Impedance, Reflectivity, & Amplitude

2
Frequencies, Periods,
Wavelengths, and Wavenumbers
Period T is the time of
repetition of a periodic wave,
the time for a wave crest to
travel one wavelength
Frequency f - is the
repetition rate of the periodic
wave, reciprocal of period
(1/T)
Wave length () the
distance between successive
similar points on a periodic
wave measured
perpendicular to the wave
front
Wave number - is the
reciprocal of wavelength
Amplitude maximum
displacement from
equilibrium



3
Theory of Seismic Waves Hooks Law
Hookes law: relates stress to strain.



In its simplist form. In an elastic continuum we
must specify: which stress, and which strain .

4
Stress, Strain
Stress and Strain
When external forces are
applied to a body, balanced
internal forces are setup.
Stress is a measure of
these balanced internal
forces.
A body subjected to stress
undergoes a change of
shape/size known as strain.
The linear relationship
between stress and strain in
the elastic field is specified
for any material by its
various elastic moduli.
Stress-Strain Curve for a Solid
Body
5
Elastic Moduli Youngs Modulus
This modulus represents
the uni-axial stress -strain
proportionality constant in
the case of a simple
dilatation or compression.
A rod of initial length l
and cross-sectional area
A is extended by l by a
stretching force F to its
end faces.
This has units of stress
(force per unit area), or
Pascals [Pa]
Typical rock values 10
200 GPa



Youngs
modulus
6
Elastic Moduli Bulk Modulus
This is the stress-strain
proportionality constant in the
case of a simple compressive
stress (hydrostatic pressure)
which is uniformly acting on a
certain body.
When a pressure P is applied
to a volume V, the ratio of
stress to volume strain gives
the Bulk modulus.
For fluids (zero Youngs
modulus, zero shear modulus),
we measure the bulk modulus
This has units of stress (force
per unit area), or Pascals [Pa].
Water, for example, has a bulk
modulus of 2.1 GPa




Bulk
modulus
7
Elastic Moduli - Shear Modulus
This modulus is defined
as the stress-strain
proportionality constant in
the case of simple
shearing (or tangential)
stress.
Shear
modulus
Also has units of stress (force per unit area),
or Pascals [Pa]
For all elastic material
For fluids, both
8
Elastic Moduli Poissons Ratio
The dilatation (or
compression)
occurring in the case
of a simple tensile (or
compressive) stress, is
normally accompanied
by contraction (or
expansion) in the
direction perpendicular
to the strain direction.
The ratio of the lateral
contraction (or
expansion) to the
longitudinal elongation
(or compression) is
called Poisson's Ratio


Poissons
ratio
d
d-d
= (d/d) / (l/l)
9
Elastic Moduli Poissons Ratio
This is a dimensionless quantity
For most elastic solids, the value of is about 0.25.
The values range from 0.05 for very hard, rigid rocks
to about 0.45 for soft poorly consolidated material
(Telford, et al., 1976).
For liquids which have no rigidity (that is = 0),
attains its maximum possible value which is 0.5.

Elastic Properties
11
Wave Propagation - Compressional Wave
Body waves travel
through the internal
volume of an elastic solid
and are of two types.
Compressional waves
(longitudinal, primary, or
P- waves) propagate by
compression and
dilational uniaxial strains
in the direction of wave
travel
Particle motion is in the
direction of wave
propagation
Velocity of P-waves is:
12
Wave Propagation- Shear Wave
Shear waves
(transverse, secondary,
or S-waves) propagate
by a pure shear strain
in a direction
perpendicular to the
direction of wave travel
Particle motion is at
right angles to the
direction of wave
propagation

Velocity of S-waves is:
V
p
/V
s
The ratio V
p
/V
s
is defined in terms of Poisson's
ratio () and is given by:


Poissons ratio
V
s
/V
p
Indicator of Lithology
Relation between S- and P-wave
velocities for various
lithologies.
(a) Cross-plot of laboratory
measurements (after Pickett,
1963).
(b) Use of S- and P-wave velocity
as an indicator of lithology
Poissons Ratio
Examples of P-wave velocity, Poisson's ratio and V
P
V
S
ratio for various lithologies
16
Energy Partitioning
Seismic waves will be reflected at interfaces with discontinuities in elastic
properties
A new ray emerges, heading back to the surface
Energy is partitioned some energy is reflected, some energy is
transmitted, according to
(where Z = v is the seismic impedance)
Note that the value of R can be negative (implies a polarity reversal)
These relationships are only valid for normal incidence (i.e., zero offset)
Reflection and Transmission coefficients
(where Z = v is the seismic impedance)
Note that the value of R can be negative (implies a polarity reversal)
These relationships are only valid for normal incidence (i.e., zero
offset)
Reflection Coefficient
Transmission coefficient
Partitioning at an Interface
18
In Figure, the angles for
incident, reflected and
transmitted rays
synchronous at the
boundary are related
according to Snells law by:
where P
1V
= P-wave velocity in medium 1, P
2V
= P-wave velocity in
medium 2; S
1V
= S-wave velocity in medium 1; S
2V
= S-wave velocity
in medium 2;
1
=incident P-wave angle,
2
=transmitted P-wave angle,

