
Range 0.160.26 1.161.19 0.550.74 04 01.2 14.730.5 5.217.3 24.643.1 06.5
C1 Mean
value
0.15 1.15 0.54 (w/m)** 4 1.1 0 0 25.5 5.3 3.5
Range 0.14019 1.141.17 0.470.62 07.5 0.51.8 19.431.2 1.68.8 0.56.1
C2 Mean
value
0.14 1.15 0.37 (w/vw)** 16 2.8 0 0 20.1 7.2 7.8
Range 0.120.15 1.141.16 0.330.42 7.522 1.94 12.625.9 3.710.9 4.110.2
E1 Mean
value
80 9.3 0 0 0 0 14.8
Range 6590 5.214 7.422.4
E2 Mean
value
90 13.2 0 0 0 0 7.4
Range 8495 8.117.8 3.39.9
*Mean values and ranges from eight samples per facies. Three samples per facies are considered solely for three-dimensional total porosity and microporosity.
**Quantitative parameter codes: GS = grain size (mm); SF = shape factor; S = sorting (vw = very well; w = well; m = moderate; p = poor). Rock components (% vol.): MX =
matrix; Cl = clay minerals (insoluble residue of rock); L = Lepidocyclina; B = bryozoans; E = echinoid plates and spines; R = red algae; PF = planktonic foraminifera; C
t
=
total cement; C
s
= syntaxial overgrowth cement; C
m
= microsparry cement; F
t
(2-D) = two-dimensional total porosity; F
i
(2-D) = two-dimensional intergranular porosity;
F
ii
(2-D) = two-dimensional intragranular porosity; F
t
(3-D) = three-dimensional total porosity; mF = microporosity. Pore geometrical descriptors: DS = DomSize (mm);
PoA = PoA (mm
1
). T/D = thickness-to-diameter ratio of Amphistegina tests.
tests (see Table 1) (Figure 6AF). Preservation
levels (BPTS) of LBF tests range from 1 to 3 in
both facies associations A and B and from 2 to 3
in facies association C. Moreover, the grainstones
and packstones of facies association C contain
planktonic foraminifera (Figure 6E, F) and mini-
mal amounts of micrite-clay matrix. In contrast,
facies association E is mainly composed of micrite-
clay matrix containing scattered planktonic fora-
minifera as well as less abundant radiolarians and
siliceous sponge spicules (Figure 6G, H). The only
sedimentary structure type commonly detectable by
optical microscopy in facies associations A (mainly,
Figure 6C), B, and C consists of elongated grains
Table 3.
C
t
** C
s
** C
m
** F
t
(2-D)** F
i
(2-D)** F
ii
(2-D)** F
t
(3-D)** mF** DS** PoA** T/D**
1.9 1.3 0.6 21.4 14.7 6.7 0.23 58.1 0.46
1.33.2 12.1 0.41.2 14.228.8 11.520.3 4.59.3 0.150.3 5162.5 0.330.51
4 2.8 1.2 8.7 6.3 2.4 0.11 69.7 0.44
1.87 0.85 0.62.5 6.310.7 4.87.7 1.64 0.10.12 65.578 0.30.5
4.1 2.7 1.4 16.6 10.8 5.8 23.9 7.3 0.29 48.9 0.44
36.3 25.1 0.92.2 10.425.9 719.1 3.97.1 15.333.2 2.810.2 0.150.48 3659.3 0.330.5
4 2.7 1.3 15.2 9.2 6 0.15 61.9 0.42
3.35.7 2.14.6 0.82.1 9.418.9 7.712 4.37.9 0.10.21 56.671.7 0.280.49
3.2 2.1 1.1 16.3 11.3 5 0.20 54.9 0.43
1.34.2 0.63.2 0.71.6 10.322.4 7.216.8 3.96 0.170.25 52.658.7 0.310.5
4.5 3.5 1 24.6 19.4 5.2 32.1 7.5 0.23 50.1 0.39
37.2 25.6 0.42 21.228.6 1622.5 3.88.3 26.435.3 4.89.3 0.170.31 44.956.4 0.290.44
7.6 6 1.6 10.8 6.5 4.3 0.12 70.6
4.811.2 3.78.1 12.5 6.215.1 3.99.1 2.46.2 0.110.14 65.177.7
7.5 5.7 1.8 6.5 3.9 2.6 10.2 3.7 0.11 74.7 0.39
4.510.4 2.67.1 0.92.5 4.28.7 2.85.2 24.1 5.814 1.66.2 0.080.15 63.385.9 0.320.44
8.8 4.2 4.6 0.5 0.2 0.3 3.9 3.4 0.06 128.4 0.37
611.9 2.15.3 2.97.4 0.12.1 0.11 0.11.1 1.47.2 1.35.1 0.050.07 105.4139.6 0.280.43
14.8 2.3 0 2.3 1.4 0 1.4 29.9 28.5 0.09 62.0
1.44.4 1.44.4 0.82.1 0.82.1 24.933.1 24.131 0.080.1 58.165
7.4 1.3 0 1.3 0.8 0 0.8 0.08 70.1
0.81.9 0.81.9 0.41.3 0.41.3 0.060.1 53.284.5
with long axes oriented parallel to bedding (as
observable, in some cases, in the field).
Diagenetic Modification
Two types of low-magnesium calcite cements are
present within the analyzed rocks: (1) syntaxial
overgrowth cement (sensu Bathurst, 1958) around
echinoid plates and spines and (2) equant micro-
sparry cement (Flgel, 2004) with crystal sizes of
approximately 10 mm. Under an optical micro-
scope view, both syntaxial overgrowth and micro-
sparry cements are clear (inclusion free). Under a
CL microscope view, both cements present a bright
to dull, red-orange luminescence.
Both syntaxial overgrowth and microsparry
cements are present within facies associations A,
B, and C (Figure 6AD), whereas only micro-
sparry cement is present within facies associa-
tion E (Figure 6G). Syntaxial overgrowth cement,
in many cases, completely surrounds individual
echinoid plates and spines (see plates highlighted
in Figure 6AC); more rarely, this cement envel-
ops two or more echinoid plates and/or spines (see
plates highlighted in Figure 6E). However, within
facies associations A, B, and C1, microsparry ce-
ment constitutes discontinuous rims around skel-
etal grains or within their chambers (in some cases,
totally filling them; Figure 6A). In contrast, within
facies C2, microsparry cement fills a dominant
part of both chambers of the skeletal grains and
original intergranular spaces. Within facies associ-
ation E, microsparry cement partially or completely
fills some chambers of planktonic foraminifera
(Figure 6G) and radiolarians. Rare microsparry
calcite cementdominated rocks are also present
within facies association E.
