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Remote Sensing For Mineral Exploration - 1-s2.0-S0169136899000074-Main
Remote Sensing For Mineral Exploration - 1-s2.0-S0169136899000074-Main
157183
Abstract
Remote sensing is the science of acquiring, processing, and interpreting images and related data, acquired from aircraft
and satellites, that record the interaction between matter and electromagnetic energy. Remote sensing images are used for
mineral exploration in two applications: 1. map geology and the faults and fractures that localize ore deposits; 2. recognize
hydrothermally altered rocks by their spectral signatures. Landsat thematic mapper TM. satellite images are widely used to
interpret both structure and hydrothermal alteration. Digitally processed TM ratio images can identify two assemblages of
hydrothermal alteration minerals; iron minerals, and clays plus alunite. In northern Chile, TM ratio images defined the
prospects that are now major copper deposits at Collahuasi and Ujina. Hyperspectral imaging systems can identify individual
species of iron and clay minerals, which can provide details of hydrothermal zoning. Silicification, which is an important
indicator of hydrothermal alteration, is not recognizable on TM and hyperspectral images. Quartz has no diagnostic spectral
features in the visible and reflected IR wavelengths recorded by these systems. Variations in silica content are recognizable
in multispectral thermal IR images, which is a promising topic for research. q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights
reserved.
Keywords: remote sensing; mineral exploration; thematic mapper TM.; Goldfield mining district
1. Introduction
Remote sensing is the science of acquiring, processing, and interpreting images and related data,
acquired from aircraft and satellites, that record the
interaction between matter and electromagnetic energy Sabins, 1997, p. 1.. This report reviews the use
of remote sensing for mineral exploration. Section 2
describes the remote sensing systems that are employed in mineral exploration and introduces the
0169-1368r99r$ - see front matter q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 6 9 - 1 3 6 8 9 9 . 0 0 0 0 7 - 4
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Table 1
Remote sensing systems for mineral exploration
Characteristic
Landsat 4, 5
thematic mapper
TM.
Landsat 7
enhanced
TM
SPOT
multispectral
scanner XS.
SPOT
panchromatic
Pan.
AVIRIS
hyperspectral
scanner
Spectral region
Visible and reflected IR
Panchromatic
Thermal IR
Spectral bands
0.45 to 2.35 mm
10.5 to 12.5 mm
7
0.45 to 2.35 mm
0.52 to 0.90 mm
0.50 to 0.89 mm
0.51 to 0.73 mm
0.40 to 2.50 mm
Terrain coerage
East to west
North to south
185 km
170 km
185 km
170 km
60 km
60 km
60 km
60 km
10.5 km cross-track
30 by 30 m
120 by 120 m
30 by 30 m
15 by 15 m
60 by 60 m
20 by 20 m
10 by 10 m
20 m
224
Fig. 1. Spectral bands recorded by remote sensing systems. Spectral reflectance curves are for vegetation and sedimentary rocks.
From Sabins 1997, Fig. 4-1..
159
160
161
Fig. 2. Landsat TM visible and reflected IR images of Goldfield mining district, NV. Fig. 4 is a map of the area which covers 7 by 7 km.
From Sabins 1997, Fig. 11-7.. A. Band 1, blue 0.45 to 0.52 mm.. B. Band 2, green 0.52 to 0.60 mm.. C. Band 3, red 0.63 to 0.69
mm.. D. Band 4 reflected IR 0.76 to 0.90 mm.. E. Band 5, reflected IR 1.55 to 1.75 mm.. F. Band 7, reflected IR 2.08 to 2.35 mm..
162
163
Fig. 3. Recognizing hydrothermally altered rocks at Goldfield mining district, NV. Image F courtesy F.A. Kruse, Analytical Imaging and
Geophysics, LLC, Boulder, CO.. From Sabins 1997, Plate 21.. A. TM 123 normal color image. B. TM color ratio image. Ratio
5r7 s red, 3r1 s green, 3r5 s blue. C. TM ratio 5r7 image with density slice. High ratio values shown in red. D. TM ratio 3r1 image
with density slice. High ratio values shown in red. E. TM unsupervised classification map. F. Color composite image of AVIRIS
endmember abundance images from Fig. 12.. Illite s red, alunites green, kaolinites blue.
164
Table 2
Representative mineral exploration investigations using remote sensing. From Sabins 1997, Table 11-3.
Locality
Reference
Comments
Canada
Chile, Peru,
and Bolivia
Jordan
Singhroy 1991.
Eiswerth and Rowan 1993.
Jordan
Sonora, Mexico
Nevada
Spain
Sudan
Arizona
Montana
Kaufmann 1988.
formation of a small caldera and ring-fracture system. Hydrothermal alteration and ore deposition occurred during a second period of volcanism in the
early Miocene epoch when the dacite and andesite
flows that host the ore deposits were extruded. Heating associated with volcanic activity at depth caused
convective circulation of hot, acidic, hydrothermal
solutions through the rocks. Fluid movement was
concentrated in the fractures and faults of the ringfracture system. Following ore deposition, the area
was covered by younger volcanic flows. Later doming and erosion have exposed the older volcanic
center with altered rocks and ore deposits.