1
= reflected S-wave angle,
2
= transmitted S-wave angle, and p is
the ray parameter.
19
Partitioning of Energy Non Normal Incidence
Bortfeld, R., 1961, Approximations to the reflection and transmission
coefficients of plane longitudinal and transverse waves, Geophysical
Prospecting, v.9 no. 4, 485-503.
21
Amplitude Versus Angle
Results for various velocity
and density ratios and
constant Poissons ratios of
0.2 and 0.3.
Angle of incidence has only
minor effects on P-wave
reflection coefficients over
propagation angles
commonly used in reflection
seismology.
This is a basic principle upon
which conventional
common-depth-point (CDP)
reflection seismology relies.


22
Amplitude Versus Angle
Figure shows P-wave reflection
coefficients from an interface,
with the incident medium
having a higher Poissons ratio
than the underlying medium.
The solid curves represent a
contrast in Poissons ratio of 0.4
to 0.1, while the dashed curves
represent a contrast of 0.3 to
0.1
These curves show that if
Poissons ratio decreases going
into the underlying medium, the
reflection coefficient decreases
algebraically with increasing
angle of incidence.

23
Amplitude Versus Angle
In this figure the Poissons
ratio increases going from
the incident medium into the
underlying medium.
In this case, the reflection
coefficients increase
algebraically with increasing
angle of incidence.
Negative reflection
coefficients may reverse
polarity, and positive
reflection coefficients
increase in magnitude with
increasing angle of
incidence.

24
List of Measured Poissons Ratios

25
Synthetic Model Response

Three-layer hypothetical gas
sand model.
Reflection Strength From Interfaces Non-
zero offset
26
R
P
, R
S
, T
P
, and T
S
, are the reflected P, reflected S, transmitted
P, and transmitted S-wave amplitude coefficients, respectively.
Inverting the matrix form of the Zoeppritz equations give the
coefficients as a function of angle.
Zoeppritz (1919) derived the particle motion amplitudes of the
reflected and transmitted waves using the conservation of
stress and displacement across the interface, which yields
four equations with four unknowns:
27
Aki & Richards Approximation
Aki and Richards (1980) derived a form of
approximation simply parameterized in terms of
the changes in density, P-wave velocity, and S-
wave velocity across the interface:


28
Shueys Approximation
By simplifying the Zoeppritz equations, Shuey
(1985) presented another form of the Aki and
Richards (1980) approximation,
29
Shueys Approximation
The quantity A
0
, specifies the variation of R()
in the approximation range 0 < < 30 for the
case of no contrast in Poissons ratio.
The first term gives the amplitude at normal
incidence, the second term characterizes R() at
intermediate angles, and the third term
describes the approach to the critical angle.
30
AVO Indicators
Following Shuey (1985), the P-wave reflection coefficient as a
function of angle of incidence R
PP
() may be expressed as:

where A is the normal incidence P-wave reflection coefficient and the AVO
gradient (slope) is given by


31
AVO Indicators
Reflection coefficient definitions:



Dependence on pore fluid content is large for R
P
, small
for R
S
, and large for R
P
- R
S
.
The lithology and porosity dependence is large for both
R
P
and R
S.


32
AVO Indicators
For shale over brine-sand reflections, the average R
P
-
R
S
tends to be near zero and relatively invariant with
depth.
Irrespective of gas-sand impedance, R
P
- R
S
is always
negative for shale over reservoir quality gas-sand
reflections and more negative than for the corresponding
brine-sand reflections.
In comparison, the AVO product may be positive, near
zero, or negative for gas-sands depending on the
impedance contrast with the overlying shale.
These measurements also verify that R
P
- R
S
is well
approximated by a simple linear combination of A and B.
33
AVO Indicators
A worldwide collection of 25 sets of velocity and density
measurements from adjacent shales, brine sands, and gas
sands acquired with full-waveform sonic, dipole sonic, and
conventional well logging devices and/or in the laboratory are
used in the study.
These data provide values for theoretical shale over brine-
sand, and shale over gas-sand
P-wave and S-wave normal-incidence reflection
coefficients (R
P
and R
S
,
AVO intercepts (A), AVO gradients (B),
the AVO indicators R
P
- R
S
(reflection coefficient
difference),
and A * B (AVO product).
The reflection coefficient difference is found to be a more
universal indicator than the AVO product in clastic
stratigraphic intervals.
34
AVO Indicators
Thus, in clastic sections, nonpay R
P
- R
S
exhibits
a fairly constant mean value and provides a well
behaved background against which gas-sand
related R
P
- R
S
clearly stands out.
In addition, the effect of gas is always to make R
P

- R
S
more negative.