Authigenic minerals, such as glauconite, phos-
phorite, and iron oxides, are present in minimal
amounts (<1% of rock volume) within all studied
Figure 6. More-representative microfacies under cross-polarized light. (A) Lepidocyclina-dominated, medium- to coarse-grained
grainstones (facies Al1). (B) Fine-grained grainstones rich in red algal fragments (facies Al2). (C) Lepidocyclina-dominated, medium- to
coarse-grained grainstones (facies Au1). (D) Bryozoan-dominated, medium-grained grainstones (facies B). (E) Fine-grained grainstones rich
in echinoid plates and spines (facies C1). (F) Fine- to very fine-grained packstones (facies C2). (G) Marly wackestones with planktonic
foraminifera (facies E1). (H) Marly mudstones with planktonic foraminifera (facies E2). Abbreviations of rock components: L = Lepido-
cyclina, either as complete test or as fragment; B = bryozoan fragment; A = Amphistegina; E = echinoid plate; R = red algal fragment; SBF =
smaller benthic foraminifera; LB = lamellibranch fragment; PF = planktonic foraminifera; SS = siliceous sponge spicule; MX = matrix; S =
syntaxial overgrowth cement; M = microsparry cement; P1 = intergranular macropore; P2 = intragranular macropore; SC = sutured grain-
to-grain contact. Note in panels E, F, G, and H the intragranular macropores (black) internal to the highlighted planktonic foraminifera.
Figure 7. Bar chart showing the relative amounts in volume of the different types of skeletal grains, cements, and (macro)pores
detectable in thin section, within the studied facies of the Bolognano Formation (mean values from eight samples per facies). 2-D =
two-dimensional.
facies associations, especially in B and E. These
minerals (1) are localized within skeletal grain
chambers, (2) partially replace skeletal shells, or
(3) are present in the formof predominantly 50- to
200-mmsize pellets.
Evidence of physical and chemical compac-
tion are identified in the studied rocks. Within
facies associations A, B, and C, evidence of physical
compaction is represented by (1) plastic deforma-
tion of grains characterized by internal macropores
(mainly Lepidocyclina and bryozoans) and (2) grains
broken into several pieces and slightly dislocated
(e.g., Lepidocyclina and lamellibranch highlighted
in Figure 6C). Evidence of chemical compaction
(intergranular pressure solution), represented by su-
tured grain-to-grain contacts (Figure 6C, F), mainly
involves grains lacking internal macropores (la-
mellibranch fragments and echinoid plates and
spines, in some cases surrounded by syntaxial over-
growth cement). The presence of planktonic for-
aminifera and radiolarian chambers partially or to-
tally filled by matrix represents further evidence
of physical compaction exclusive of facies associa-
tion E (Figure 6G).
Pore-Network Characteristics
Two main types of macropores (sensu Lucia, 1999)
characterize facies associations A, B, and C
intergranular and intragranular (intrafossil), sensu
Choquette and Pray (1970) (Figure 6AF). In
contrast, the rocks comprising facies association E
include only intragranular (intrafossil) macropores
(Figure 6G, H). Furthermore, microporosity is
present in all the analyzed facies associations (see
Table 3).
Based on Weger et al. (2009), grainstones of
facies associations Aand B have predominant large
intergranular macropores (high DomSize values;
Table 3) with relatively low specific surfaces (low
PoA values; Table 3). In contrast, grainstones and
packstones of facies association Chave lowDomSize
and high PoA values, indicating high specific-surface
macropore systems. Macropore systems in mud-
stones and wackestones of facies associationEshow
low values of both DomSize and PoA (Table 3).
Macropore distributionis insteaduniform(sensu
Lny, 2006) in the grainstones of facies associa-
tions A and, above all, B (Figure 6AD). Con-
versely, macropores have a patchy distribution
(sensu Lny, 2006) within the grainstones to
packstones of facies association C, as well as in the
mudstones to wackestones of facies association E
(Figure 6EH). As recorded by the presence of
postdiagenetic hydrocarbon residues within all in-
tergranular and intragranular macropores of grain-
stones (when hydrocarbon invaded), fully con-
nected macropore systems characterize these
rocks (facies associations A and B and facies C1).
On the contrary, optical microscope observations
are consistent with scattered, isolated macropore
systems characterizing packstones, wackestones, and
mudstones (facies C2, E1, and E2; Figure 6FH).
QUANTITATIVE CORRELATIONS
In this section, the more meaningful correlations
among sedimentologic, compositional, and pore-
network parameters (Table 3) are summarized.
The correlation graphs show one data point for
each of the analyzed carbonate facies. Each point
represents the mean value obtained from eight
measurements (only three for 3-D total porosity).
As shown in the bar chart of Figure 7, the studied
Figure 8. Correlation graphs among several sedimentologic (grain size, sorting, shape factor) and compositional rock parameters
(percentages of different types of grains and cements). All these graphs were compiled using data collected from facies associations A, B,
and C. Facies association E is not considered because it is composed of matrix-supported facies, in which individual matrix particles are
not visible in thin section. The selected correlation type (i.e., linear, polynomial, logarithmic, power-law) best fits the data points of each
graph both in this figure and in Figures 912. (A) Relationships among mean grain sizes and amounts of the most representative
depositional components (skeletal grains and matrix). (B and C) Positive linear correlations of mean grain size versus shape factor and
sorting. (D) Negative linear correlations between cement amounts and mean grain size. (E) Positive linear correlation between amounts
of echinoid plates and spines and syntaxial overgrowth cement.
facies of the Bolognano Formation are made up of
different mean amounts of a variety of rock com-
ponents (i.e., different types of skeletal grains, ce-
ments, and macropores). The amounts (percentage
of total rock volume) of the main depositional
components (i.e., grains that are dominating in
the skeletal assemblages, such as Lepidocyclina,
bryozoans, red algae, echinoid plates and spines, as
well as matrix) documented for facies associations
A, B, and Cshowquite disperse ranges in the graph
of Figure 8A, depending on the rock grain size.
The mean grain size is correlated to several
other sedimentologic, compositional, and pore-
network parameters of the carbonate rocks com-
prising facies associations A, B, and C (Figures 8
12). Both grain shape factor and grain sorting show
positive linear correlations with the mean grain
size (Figure 8B, C); this means that finer grained
carbonates are better sortedand composed of more-
spherical carbonate grains. Regarding the diagenetic
components of the rock, mean amounts of both
individual types of cement (microsparry and syn-
taxial overgrowth) and total cement are all nega-
tively correlated to the mean grain size (Figure 8D).
