Yoga

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga
For other uses, such as Hatha Yoga or Yoga postures, see Yoga (disambiguation)

Statue of Shiva performing Yogic meditation in the Padmasana posture.

Yoga (Sanskrit: योग, IAST: yóga, IPA: [joːgə]) refers to traditional physical and
mental disciplines originating in India; to the goal achieved by those disciplines; and
to one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy.[1][2]

Major branches of yoga include Raja Yoga, Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga,
and Hatha Yoga.[3][4][5] Raja Yoga, compiled in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and
known simply as yoga in the context of Hindu philosophy, is part of the Samkhya
tradition.[6] Many other Hindu texts discuss aspects of yoga, including the Vedas,
Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Shiva Samhita and
various Tantras.

The Sanskrit word yoga has many meanings,[7] and is derived from the Sanskrit root
yuj, meaning "to control", "to yoke" or "to unite". [8] Translations include "joining",
"uniting", "union", "conjunction", and "means".[9][10][11] Outside India, the term yoga is
typically associated with Hatha Yoga and its asanas (postures) or as a form of
exercise. A practitioner of Yoga is called a Yogi (gender neutral) or Yogini (feminine
form).

History of yoga
Main article: History of yoga
While the most ancient mystic practices are vaguely hinted at in the Vedas, the ascetic
practices (tapas) are referenced in the Brāhmaṇas (900 BCE and 500 BCE),[12] early
commentaries on the Vedas. The Rig Veda, earliest of the Hindu scripture mentions
the practice.[13] Certainly breath control and curbing the mind was practiced since the
Vedic times.[14] Popular yoga writer Georg Feuerstein believes that yoga was
fundamental to Vedic ritual, especially to chanting the sacred hymns.[15]

In the Upanishads, an early reference to meditation is made in Brihadaranyaka

Upanishad,[16] one of the earliest Upanishads (approx. 900 BCE). The main textual
sources for the evolving concept of Yoga are the middle Upanishads, (ca. 400 BCE),
the Mahabharata (5th c. BCE) including the Bhagavad Gita (ca. 200 BCE), and the
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (300 BCE-200 BCE). Several seals discovered at Indus
Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1700 BC) sites depict figures in a yoga- or meditation-
like posture, "a form of ritual discipline, suggesting a precursor of yoga" that point to
Harappan devotion to "ritual discipline and concentration", according to
Archaeologist Gregory Possehl.[17]

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

Main articles: Raja Yoga and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

In Indian philosophy, Yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox philosophical
schools.[18][19] The Yoga philosophical system is closely allied with the Samkhya
school.[20] The Yoga school as expounded by Patanjali accepts the Samkhya
psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic than the Samkhya, as evidenced by
the addition of a divine entity to the Samkhya's twenty-five elements of reality. [21][22]
The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that Max Müller says that
"the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as
Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord...."[23] The intimate relationship between
Samkhya and Yoga is explained by Heinrich Zimmer:

These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a single discipline.
Sāṅkhya provides a basic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and
defining its elements, analyzing their manner of co-operation in a state of bondage
(bandha), and describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release
(mokṣa), while Yoga treats specifically of the dynamics of the process for the
disentanglement, and outlines practical techniques for the gaining of release, or
'isolation-integration' (kaivalya).[24]

The sage Patanjali is widely regarded as the founder of the formal Yoga philosophy.
[25]
Patanjali's yoga is known as Raja yoga, which is a system for control of the mind.
[26]
Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his second sutra,[27] which is the definitional
sutra for his entire work:

(yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ )
- Yoga Sutras 1.2

This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I. K. Taimni
translates it as "Yoga is the inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of the modifications (vṛtti) of the
mind (citta)".[28] Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the
mind-stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis)."[29]

A sculpture of a Hindu yogi in the Birla Mandir, Delhi

Patanjali's writing also became the basis for a system referred to as "Ashtanga Yoga"
("Eight-Limbed Yoga"). This eight-limbed concept derived from the 29th Sutra of the
2nd book, and is a core characteristic of practically every Raja yoga variation taught
today. The Eight Limbs are:

(1) Yama (The five "abstentions"): non-violence, non-lying, non-

covetousness, non-sensuality, and non-possessiveness.
(2) Niyama (The five "observances"): purity, contentment, austerity, study,
and surrender to god.
(3) Asana: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to the seated
position used for meditation.
(4) Pranayama ("Lengthening Prāna"): Prāna, life force, or vital energy,
particularly, the breath, "āyāma", to lengthen or extend. Also interpreted as
control of prana.
(5) Pratyahara ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external
objects.
(6) Dharana ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object.
(7) Dhyana ("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object
of meditation.
(8) Samādhi ("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of
meditation.