Rutherford, S. R., and Williams, R. H., 1989, Amplitude-versus offset variations in gas sands:
Geophysics, 54, 680-688.

Shuey, R. T., 1985, A simplification of the Zoeppritz equations: Geophysics, 50, 609-614.

Smith, G. C., and Gidlow, P. M., 1987, Weighted stacking for rock property estimation and detection of
gas: Geophys. Prosp., 35, 993-1014.

Swan, H. W., 1993, Properties of direct AVO hydrocarbon indicators, in Castagna, J. P., and Backus, M.
M., Eds., Offset dependent reflectivity: Theory and practice of AVO analysis: Soc. Expl. Geophys.
35
AVO Indicators
Following Wiggins et al. (1983) we have


which is exact when Vp/Vs = 2. Thus, assuming
appropriate measurement and calibration, (A
+B)/2 should be an excellent hydrocarbon
indicator in clastic sections.
In practice, one would apply a time and space
varying offset gain function to zero out mean
(A + B)/2 in known non-pay intervals.

Wiggins, R., Kenny, G. S., and McClure, C. D., 1983, A method for determining and displaying the
shear-velocity reflectivities of a geologic formation: European Patent Application 0113944.
AVO Indicators
36
Average Gulf Coast R
P
- R
S
for brine sands and gas sands. The solid line is
a second-order logarithmic polynomial fit to the gas-sand data.
37
AVO Indicators
P-wave reflection coefficients for
25 sets of shale, brine-sand, and
gas-sand V
P
, V
S
and
measurements.
The measurements represent a
worldwide sampling of data, but
no attempt was made to
randomize the collection other
than to ensure that Class I and
Class II gas sands were
represented.
The reflection coefficients are for
shale over brine sand (square)
and shale over gas sand (plus
sign).
(b) The AVO gradients
corresponding to the reflection
coefficients in (a).

AVO Indicators - A * B
38
A * B corresponding to the reflection coefficients in previous slide.
AVO Indicators - R
P
- R
S

39
R
P
- R
S
corresponding to the reflection coefficients in
AVO Indicators - R
P
- R
S
versus (A + B)/2
40
R
P
- R
S
versus (A + B)/2 for all 25 sets of measurements.
41
AVO Indicators - (A + B)/2

(A + B)/2 corresponding to the reflection coefficients.
42
Castagnas Mud Rock Line
In-situ sonic and field
seismic measurements in
mudrocks form a well-
defined line given by
V
P
= 1.16 V
S
, + 1.36,
where the velocities are in
km/s.


Castagna, J. P., Batzle, M. L.,
and Eastwood, R. L., 1985,
Relationships between
compressional- and shear-wave
velocities in clastic silicate rocks:
Geophysics, 50.
43
Fluid Factor
SMITHG, .C. and GIDLOW. P.M. 1987,
Weighted Stacking for Rock Property Estimation
and Detection of Gas, Geophysical Prospecting
35,993-1014.

Fluid Factor
44
AVO Indicators Fluid Factor
Using a smooth, representative interval velocity
model (from boreholes or velocity analyses) and
assuming no dip, the angle of incidence can be
found as a function of time and offset by iterative ray
tracing.
In particular, the angle of incidence can be
computed for each sample in a normal moveout
corrected CMP gather.
The approximated Zoeppritz equation can then be
fitted to the amplitudes of all the traces at each time
sample of the gather, and certain rock properties
can be estimated.
45
AVO Indicators Fluid Factor




The first term is the reflection coefficient at
normal incidence, the second term must be
added for intermediate angles, and the last term
only becomes important at larger angles of
incidence.
46
AVO Indicators Fluid Factor
Define the ratio VIW as q, then we can consider
the quantity q/q, which we have called
pseudo-Poissons ratio reflectivity . Since
One can construct a q/q section by subtracting the WIW
section from the VIV section. Alternatively, the weights can be
subtracted to arrive at a new set of weights to give q/q directly.
47
AVO Indicators Fluid Factor
Consider the mudrock line of Castagna et al.
(1985).
All water-bearing clastic silicates should lie close
to this line.
While the substitution of gas for water reduces
the P-wave velocity it hardly affects the S-
wave velocity.
Fluid factor is defined as
48
AVO Indicators Fluid Factor

The parameters of a
model. The dashed lines
are the smooth functions
used in the calculation.
49
AVO Indicators Fluid Factor

A synthetic CMP gather generated from
the model in previous slide using the
exact Zoeppritz equations.
50
AVO Indicators Fluid Factor

The results
of the four
weighted
stacks of the
gather
51
AVO Indicators Fluid Factor

P-wave velocity
reflectivity for the real
example
S-wave velocity
reflectivity for the real
example
52
AVO Indicators Fluid Factor

Pseudo-Poissons ratio
reflectivity for the real
example.
Fluid factor for the real
example.