Moreover, when considering the syntaxial over-
growth cement, its amount (percentage of total rock
volume) is positively, linearly correlated to that of
echinoid plates and spines (Figure 8E), as similarly
documented by Knoerich and Mutti (2003).
Regarding the pore-network characteristics of
the rocks, as shown in Table 3, the studied facies
present different mean amounts of 2-D and 3-D
total macroporosities; the former is given by the
sum of various amounts of intergranular and in-
tragranular porosities, and the latter, by the sum
of (2-D) total macroporosity and microporosity
(Figure 10A). In most cases, mean values of 2-D
and 3-D total porosities, as well as 2-D intergran-
ular and intragranular porosities, all increase pro-
portionally with the mean grain size (Figures 9A,
10B). All porosities suddenly decrease to approx-
imately 0% at the critical value of mean grain size
of approximately 0.14 mm. A significant excep-
tion to the positive trend is represented by the
bryozoan-dominated, medium-grained grainstones
of facies association B. As shown in Figure 9A and
B, these rocks compared to other grainstones (of
Lepidocyclina-dominated facies association A) with
similar mean grain sizes show the highest values of
both intergranular and 2-D total porosity (19.4
and 24.6%, respectively; positive outliers in the
graphs of Figure 9A, at 0.3 mmof mean grain size).
The DomSize mean values show a positive linear
correlation with the mean grain size (Figure 11A);
on the contrary, PoA mean values increase as the
mean grain size decreases (Figure 12A). Moreover,
mean values of PoA, like porosities, suddenly vary
at the critical value of mean grain size of approxi-
mately 0.14 mm.
The 2-Dand 3-Dporosities, DomSize and PoA,
were also crossplottedagainst eachother (Figures 9B,
11B, 12B) and against other sedimentologic (sort-
ing and shape factor) and compositional param-
eters (total cement amount; Figures 9C, 10C, 11C,
12C). Specifically, mean values of both 2-D total
porosity and DomSize are (1) positively correlated
to both intergranular and intragranular 2-D po-
rosities (Figures 9B, 11B), mean grain size, and
grain shape factor and are (2) negatively corre-
lated to both grain sorting and total cement amount
(Figures 9C, 11C). Mean values of 3-D total po-
rosity are correlated to mean grain size, shape fac-
tor, and cement amount, similar to 2-D total po-
rosity (Figure 10C). On the contrary, PoA mean
values are (1) positively correlated to both grain
sorting and total cement amount and (2) negatively
correlated to mean grain size and grain shape factor
(Figure 12C), as well as both intergranular and in-
tragranular 2-D porosities (Figure 12B).
DISCUSSION
In the following paragraphs, the environmental
conditions that characterized the depositional set-
ting of all five facies associations (A, B, C, D, and E;
Table 1) (Figure 13) recognized in this work within
the Bolognano Formation are first assessed. Thus,
the results of our integrated field and laboratory
analyses of these carbonates in terms of sequence
stratigraphy, diagenetic history, and pore-network
characteristics (i.e., porosity, pore types, sizes,
shapes, and distribution) are discussed in detail.
Facies association A is made up of coarse- to
medium-grained grainstones with skeletal grain as-
semblages dominated by LBF (i.e., Lepidocyclina,
Amphistegina, Operculina), both as nearly com-
plete tests and fragmented, with minor amounts
of bryozoan and red algal fragments and echinoid
plates and spines (Figures 6AC, 7). Brandano et al.
(2012), in their recent study conducted on out-
crops of the Bolognano Formation, many of which
correspond to those analyzed in this study, sug-
gested production loci of the bulk of the skeletal
components of the grainstones of facies associa-
tion A within a high-energy, wide oligophotic
middle ramp. The same authors assessed water
Figure 9. (A) Logarithmic correlations among two-dimensional (2-D) porosities and grain size of rocks belonging to facies associations
A, B, and C. (B) Positive linear correlations among 2-D total and partial porosities. The (dominant) rock components having the highest
influence to determine specific porosity ranges are specified in the graph. (C) Polynomial correlations among 2-D total porosity and
several sedimentologic and compositional parameters of the rock. These relationships are represented as D, a dimensionless parameter
used to compare dimensionally different units. The D is equal to (1) X
i
X
min
/ X
min
, for the grain size and cement amount data series; (2)
(X
i
1) (X
min
1) / X
min
1, for the shape factor data series, because the lowest possible value is 1 instead of 0; and (3) X
i
X
max
/ X
min
,
for the sorting data series, because higher s
i
values correspond to poorer sorting.
depths ranging from approximately 20 to 40 m
(66131 ft) for this ramp sector, as indicated by
associations of red algae and Amphistegina T/D
values. Actually, the latter ones indicated that
Amphistegina specimens present within the skele-
tal assemblages of facies association A formed at
water depths ranging between approximately 10
and 40 m (33131 ft) and, hence, also across the
inner ramp at water depths less than 20 m(66 ft).
The Amphistegina T/D values calculated in this
work, comprised between 0.29 and 0.51 (see
Table 3), are fully consistent with these water
Figure 10. (A) Bar chart showing the mean values of three-dimensional (3-D) total porosity as a sum of (two-dimensional) macro-
porosity and microporosity, within some of the more-representative facies of the Bolognano Formation. (B) Logarithmic correlation
among 3-D total porosity and grain size of rocks belonging to facies associations A, B, and C. (C) Logarithmic correlations among 3-D
total porosity and several sedimentologic and compositional parameters of the rock.
depth assessments. To sum up, the environmental
interpretation suggested by Brandano et al. (2012)
is in full agreement with those proposed by Betzler
et al. (1997), Brandano and Corda (2002), Pomar
et al. (2004), and Brandano et al. (2009) for several
other upper Oligocene to lower Miocene ramp car-
bonates exposed in the Mediterranean area and
having similar grain sizes, texture, and skeletal as-
semblages. Additionally, these authors suggested
oligomesotrophic subtropical conditions during
the production of the skeletal components of the
aforementioned carbonates.