Bhagavad Gita
Main article: Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord'), uses the term yoga extensively in a variety of
ways. In addition to an entire chapter (ch. 6) dedicated to traditional yoga practice,
including meditation,[30] it introduces three prominent types of yoga:[31]

• Karma yoga: The yoga of action

• Bhakti yoga: The yoga of devotion
• Jnana yoga: The yoga of knowledge

Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita into three sections, with the
first six chapters dealing with Karma yoga, the middle six with Bhakti yoga, and the
last six with Jnana (knowledge).[32] Other commentators ascribe a different 'yoga' to
each chapter, delineating eighteen different yogas.[33]

Hatha Yoga
Main articles: Hatha yoga and Hatha Yoga Pradipika

Hatha Yoga is a particular system of Yoga described by Yogi Swatmarama, compiler

of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika in 15th century India. Hatha Yoga differs substantially
from the Raja Yoga of Patanjali in that it focuses on shatkarma, the purification of the
physical body as leading to the purification of the mind (ha), and prana, or vital
energy (tha).[34][35] Compared to the seated asana, or sitting meditation posture, of
Patanjali's Raja yoga,[36] it marks the development of asanas (plural) as full body
'postures' now in popular usage.[37]

Hatha Yoga in its many modern variations is the style that many people associate with
the word "Yoga" today.[38] Because its emphasis is on the body through asana and
pranayama practice, many western students are satisfied with the physical health and
vitality it develops and are not interested in the other seven limbs of the Raja Yoga
tradition.[citation needed]

[edit] Yoga practices in other traditions

Although Yoga has basically been a Hindu practice, its elements have crept
throughout the world and major religions like Buddhism, Jainism, Sufism, all being
mystic religions, have embraced the practice as being a holy one.

Yoga and Sufism

The development of Sufism was considerably influenced by Indian yogic practises,

where they adapted both physical postures (asanas) and breath control (pranayama).[39]
The ancient Indian yogic text, Amritakunda, ("Pool of Nectar)" was translated into
Arabic and Persian as early as the 11th century. [40]

Yoga and Buddhism

 Main article: Yoga and Buddhism

Yoga is intimately connected to the religious beliefs and practices of the Indian
religions.[41] The influence of Yoga is also visible in Buddhism, a descendant of
Hinduism, which is distinguished by its austerities, spiritual exercises, and trance
states.[42][43]

Yogacara Buddhism

Yogacara (Sanskrit: "Practice of Yoga [Union]"[44] ), also spelled yogāchāra, is a

school of philosophy and psychology that developed in India during the 4th to 5th
centuries.

Yogacara received the name as it provided a yoga, a framework for engaging in the
practices that lead to the path of the bodhisattva.[45] The Yogacara sect teaches yoga in
order to reach enlightenment.[46]

Ch'an (Seon/Zen) Buddhism

Zen (the name of which derives from the Sanskrit "dhyana" via the Chinese
"ch'an"[47]) is a form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Mahayana school of Buddhism is
noted for its proximity with Yoga.[43] In the west, Zen is often set alongside Yoga; the
two schools of meditation display obvious family resemblances.[48] This phenomenon
merits special attention since the Zen Buddhist school of meditation has some of its
roots in yogic practices.[49] Certain essential elements of Yoga are important both for
Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular.[50]

Tibetan Buddhism

Yoga is central to Tibetan Buddhism. In the Nyingma tradition, practitioners progress

to increasingly profound levels of yoga, starting with Mahā yoga, continuing to Anu
yoga and ultimately undertaking the highest practice, Ati yoga. In the Sarma
traditions, the Anuttara yoga class is equivalent. Other tantra yoga practices include a
system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart rhythm. Timing in
movement exercises is known as Trul khor or union of moon and sun (channel) prajna
energies. The body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the
Dalai Lama's summer temple of Lukhang. A semi-popular account of Tibetan Yoga
by Chang (1993) refers to Dumo, the generation of heat in one's own body, as being
"the very foundation of the whole of Tibetan Yoga" (Chang, 1993, p7). Chang also
claims that Tibetan Yoga involves reconciliation of apparent polarities, such as prana
and mind, relating this to theoretical implications of tantrism.