Facies association B, instead, is characterized
by skeletal grain assemblages dominated by bryo-
zoans with minor amounts of larger and smaller
benthic foraminifera and echinoids plates and
spines (Table 1) (Figures 6D, 7). Although bryo-
zoans may occur everywhere, regardless of light
conditions, they commonly become abundant car-
bonate producers under aphotic conditions that, in
Figure 11. (A) Positive linear correlation between dominant pore size (DomSize) and mean grain size of rocks belonging to facies
associations A, B, and C. (B) Logarithmic correlations DomSize versus two-dimensional (2-D) total and partial porosities. (C) Linear
correlations among DomSize and several sedimentologic and compositional parameters of the rock (represented as D).
many cases, occur on outer ramps because photo-
dependent organisms are lacking (Brandano and
Corda, 2002; Pomar et al., 2004). However, bryo-
zoans may also be the dominant carbonate pro-
ducers on middle ramps if nutrient supplies are
sufficient to significantly reduce water transparency
and, therefore, the development of photodepen-
dent organisms such as LBF and red algae, which
commonly are the main carbonate producers of
these depositional environments (Pomar 2001;
Brandano and Corda, 2002; Mutti and Hallock,
2003; Brandano et al., 2009; Westphal et al., 2010).
The skeletal assemblages of grainstones belonging
to facies association B are more consistent with the
latter interpretation because the occurrence of
eutrophic conditions during their formation, evi-
denced by increased amounts of phosphates and
glauconite, was assessed by Vecsei and Sanders
(1999) and Mutti and Bernoulli (2003).
Both facies associations A and B present analo-
gous bedding patterns (cross-bed packages; Table 1)
(Figures 4A; 5A, B) that have been interpreted as
Figure 12. (A) Negative power-law correlation between perimeter over area (PoA) and mean grain size of rocks belonging to facies
associations A, B, and C. (B) Negative polynomial correlations PoA versus two-dimensional (2-D) total and partial porosities. (C) Polynomial
correlations among PoA and several sedimentologic and compositional parameters of the rock (represented as D).
the product of unidirectional migration of large-
scale subaqueous dunes under the action of bot-
tomcurrents (Vecsei and Sanders, 1999; Brandano
et al., 2012, and references therein). Our paleo-
current data (dip directions of cross-beds after the
restoration of tectonic tilting; see Table 1) are
consistent with the seaward dune migration to-
ward west northwest and north northwest, in full
agreement with that previously documented by
Vecsei (1991), Vecsei and Sanders (1999), and
Brandano et al. (2012) (see Figures 1B, 14). In
many cases, subaqueous dune migration deter-
mines a skeletal accumulation in the middle ramp,
less commonly in the proximal outer ramp (Pomar,
Figure 13. (A) Sequence-stratigraphic scheme of the studied facies associations of the Bolognano Formation. The scheme is based on
data collected from tens of outcrops, tens to hundreds of meters laterally and vertically extensive and patchily distributed in the study
area. In particular, the four more-representative outcropping stratigraphic sections are used to calibrate the scheme. Strongly dia-
genetically modified facies associations represented in Figure 2 are not considered because these are related to late, fault-related dia-
genetic processes that are not associated to the ramp evolution. (B) Schematic cross section of the platform margin of the Majella
Mountain showing the large-scale architecture of facies associations that compose the Bolognano Formation (modified from Mutti et al.,
1997). In the Mount Cavallo area, different facies associations from the studied ones have been documented by Brandano et al.
(2012). (C) Ramp profile showing the depositional environments in which the studied facies associations of the Bolognano Formation
formed. TST = transgressive systems tract; FSST = falling-stage systems tract; Ms = major sequence; Hs = high-frequency, small-scale
sequence.
2001; Pomar et al., 2002, and references therein;
Brandanoet al., 2012). Basedontheir similarities in
bedding patterns, facies associations Aand Bcan be
considered as deposited in a similar setting and
under similar hydraulic conditions, probably rep-
resented by a broad middle to proximal outer ramp
(Figure 13). Evidence of seaward transport pro-
vided by bedding patterns of facies associations A
and B are supported by the skeletal grains com-
posing them that mostly occur as abraded frag-
ments (Table 1). In full agreement with Brandano
et al. (2012), preservation levels of LBF tests (BPTS),
ranging from 1 to 3, are consistent with transport
for kilometric distances. Moreover, the presence of
skeletal components produced on the inner ramp
(ex situ Amphistegina specimens characterized by
high T/D values) suggests a remarkable seaward
sediment transport and accumulation in deeper en-
vironments, such as middle ramp and, possibly,
proximal outer ramp.
Facies association Cis composed of bioturbated,
fine-grained bioclastic grainstones and packstones
(Figure 6E, F). Brandano et al. (2012) interpreted
rocks belonging to this facies association as de-
posited in a generic moderate-energy, aphotic outer
ramp. This conclusion is supported by (1) skeletal
assemblages mainly composed of fragments of
photoindependent benthic biota (echinoids, small
benthic foraminifera, bryozoans, and lamellibranchs)
and (2) the presence of planktonic foraminifera,
matrix, and intense bioturbation coupled with a
decrease in grain size relative to facies associations
A and B, all indicative of decreasing water energy
and possibly related to a change from shallower
to deeper water. However, Buxton and Pedley
(1989), Brandano and Corda (2002), and Pomar
et al. (2004) proposed more specific locations
along ramp profiles for deposition of Oligocene
Miocene carbonates of the Mediterranean area,
characterized by similar textures, grain sizes, and
skeletal assemblages. The aforementioned authors,
indeed, interpreted these carbonates as having ac-
cumulated on intermediate outer ramps; typical
water depths of approximately 50 m (164 ft), or a
little more, were suggested by Knoerich and Mutti
(2003) (Figure 13). Benthic skeletal components of
grainstones and packstones of facies association C
were mainly produced in the inner and middle
ramp, as indicated by the presence of Amphistegina
specimens with T/D values comprised between
0.28 and 0.44 (see Table 3), indicating water
depths ranging from approximately 10 and 40 m
(33131 ft). Then, skeletal components accumu-
lated in the intermediate outer ramp after a long
transport and strong reworking, as indicated by the
preservation levels (BPTS) of LBF tests ranging
from 2 to 3. Benthic skeletal fragments accumu-
lated on intermediate outer ramps have been com-
monly interpreted as distal deposits of unidirec-
tional (seaward) bottom currents (Pedley, 1998;
Knoerich and Mutti, 2006b). In contrast, plank-
tonic foraminifera and matrix, which complete the
skeletal assemblages of the rocks of facies associ-
ation C, mainly accumulated on the same ramp
sector because of fallout of planktonic foraminifera,
and clay and carbonate mud, respectively (James,
1997).
Facies association E is composed of strongly bio-
turbated marly mudstones and wackestones rich in
planktonic foraminifera, with minor amounts of
radiolarians and siliceous sponge spicules (Figure 6G,
H). Following the interpretations of Brandano and
Corda (2002), Mutti and Hallock (2003), and Pomar
et al. (2004) for very similar Miocene ramp car-
bonates of central Italy, the (1) diagnostic assem-
blages of planktonic foraminifera (see Table 1), (2)
presence of radiolarians and siliceous sponge spic-
ules, and (3) diagnostic ichnofacies associations
Figure 14. Conceptual scheme (not in scale) showing how elementary cycles of the studied facies, high-frequency sequences, and
stratigraphic surfaces form over time, contributing to a major depositional sequence. (A) Emplacement of a transgressive systems tract
(TST) composed of facies association C. (B) Emplacement of a cross-bed foreset belonging to a falling-stage systems tract composed of
facies association A. (C) Formation of a flooding surface caused by abrupt sea level rise without deposition. This surface represents the
upper boundary of a high-frequency, small-scale sequence. (D) Emplacement of a cross-bed foreset belonging to a falling-stage systems
tract composed of facies association B. (E) Emplacement of a TST composed of facies association E. The lower boundary of the TST is a
transgressive surface, which also represents the upper boundary of a major depositional sequence. SWB = storm wave base.
(Chondrites and Zoophycos; see Table 1) allowus to
interpret the rocks comprising facies association E
as formed on the distal outer ramp (Figure 13)
within the deeper aphotic zone, under low-energy,
eutrophic (upwelling-related) subtropical condi-
tions. Water depths of 50 m or more have been
considered by several authors (Vecsei and Sanders,
1999; Mutti and Bernoulli, 2003; Mateu-Vicens
et al., 2008, and references therein) for carbonate
rocks with the same planktonic foraminifera and
ichnofacies associations of facies association E.
Finally, facies association D is composed of a
variety of facies similar to those of either facies
associations C or E; an intermediate to distal outer
ramp is therefore interpreted as the depositional
environment (Table 1) (Figure 13).
Sequence Stratigraphy
The carbonate succession under study shows lat-
eral and vertical variations of facies associations
representative of different middle- to outer-ramp
environments, within an approximately 5-km
(3-mi) extended sector of carbonate ramp (Table 1)
(Figure 13). From a sequence-stratigraphic point
of view, this carbonate succession is interpreted
as being made up of five major depositional se-
quences formed in some million years spanning
fromupper Chattian to Burdigalian, within a paleo
sea deepening toward north northwest (Figure 13).
Downscaling, the entire stack of major sequences
is composed of both a transgressive systems tract
(TST) and a falling-stage systems tract (FSST); each
systems tract is from 10 to 40 m (33131 ft) thick
(Figure 13). This interpretation is different from
that proposed by Vecsei and Sanders (1999) for
the carbonate succession of the Bolognano Forma-
tion. These authors proposed the entire Bolognano
Formation as being composed of four major de-
positional sequences (the two lowest ones corre-
sponding to the carbonate succession analyzed in
this study), each one consisting of (1) a lower unit
composed of skeletal limestones and interpreted
as TST and (2) an upper unit composed of marly
limestones and interpreted as TSTpassing upward
to a highstand systems tract (HST).
Specifically, Vecsei and Sanders (1999) inter-
preted the lower units of the two lowest sequences
(cross-bedded grainstones equivalent to facies
associations Aand B defined in this study) as TST
on the basis of (1) the erosional features (i.e.,
scours, truncation of underlying beds) of the lower
boundaries of these units (interpreted as transgres-
sive surfaces [TS]), indicative of substantial sub-
marine erosion; and (2) the position of these facies
associations on a paleohigh above a former carbon-
ate platform. In contrast, the results provided by this
study are consistent with the overall downward-
stepping geometries of cross-bed foresets forming
facies associations A and B being compatible with
FSST deposits (Table 1) (Figures 4A; 5; 13; Plint
and Nummedal, 2000). Other diagnostic features
of the FSST are the presence, at the base of cross-
bed packages belonging to facies association A, of
large-scale scoured surfaces that truncate under-
lying planar beds of facies associations C, D, and E
and onto which the cross-beds of facies association
A downlap (Figures 5A, B; 13). Altogether, these
features are consistent with the aforementioned
truncation surfaces representing regressive surfaces
of erosion (RSE) (Plint and Nummedal, 2000) in-
stead of TS. Along the studied carbonate ramp
system, the most likely process responsible for ma-
rine erosion and, therefore, RSE formation is the
progressive seaward shift of the middle to proximal
outer-ramp settings (dominated by erosional bot-
tom currents) as a consequence of sea level fall
(Figure 14). Facies associations C, D, and E are
interpreted as TST deposits (Table 1) (Figure 13).
This conclusion is supported by (1) south-south-
eastward onlaps of planar beds of these facies as-
sociations against gentle, north-northwestward
dipping, large-scale truncation surfaces, interpreted
as TS (Figures 5, 13); and (2) onlaps of these beds
onto underlying grainstones (facies associations A
and B) deposited in more proximal ramp environ-
ments (Figures 5, 13). Vecsei and Sanders (1999)
also interpreted deposits (marly limestones) corre-
sponding to facies associations C, D, and E as TST
but passing upward to HST. However, considering
that (1) no maximum flooding surfaces are detect-
able within the facies associations stated above and
(2) clear (shallowing-) coarsening-upward facies
trends were not observed (Figure 3), the presence
of HST within the studied carbonate succession
cannot be detected. The absence of HST deposits,
commonly interposed between TST and FSST,
may be explained for the studied carbonates as a
consequence of low carbonate production rates,
which were unable to keep up with sea level rises
(Mutti et al., 1997). As shown in Figure 13, both
TS and RSE can represent the major sequence
boundaries.
The individual cross-bed foresets, as much as
4 m (13 ft) thick, bounded by subhorizontal,
slightly undulatory truncation surfaces and form-
ing unidirectional downlaps onto the lower trun-
cation surfaces (Figures 3, 4A; 5), were interpreted
by Vecsei and Sanders (1999) as parasequences
(sensu van Wagoner et al., 1990). In agreement
with these authors, all these truncation surfaces,
internal to rock bodies composed of facies asso-
ciations A and/or B, are interpreted as flooding
surfaces, pointing to abrupt transgression without
deposition (Figures 13, 14). However, the down-
ward-stepping geometries of cross-bed foresets,
pointing to progradational deposition during times
of sea level fall, are not compatible with parase-
quences. The latter, indeed, form as a consequence
of progradational deposition during times of sea
level rise. Hence, the individual cross-bed foresets
bounded by flooding surfaces formed during a
complete cycle of sea level rise andfall andtherefore
can be interpreted as high-frequency, small-scale
sequences that compose the FSST of the major se-
quences (Figures 13, 14).