Yoga and Islam

Malaysia's top Islamic body has passed a fatwa against Muslims practicing yoga,
saying it had elements of "Hindu spiritual teachings" was hence blasphemey and
haraam. Muslim yoga teachers in Malaysia have criticized this decision and the fatwa
as "insulting".[51]. The fatwa was applied based on the incorrect conclusion that terms
like asanas used in Yoga are "Hindu" in nature[52] News of the yoga ban prompted
criticism from activists and outrage from Yoga practitioners.[53][54]

Yoga and Tantra

Main article: Tantra

Tantrism is a practice that is supposed to alter the relation of its practitioners to the
ordinary social, religious, and logical reality in which they live. Through Tantric
practice an individual perceives reality as maya, illusion, and the individual achieves
liberation from it.[55] This particular path to salvation among the several offered by
Hinduism, links Tantrism to those practices of Indian religions, such as yoga,
meditation, and social renunciation, which are based on temporary or permanent
withdrawal from social relationships and modes.[55]

During tantric practices and studies, the student is instructed further in meditation
technique, particularly chakra meditation. This is often in a limited form in
comparison with the way this kind of meditation is known and used by Tantric
practitioners and yogis elsewhere, but is more elaborate than the initiate's previous
meditation. It is considered to be a kind of Kundalini Yoga for the purpose of moving
the Goddess into the chakra located in the "heart," for meditation and worship.[56]

Goal of yoga

The goal of yoga may range from anywhere between improved health and reaching
Moksha.[57] Within the monist schools of Advaita Vedanta and Shaivism the goal of
yoga takes the form of Moksha, which is liberation from all worldly suffering and the
cycle of birth and death (Samsara), at which point there is a realisation of identity
with the Supreme Brahman. In the Mahabharata, the goal of yoga is variously
described as entering the world of Brahma, as Brahman, or as perceiving the Brahman
or Atman that pervades all things.[58] For the bhakti schools of Vaishnavism, bhakti or
service to Svayam bhagavan itself is the ultimate goal of the yoga process, wherein
perfection culminates in an eternal relationship with Vishnu, Rama or Krsna.[59]
Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine
Yoga is a healing system of theory and practice. It is a combination of breathing
exercises, physical postures, and meditation that has been practiced for more than
5,000 years. [1][2]

While yoga evolved as a spiritual practice in Hinduism, in the Western world, a part
of yoga, known as Asana, has grown popular as a form of purely physical exercise.
Some Western forms have little or nothing to do with Hinduism or spirituality, but are
simply a way of keeping fit and healthy.

Yoga was introduced to American society in the late 19th century by Swami
Vivekananda, the founder of the Vedanta Society.[citation needed] He believed that India
has an abundance of spiritual wealth and that yoga is a method that could help those
who were bound by the materialism of capitalist societies to achieve spiritual well-
being.

A survey released in May 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and
Alternative Medicine focused on who used complementary and alternative medicine
(CAM), what was used, and why it was used in the United States by adults age 18
years and over during 2002.[3] According to this survey, Yoga was the 5th most
commonly used CAM therapy (2.8%) in the United States during 2002. [4] Yoga is
considered a mind-body intervention that is used to reduce the health effects of
generalized stress.

History

Yoga dates back to over 5,000 years, and is a form of a spiritual practice in India. In
the West, it has evolved from its founding philosophy. Today, yoga is a lucrative and
growing business. About 16.5 million Americans spend nearly $3 billion annually on
classes and products, a February 2005 poll by Harris Interactive and Yoga Journal
magazine revealed.[5]

An argument against the globalization of yoga is that it is co-opting an ancient

spiritual philosophy.[citation needed] Because yoga invokes ideals of harmony, health and
balance, it “fits” well in the environment of modernity. On one hand, the acculturation
of Yoga in America and Europe can be viewed as a welcome celebration of
multiculturalism, promoting more open and tolerant cultural dispositions. On the other
hand, the processes of commercialization may have debased the sacred practice.[6]

Yoga as exercise has evolved into numerous subdivisions and variations. Naked yoga,
Chair Yoga, Acroyoga and Hip-Hop Yoga are some of the few variations emerging.
There is debate as to whether or not the term Hatha Yoga properly describes yoga as
exercise, since the traditional Hatha Yoga system originated as, and still is, a spiritual
path in its own right.[7]
Overview as alternative medicine