High-frequency, small-scale sequences of fa-
cies association A can be caused by elementary
cycles that include the alternation of bed packages
of different facies with variable thickness, ranging
from 10 cm (4 in.) to 2 m (7 ft) (Figure 3). More-
over, the TST (facies associations C, D, and E) are
composed of elementary cycles resulting from the
alternation of bed packages of different facies,
with analogous variable thickness (Figure 3). In
conclusion, both TST and FSST of the major se-
quences are composed of elementary facies cy-
cles, which may be related to high-frequency sea
level changes. Other concurring factors control-
ling the carbonate production, such as hydrody-
namic and trophic changes, may justify the wide
and irregular thickness variability of the deposi-
tional cycles.
Eustatic fluctuations best explain both the
vertical changes of facies associations and the dis-
tribution of the elementary facies cycles. Tectonics
probably had only a minor influence on sea level
changes because the ramp of the Majella Mountain
was located in a foreland position during the late
Chattian to Burdigalian (e.g., Ghisetti and Vezzani,
2002; Scisciani et al., 2002, and references therein).
Increased nutrient availability during times of ab-
rupt eustatic sea level rise (Haq et al., 1987) may
have facilitated the upward changes from benthic
skeletal grain-dominated grainstones to carbon-
ates with planktonic foraminifera as dominant
skeletal components (shifting of the lower depth
of the photic zone, reduction of the benthic car-
bonate production in the middle and proximal
outer ramp; Mutti et al., 1997; Vecsei and Sanders,
1999) (Figure 14).
Diagenetic History
Based on similarities with what was described and
interpreted by Mutti and Bernoulli (2003) for the
Bolognano Formation and by Knoerich and Mutti
(2003, 2006a, b) for similar carbonates (Oligocene
Miocene ramp facies) cropping out in the central
Mediterranean, the diagenetic modification (i.e.,
precipitation of authigenic minerals and cements,
compaction) of the studied carbonates is thought
to have occurred, over time, in three distinct dia-
genetic environments: (1) early marine, (2) shallow-
marine burial, and (3) deep burial. The only evi-
dence of early marine diagenesis is the presence of
iron oxides, glauconite, and phosphates (Table 2).
These authigenic minerals precipitate at or near the
sediment-water interface and generally require in-
creased nutrient availability at the sea floor (Mutti
and Bernoulli, 2003). In contrast, both shallow-
marine and deep burial diagenesis are inferred as
responsible for (1) the precipitation of cements
and (2) the overburden-related physical compac-
tion undergone by the studied rocks. In addition,
deep burial diagenesis is inferred as responsible
for overburden-related chemical compaction (the
maximum burial depth estimated is comprised be-
tween 200 and 2500 m [656 and 8202 ft]) (Ori
et al., 1986; Mutti, 1995; Rustichelli et al., 2012).
Cements have been distinguished as pre- and
syncompaction based on their relative spatial re-
lationships with the physical and chemical com-
paction features observed in thin section. As al-
ready mentioned, syntaxial overgrowth cement
completely surrounds, in most cases, one or more
echinoid plates and spines (see plates highlighted
in Figure 6A, B, D). This mode of cement growth
implicates near-surface cement precipitation from
fluids within the sediments during lithification
(Agosta and Kirschner, 2003). Cement was, in-
deed, able to push away the adjacent grains during
syntaxial growthover the echinoid plates and spines.
In other cases, the same cement only partially en-
velopes echinoid plates and spines away from grain-
to-grain contacts, suggesting a higher overburden
under which cement was not able to push away
all adjacent grains during precipitation (see plates
highlighted in Figure 6E). As suggested by the
presence of sutured grain-to-grain contacts of echi-
noid plates and spines enveloped by syntaxial over-
growth cement (Figure 6F), and in agreement with
that similarly documented by Knoerich and Mutti
(2006a, b), syntaxial overgrowth cement predates
the overburden-related intergranular pressure solu-
tion. According to the aforementioned observations,
the mainprecipitationphase of syntaxial overgrowth
cements probably occurred in a shallow-marine
burial environment (depth, as much as a few tens
of meters), before the studied rocks underwent ex-
cessive physical and chemical compaction. James
et al. (2005) and Knoerich and Mutti (2006a, b)
inferred the dissolution and neomorphism of early
marine, highmagnesium calcite cements and ara-
gonitic biota, not preserved at present time, as being
a possible source for low-magnesium calcite, syn-
taxial overgrowth cements.
Evidence of syncompactional microsparry ce-
ment, localized near sutured grain-to-grain contacts
(Figure 6C), are documented within facies asso-
ciations A, B, and C. Precipitation of these cements
was probably enhanced by pervasive, overburden-
related intergranular pressure solution, responsible
for the enrichment of CaCO
3
up to saturation in the
diagenetic fluids (Agosta et al., 2008). Unfortu-
nately, in most cases, it is very difficult to establish
the relative spatial relationships among micro-
sparry cement and the physical and chemical com-
paction features observed in thin sections. Despite
this limitation, a multiphase precipitation his-
tory throughout both shallow-marine burial (pre-
compactional) to deep burial (syncompactional)
diagenetic environments is proposed also consid-
ering strong similarities with syntaxial overgrowth
cement (i.e., analogous clear, low-magnesium cal-
cite and similar CL patterns).
Following Flgel (2004), the rare rocks of fa-
cies association Edominated by microsparry calcite
cement can be interpreted as the result of matrix
recrystallization to form microspar under burial
diagenesis. This conclusion is suggested by the
presence of preserved matrix within some cham-
bers of planktonic foraminifera and radiolarians.
Pore-Network Characteristics
Skeletal grain assemblages, grain size, grain sort-
ing, and shapes are assessed as the primary con-
trols on the pore-network characteristics (2-Dand
3-D porosities, pore types, sizes, shapes, and dis-
tribution) of grainstones deposited on both mid-
dle to proximal outer (facies associations A and B)
and intermediate outer ramps (facies C1; Figures 9
13). Common to all types of biotic carbonate pro-
duction, the skeletal grain assemblages of the stud-
ied grainstones are the consequence of a multitude
of interacting factors, including (1) production loci
of specific types of biota in response to specific en-
vironmental factors (e.g., trophic and photic condi-
tions, hydrodynamics) and (2) grain selection during
unidirectional transport on the sea floor by cur-
rents, which determined seaward deposition of
finer grained grainstones (facies C1).