Yoga is believed to calm the nervous system and balance the body, mind, and spirit. It
is thought by its practitioners to prevent specific diseases and maladies by keeping the
energy meridians open and life energy (Prana) flowing.[8][9] Yoga is usually performed
in classes, sessions are conducted at least once a week and for approximately 45
minutes. Yoga has been used to lower blood pressure, reduce stress, and improve
coordination, flexibility, concentration, sleep, and digestion. It has also been used as
supplementary therapy for such diverse conditions as cancer, diabetes, asthma,
AIDS[10] and Irritable Bowel Syndrome.[11]

Restorative Yoga

Restorative yoga is often associated with healing from diseases. Restorative yoga is
yoga practiced in a very relaxed state by using supports instead of muscular tension to
maintain the pose alignments. Restorative poses help relieve the effects of chronic
stress in several ways. First, the use of props provide a completely supportive
environment for total relaxation. Second, each restorative sequence is designed to
move the spine in all directions. Third, a well-sequenced restorative practice also
includes an inverted pose, which reverses the effects of gravity. Because we stand or
sit most of the day, blood and lymph fluid accumulate in the lower extremities. By
changing the relationship of the legs to gravity, fluids are returned to the upper body
and heart function is enhanced. Fourth, restorative yoga alternately stimulates and
soothes the organs. With this movement of blood comes the enhanced exchange of
oxygen and waste products across the cell membrane. Finally, yoga teaches that the
body is permeated with energy. Prana, the masculine energy, resides above the
diaphragm, moves upward, and controls respiration and heart rate. Apana, the
feminine energy, resides below the diaphragm, moves downward, and controls the
function of the abdominal organs. Restorative yoga balances these two aspects of
energy so that the practitioner is neither overstimulated nor depleted.[12]

Yoga as exercise for treating diseases

The popularization in the West of the medical aspect of Yoga is largely attributed to
Dr.Swami Sivananda Saraswati's Bihar School of Yoga. Most yoga classes consist of
a combination of physical exercises, breathing exercises, and meditation. These
characteristics make yoga a particularly beneficial kind of exercise for people with
certain health conditions, including heart disease/hypertension, asthma, and back
problems.

For people with heart problems, studies have shown yoga to help people young and
old. Specifically, yoga seems to promote heart health in several ways, including
regulating high blood pressure and improving resistance to psychological stress.[13]
Yoga also has the potential to buffer against the harmful effects of bodily self-
objectification as well as to promote embodiment and well-being.[14]

However, in recent years, there have been increasing reports of yoga-related injuries.
[15]
These include carotid artery tears, bulging disks, rotator cuffs, ganglion cysts,
compression of spine and hyperextension of the neck. According to Gary Kraftsow,
author of “Yoga for Transformation”, many yoga positions aren't relevant to
everybody. Orthopedic surgeon Jeffrey Halbrecht, M.D., medical director for the
Institute for Arthroscopy and Sports Medicine in San Francisco and a specialist in
knee and hip problems warns that both experienced and rookie yoga practitioners are
getting hurt. “Yoga is marketed as such an innocuous thing,” says Loren Fishman,
M.D., assistant clinical professor of rehabilitation medicine at Columbia University in
New York City. “But without care, injuries can absolutely happen.”

Breast cancer studies

In 2006, scientists at the University Of Texas conducted an experiment on 61 breast

cancer patients. Thirty of the patients participated in yoga around the time of their
radiation treatments. The yoga was customized for the cancer patients; it focused on
breathing and relaxation, and excluded difficult exercises, given possible limitations
on range of motion. The study found increased physical function, slightly better levels
of social functioning, and lower levels of sleep dysfunction and fatigue. There was no
difference in rates of anxiety or depression.[16]

There are many studies available now that confirm success from patients doing Yoga,
a minimum of twice weekly, while undergoing treatments for their breast cancer. [17][18]
[clarify]

Hatha yoga
Main article: Hatha yoga

In The West, hatha yoga has become popular as a purely physical exercise regimen
divorced of its original purpose.[19] Currently, it is estimated that about 30 million
Americans and about 5 million Europeans practice a form of hatha yoga. But it is still
followed in a manner consistent with tradition throughout the Indian subcontinent.
The traditional guru-student relationship that exists without sanction from organized
institutions, and which gave rise to all the great yogis who made way into
international consciousness in the 20th century, has been maintained in Indian,
Nepalese and some Tibetan circles.

YOGA

the word yoga means "union" in Sanskrit, the language of ancient India where yoga
originated. We can think of the union occurring between the mind, body and spirit.

What is commonly referred to as "yoga" can be more accurately described by the

Sanskrit word asana, which refers to the practice of physical postures or poses.

Asana is only one of the eight "limbs" of yoga, the majority of which are more
concerned with mental and spiritual well being than physical activity. In the West,
however, the words asana and yoga are often used interchangeably.
Yoga Poses

Many people think that yoga is just stretching. But while stretching is certainly
involved, yoga is really about creating balance in the body through developing both
strength and flexibility. This is done through the performance of poses or postures,
each of which has specific physical benefits. The poses can be done quickly in
succession, creating heat in the body through movement (vinyasa-style yoga) or more
slowly to increase stamina and perfect the alignment of the pose. The poses are a
constant, but the approach to them varies depending on the tradition in which the
teacher has trained.

References

1. ^ "Yoga has five principal meanings: 1) yoga as a disciplined method for

attaining a goal; 2) yoga as techniques of controlling the body and the mind; 3)
yoga as a name of one of the schools or systems of philosophy (darśana); 4)
yoga in connection with other words, such as hatha-, mantra-, and laya-,
referring to traditions specialising in particular techniques of yoga; 5) yoga as
the goal of yoga practice." Jacobsen, p. 4.
2. ^ Monier-Williams includes "it is the second of the two Sāṃkhya systems,"
and "mental abstraction practised as a system (as taught by Patañjali and
called the Yoga philosophy)" in his definitions of "yoga".
3. ^ Pandit Usharbudh Arya (1985). The philosophy of hatha yoga. Himalayan
Institute Press; 2nd ed.
4. ^ Sri Swami Rama (2008) The royal path: Practical lessons on yoga.
Himalayan Institute Press; New Ed edition.
5. ^ Swami Prabhavananda (Translator), Christopher Isherwood (Translator),
Patanjali (Author). (1996). Vedanta Press; How to know god: The yoga
aphorisms of Patanjali. New Ed edition.
6. ^ Jacobsen, p. 4.
7. ^ For a list of 38 meanings of the word "yoga" see: Apte, p. 788.
8. ^ For "yoga" as derived from the Sanskrit root "yuj" with meanings of "to
control", "to yoke, or "to unite" see: Flood (1996), p. 94.
9. ^ For meaning 1. joining, uniting, and 2., union, junction, combination see:
Apte, p. 788.
10. ^ For "mode, manner, means", see: Apte, p. 788, definition 5.
11. ^ For "expedient, means in general", see: Apte, p. 788, definition 13.
12. ^ Flood, p. 94.
13. ^ P. 51 The Complete Idiot's Guide to Yoga By Joan Budilovsky, Eve
Adamson
14. ^ P. 531 The Yoga Tradition By Georg Feuerstein
15. ^ P. 538 The Yoga Tradition By Georg Feuerstein
16. ^ Flood, p. 94.
17. ^ Possehl (2003), pp. 144-145
18. ^ For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of
schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents", and pp. 453-487.
19. ^ For a brief overview of the Yoga school of philosophy see: Chatterjee and
Datta, p. 43.
20. ^ For close connection between Yoga philosophy and Samkhya, see:
Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
21. ^ For Yoga acceptance of Samkhya concepts, but with addition of a category
for God, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, p. 453.
22. ^ For Yoga as accepting the 25 principles of Samkhya with the addition of
God, see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
23. ^ Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy", p. 104.
24. ^ Zimmer (1951), p. 280.
25. ^ For Patanjali as the founder of the philosophical system called Yoga see:
Chatterjee and Datta, p. 42.
26. ^ For "raja yoga" as a system for control of the mind and connection to
Patanjali's Yoga Sutras as a key work, see: Flood (1996), pp. 96-98.
27. ^ Patañjali (2001-02-01). "Yoga Sutras of Patañjali" (etext). Studio 34 Yoga
Healing Arts. Retrieved on 2008-11-24.
28. ^ For text and word-by-word translation as "Yoga is the inhibition of the
modifications of the mind" see: Taimni, p. 6.
29. ^ Vivekanada, p. 115.
30. ^ Flood, p. 10.
31. ^ "...Bhagavad Gita, including a complete chapter (ch. 6) devoted to
traditional yoga practice. The Gita also introduces the famous three kinds of
yoga, 'knowledge' (jnana), 'action' (karma), and 'love' (bhakti)." Flood, p. 96.
32. ^ Gambhirananda, p. 16.
33. ^ Jacobsen, p. 46.
34. ^ Living Yoga: Creating a Life Practice - Page 42 by Christy Turlington (page
42)
35. ^ Guiding Yoga's Light: Yoga Lessons for Yoga Teachers - Page 10 by Nancy
Gerstein
36. ^ Mindfulness Yoga: The Awakened Union of Breath Body & Mind - Page 6
by Frank Jude Boccio
37. ^ Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice By Mikel Burley (page 16)
38. ^ Feuerstein, Georg. (1996). The Shambhala Guide to Yoga. Boston &
London: Shambhala Publications, Inc.
39. ^ Situating Sufism and Yoga
40. ^ Carolina Seminar on Comparative Islamic Studies
41. ^ The Yoga Tradition: its history, literature, philosophy and practice By Georg
Feuerstein. ISBN 8120819233. pg 111
42. ^ "Yoga," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997-2007
Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Exact Quote : "The strong
influence of Yoga can also be seen in Buddhism, which is notable for its
austerities, spiritual exercises, and trance states."
43. ^ a b Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin,
James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 22)
44. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica Article: Yogacara
45. ^ Dan Lusthaus. Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical Investigation of
Yogacara Buddhism and the Ch'eng Wei-shih Lun. Published 2002
(Routledge). ISBN 0700711864. pg 533
46. ^ Simple Tibetan Buddhism: A Guide to Tantric Living By C. Alexander
Simpkins, Annellen M. Simpkins. Published 2001. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN
0804831998
 47. ^ The Buddhist Tradition in India, China, and Japan. Edited by William
Theodore de Bary. Pgs. 207-208.ISBN 0-394-71696-5 - "The Meditation
school, called Ch'an in Chinese from the Sanskrit dhyāna, is best known in the
West by the Japanese pronunciation Zen"
48. ^ Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James
W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (Page xviii)
49. ^ Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James
W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 13). Translated by James W. Heisig, Paul F.
Knitter. Contributor John McRae. Published 2005 World Wisdom. 387 pages.
ISBN 0941532895 [Exact quote: "This phenomenon merits special attention
since yogic roots are to be found in the Zen Buddhist school of meditation."]
50. ^ Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James
W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 13)
51. ^ Top Islamic body: Yoga is not for Muslims - CNN
52. ^ [1]
53. ^ [2]
54. ^ [3]
55. ^ a b Title: Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar
City in Nepal. Author: Robert I. Levy. Published: University of California
Press, 1991. pp 313
56. ^ Title: Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar
City in Nepal. Author: Robert I. Levy. Published: University of California
Press, 1991. pp 317
57. ^ Jacobsen, p. 10.
58. ^ Jacobsen, p. 9.
59. ^ Brittanica Concise "Characterized by an emphasis on bhakti, its goal is to
escape from the cycle of birth and death in order to enjoy the presence of
Vishnu."