Size selection, rounding, and grain breakage
during transport determined the resulting mean
size, sorting, and shapes of grains. All these factors
represent intrinsic parameters that, in turn, deter-
mined the primary intergranular porosity of rocks.
In particular, elongated grain shapes (expressed by
higher values of shape factor in Figure 8B) are typ-
ical of coarse-size grains, mainly consisting of com-
plete tests of Lepidocyclina and a few lamellibranch
fragments, whereas finer grains (mostly fragments
of LBF, bryozoans, and red algae, as well as echinoid
plates and spines) are commonly more spherical
(Figures 6AF; 8A, B). Because of the higher frag-
mentation of skeletal grains with heavier transport,
grain sorting is better in rocks with smaller mean
grain sizes (Figures 6AF; 8C). As widely docu-
mented in literature (e.g., Lucia, 1999), well-sorted
rocks with more spherical grains commonly have
higher primary intergranular macroporosity. On the
contrary, as a consequence of transport-inducedgrain
selection and breakage, the amounts of intragran-
ular macroporosity, which localizes within the
chambers of some skeletal grains (i.e., LBF, espe-
cially Lepidocyclina, and bryozoans) decrease from
coarse- to fine-grained grainstones, determining its
positive correlationwithmeangrainsize (Figure 9A).
A significant influence of dominant skeletal
components of grainstones on primary macropore
networks of facies associations A and B is assessed.
Different skeletal grain assemblages characterize
the grainstones of these facies associations (Table 1)
(Figures 6A, C, D; 7), which were deposited under
similar hydrodynamic conditions and are charac-
terized by sharp differences in both 2-D and 3-D
porosities (Table 3). In particular, higher mean
values of both intergranular (19.4 vs. 10.5%) and
total 2-D and 3-D porosities (24.6 and 32.1% vs.
15.5 and 23.9%) of bryozoan-dominated grain-
stones (facies association B) than the Lepidocyclina-
dominated grainstones of facies association A
(Figure 9B) depend on the better sorting of the
former grainstones (Table 3) (Figure 9C). The mod-
erate to well sorting that characterizes facies asso-
ciation B (Table 3) is mainly related to the break-
ing of bryozoans during transport that produced
fragments with quite similar sizes (Figure 6D).
Hence, rocks with higher amounts of quite uni-
formly distributed, primary intergranular macro-
porosity were produced. On the contrary, Lepido-
cyclina either were preserved as large complete
tests or broke into fragments of dissimilar sizes, with
a consequently wider range of grain sizes (moderate
topoor sorting; Table 3) than bryozoans (Figure 6A,
C). Being mean values of intragranular macropo-
rosity (commonly between 5 and 7%) and micro-
porosity (7.3 vs. 7.5%) quite similar in grainstones
belonging to both facies associations A and B (see
Table 3), a significant contribution of such porosities
in determining the 2-D and 3-D total porosity dif-
ferences can be excluded.
Diagenesis did not significantly modify the
primary porosity characteristics in the coarse- to
medium-grained grainstones of facies associations
A and B but only determined a mean 2-D porosity
reduction, by cementation, of 2to 4.5%(Figure 8D).
Relatively low specific-surface macropore sys-
tems, with DomSize ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 mm
and PoA from 35 to 80 mm
1
, typical of rocks
deposited in high-energy environments (Lny,
2006), characterize the highly porous grainstones
of facies associations Aand B. The DomSize values
are representative of intergranular macropores in
both facies associations A and B (Figure 11B). The
overall lowspecific-surface macropore systems are
mostly a consequence of the abundant subspher-
ical to elliptical intragranular macropores of Lepi-
docyclina in facies association A(Figure 6A, C) and
bryozoans in facies association B (Figure 6D).
Strong diagenetic modification (cement precipi-
tation) of primary porosity, induced by the specific
dominant biota of the skeletal grain assemblages,
occurred in fine-grained grainstones (facies C1).
There, indeed, higher amounts of echinoid plates
and spines (2043% of the total rock volume;
Table 3) are commonly associated with higher
amounts of syntaxial overgrowth cement (as much
as 8%; Table 3) (Figure 8E) simply because echi-
noid plates and spines represent monocrystalline
calcite grains along which syntaxial overgrowth ce-
ments formed in optical continuity (Flgel, 2004).
To support this conclusion, red alga-rich, fine-
grained grainstones (facies Al2) are characterized
by lower amounts of both echinoid plates and
spines (915% of total rock volume), and hence
syntaxial overgrowth cement (15%), than the
fine-grained grainstones of facies C1 (Table 3)
(Figure 6B, E). Amounts of syntaxial overgrowth
cements similar to those of facies C1 are charac-
teristic of well-sorted, heterozoan-dominated grain-
stones (especially of the Oligocene and Miocene)
formed in high-energy depositional settings, repre-
senting the volumetrically most important cement
type (Knoerich and Mutti, 2003, 2006b; Kroh and
Nebelsick, 2009). Transport by bottom currents
has been interpreted as being responsible for the
enrichment of components resistant to abrasion,
like echinoid plates and spines (Knoerich and Mutti,
2003). In agreement with Lny (2006), patchy
distribution of intergranular macropores, like that of
facies C1 (Figure 6E), is related to patchy cemen-
tation of these pores caused by the selective pre-
cipitation of syntaxial overgrowth cements around
scattered echinoid plates and spines.
Cementation also played a fundamental func-
tion in controlling pore-network characteristics of
fine- to very fine-grained packstones (facies C2)
deposited on the intermediate outer ramp. Within
these rocks, cement amounts as much as 12%
(Table 3) were responsible for the reduction of pri-
mary total 2-D porosity. In particular, the highest
amounts of microsparry cement (37.5% of total
rock volume; Table 3) (Figure 8D) among the
studied facies characterize these packstones. This
is probably related to high rates of cement pre-
cipitation from fluids saturated because of exten-
sive chemical compaction by pressure solution
seams. Because of their peculiar sedimentologic
characteristics (i.e., 24% of total rock volume
made up of clay minerals, good grain sorting, and
circularity), the studied packstones are, indeed, per-
vasively crosscut by bed-parallel pressure solution
seams (Figure 4A) relative to the other facies, as
documented by Rustichelli (2010) and Rustichelli
et al. (2012) for the same carbonates analyzed in
this study. The intensity of cementation is ex-
pected to be proportional to the abundance and
proximity of pressure solution seams (Ehrenberg
et al., 2006a). In summary, the drastic reduction of
total 2-Dand 3-Dporosities documented for facies
association C at a mean grain size of 0.14 mm is
caused by cementation and, to a lesser extent, the
presence of matrix (Figures 9A, C; 10B, C). Macro-
pores with small DomSize (ranging from 0.05 to
0.15 mm), representative of both intergranular and
intragranular macropores (Figure 11B), and high
specific surface (PoAranging from60 to 140 mm
1
)
characterize facies association C(Table 3) (Figure 6E,
F). These small DomSize values were a conse-
quence of the strong cementation of rocks of this
facies association, which was responsible for a re-
markable reduction of primary sizes of macropores
and was causing a relative enrichment in smaller
macropores (mostly intragranular; Figure 11B).