[edit] Further reading

Look up Yoga in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. Delhi:

Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-0567-4. (fourth revised &
enlarged edition).
• Chang, G.C.C. (1993). Tibetan Yoga. New Jersey: Carol Publishing Group.
ISBN 0-8065-1453-1
• Chatterjee, Satischandra; Datta, Dhirendramohan (1984). An Introduction to
Indian Philosophy, Eighth Reprint Edition, Calcutta: University of Calcutta.
• Donatelle, Rebecca J. Health: The Basics. 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson
Education, Inc. 2005.
• Feuerstein, Georg. The Shambhala Guide to Yoga. 1st ed. Boston & London:
Shambhala Publications 1996.
• Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.
• Gambhirananda, Swami (1998). Madhusudana Sarasvati Bhagavad_Gita:
With the annotation Gūḍhārtha Dīpikā. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama
Publication Department. ISBN 81-7505-194-9.
• Harinanda, Swami. Yoga and The Portal. Jai Dee Marketing. ISBN
0978142950.
• Jacobsen, Knut A. (Editor); Larson, Gerald James (Editor) (2005). Theory And
Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson. Brill Academic
Publishers. ISBN 9004147578. (Studies in the History of Religions, 110)
• Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-
3797-0.
• Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton, New Jersey:
Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08953-1.
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