Strong cementation significantly modified the pri-
mary macropore shapes, especially in facies C2.
Within this facies, cementation determined a sys-
tem of isolated macropores characterized, on av-
erage, by higher specific surfaces (PoA ranging
from 105 to 140 mm
1
) than in the other facies
(Table 3).
A further well-known key factor controlling
porosity is the amount of matrix (Lucia, 1999;
Ehrenberg et al., 2006b; Lny, 2006). Matrix is
absent in carbonate rocks deposited on the middle
to proximal outer ramp because of high-energy
depositional environments and gradually increases
in content in carbonates deposited on the inter-
mediate outer ramp to finally become the pre-
dominant component in carbonates formed on the
distal outer ramp (Table 3) (Figures 7, 13). Sedi-
ments deposited in the latter environment, marly
wackestones to mudstones (facies association E),
are characterized by low values of macroporosity
(02%); in contrast, high values of microporosity
(2431%) are contained within the wackestones
of facies E1 (Table 3) (Figure 10A). Because of
the similarity in compositional and textural char-
acteristics with facies E1 (see Figure 6G, H), sim-
ilar high values of microporosity probably char-
acterize also the mudstones of facies E2. Because
of the mud-dominated textures, planktonic fora-
minifera and radiolarian chambers represented the
only primary (intragranular) macropores, partially or
totally filled by matrix and/or cement (Figure 6G)
during the burial-related physical and chemical com-
paction. Small intragranular macropores (DomSize
ranging from 0.06 to 0.1 mm) with low specific
surfaces (PoA ranging from 50 to 85 mm
1
), repre-
sentative of the rounded shapes of planktonic fo-
raminifera and radiolarian chambers, characterize
wackestones to mudstones of facies association E.
The microporosity dominating this facies associ-
ation is assessed as matrix microporosity (sensu
Lucia, 1999).
The pore-network characterization performed
in this study is fundamental because the pore
characteristics can be linked to physical properties
of carbonates, such as permeability (Anselmetti
et al., 1998; Weger et al., 2009). High permeability
values, commonly associated with grainstones with
(1) coarse bioclastic textures, (2) well-connected
macropores with low specific surfaces (low PoA
and high DomSize values; Ehrenberg et al., 2006b;
Weger et al., 2009), and (3) low diagenetic mod-
ifications can be inferred for grainstones of facies
associations A and B. In contrast, low perme-
ability values, commonly associated with carbon-
ates having small and isolated macropores with
high specific surfaces (high PoA; Weger et al.,
2009), can be deduced for the packstones of fa-
cies C2. Considering the wackestones and pack-
stones of facies association E, which are char-
acterized by scattered isolated macropores (i.e.,
intragranular pores of planktonic foraminifera and
radiolarians), their permeability is mainly controlled
by the dominant matrix microporosity (Anselmetti
et al., 1998; Melim et al., 2001). Finally, a fully con-
nected patchy macroporosity distribution, such as
that of facies C1, may yield higher permeability, for
a given porosity, than uniform macroporosity dis-
tributions (Lny, 2006).
CONCLUSIONS
This article highlights the most important sedi-
mentologic and diagenetic factors that determined
the pore-network characteristics (i.e., porosity, pore
types, sizes, shapes, and distribution) of several fa-
cies of the OligoceneMiocene Bolognano Forma-
tion, cropping out at the Majella Mountain, central
Italy. The results of this study are consistent with
the original shapes and dimensions of the skeletal
biota, as well as the depositional processes occur-
ring in specific ramp sectors, being responsible for
the types, sizes, shapes, and sorting of the grains
that compose the sediments. These, in turn, con-
trolled the subsequent diagenetic modification to
which the sediments were subjected and, in par-
ticular, the cement precipitation. Both sedimen-
tologic and diagenetic processes that occurred along
the different sectors of the carbonate ramp were
responsible for the formation of carbonate rocks
characterized by a wide range of porosity amounts
and arrangements.
The following are the main controlling factors
on pore-network characteristics:
1. Assemblages of skeletal components, which de-
pend on (1) the changes in the type of carbonate-
producing biota over time, (2) the loci of car-
bonate production, and (3) the current action on
the sea floor. High amounts of fully connected
macroporosity (both intergranular and intragran-
ular), dominated by low specific-surface macro-
pores, are found in medium- to coarse-grained
grainstones dominated by Lepidocyclina and bryo-
zoans and deposited on the current-dominated,
middle to proximal outer ramp.
2. Cementation, which represents a key factor for
porosity reduction in fine- to very fine-grained
grainstones to packstones rich in echinoid plates
and spines, deposited on the intermediate outer
ramp. Cementation is also responsible for the
strong modification of primary macropore struc-
ture, in the form of smaller and higher specific-
surface macropores. Depending on the inten-
sity and type of cementation, strictly related
to the original sedimentologic and composi-
tional rock characteristics, either fully con-
nected patchy macroporosity distributions or
networks of scattered isolated macropores can
be produced.
3. Matrix, which also plays an important function
by determining the low amounts of scattered
macroporosity and the dominance of micro-
porosity in mudstones and wackestones with
planktonic foraminifera, deposited on the distal
outer ramp.
In conclusion, the results of this work can help
improve predictions of reservoir quality by map-
ping, simulating, and assessing depositional fa-
cies characterized by peculiar pore-network char-
acteristics, especially in OligoceneMiocene ramp
carbonates. By means of estimation of both sed-
imentologic and diagenetic rock characteristics,
which can be accomplished either qualitatively
(e.g., depositional environments) or quantita-
tively (e.g., grain size, cement amount), it is pos-
sible to assess the pore-network characteristics of
carbonates.
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