In the generalized map Fig. 4., the hydrothermally altered rocks are cross-hatched and the unaltered country rocks are blank. Approximately 40 km2
of the area is underlain by altered rocks, but less than
2 km2 of the altered area contains economic mineral
165
Fig. 4. Map showing geology and hydrothermal alteration of Goldfield mining district, NV. From Ashley 1979, Figs. 1 and 8..
166
167
Table 3
Calculation of TM 5r7 ratio values. From Sabins 1997, Table 11-1.
Unaltered rocks
without clays and alunite.
Altered rocks
with clays and alunite.
Band 5 reflectance
typical.
Band 7 reflectance
typical.
Ratio 5r7
typical.
DNs for
ratio 5r7
160
160
1.00
100
160
110
1.45
145
168
Classification
Percent of image
Yellow
Blue
Purple
Red
Orange
Green
Alluvium
Basalt
Tuff
Altered rocks, A
Altered rocks, B
Unaltered rocks
39.2
14.0
6.6
5.3
18.3
16.6
169
image made by combining the endmember abundance image of illite in blue, alunite in green, and
kaolinite in red. The black-and-white base is AVIRIS
band 30 visible red.. The primary colors show areas
with high concentrations of the assigned mineral.
Other colors indicate co-occurrence of endmember
minerals. Yellow, for example, indicates a mixture
of kaolinite and alunite. Kaolinite red. and illite
170
4.4. Summary
The spectra of alteration minerals Fig. 5A, 6A
and 7. were recorded in the laboratory using pure
minerals. Remote sensing images record data from
weathered outcrops of mixtures of rocks and minerals together with soil and vegetation. Despite these
complications, the digitally processed images give an
accurate picture of the alteration pattern at Goldfield.
In order to bridge the gap between laboratory and
outcrop, Rowan et al. 1979, Fig. 2A. used a portable
spectrometer in the field to record spectra of several
hundred representative outcrops of altered and unaltered rocks at Goldfield. Fig. 8 summarizes their
results as average reflectance curves for altered and
unaltered outcrops. The average curves lack the fine
spectral detail of the laboratory curves, but the differences between altered and unaltered rocks are
clearly shown. The altered rocks have distinctly lower
reflectance in band 7 than in band 5. Unaltered rocks
have similar values in those bands. In the visible
portion of the spectrum altered rocks have higher red
reflectance because of the hydrothermal iron minerals. These field spectra support the use of TM ratios
5r7 and 3r1 for recognizing alteration minerals.
Remote sensing studies of the Goldfield test site
developed techniques for recognizing hydrothermal
alteration from TM and hyperspectral data. Table 2
summarizes a number of projects that used these
techniques. The following section describes a successful commercial application of digitally processed
TM images.
171
Fig. 9. Model of hydrothermal alteration zones associated with porphyry copper deposits. From Lowell and Guilbert 1970, Fig. 3.
172
Fig. 10. Geologic map of Collahuasi mining district, Chile. Hydrothermal alteration anomalies are edited from Landsat TM ratio images.
Geology generalized from Vergara 1978A, B..
recognition of small patches of altered rock on remote sensing images can be a valuable exploration
clue.
In the early 1980s, NASA and the Geosat Committee evaluated satellite and airborne multispectral
images of porphyry copper deposits in southern Arizona. At the Silver Bell mining district, Abrams and
Brown 1985. used color ratio images to separate the
phyllic and potassic alteration zones from the argillic
and propylitic zones. A supervised classification map
defined the outcrops of altered rocks.
5.2. Geologic and exploration background
The Collahuasi Mining District is located in
northern Chile, 180 km southeast of the city of
Iquique. The district lies within a north-trending belt
of porphyry copper deposits that includes the major
mines at El Teniente, Disputada, El Salvador, Escondida, and Chuquicamata. The Collahuasi District is
bounded on the west by a major regional fault
system that also passes through the open pit at the
173
Chuquicamata mine. Fig. 10 is a geologic map showing distribution of the Macata, Capella, and Collahuasi formations of Jurassic and Cretaceous age.
These country rocks are intruded by granitic stocks
of late Cretaceous to early Tertiary age that are hosts
for the porphyry copper deposits.
Mineral production in the Collahuasi District began in the late 1800s when copper was mined from
veins at Rosario Fig. 10. now known to be related
to the porphyry system. During the 1930s, these
veins were Chiles third largest producer of copper.
Modern exploration began in 1976 when a joint
venture of Superior Oil and Falconbridge acquired
the Collahuasi properties. The joint venture discovered a porphyry deposit at Rosario. In 1985, ownership of the district changed to a three-way joint
venture of Falconbridge, Shell Oil, and Chevron.
From 1985 to early 1991, exploration efforts were
concentrated on evaluating the Rosario deposit.
Rosario, however, occupies only a small portion of
the 28,000 ha of the Collahuasi District. There were
Fig. 11. Collahuasi mining district, Chile. Landsat TM bands 247 shown in red, green, and blue merged with SPOT pan image. From
Sabins 1997, Plate 22..
174
Fig. 12. Contour map of resistivity values, Collahuasi mining district. H high values. L low values. Hydrothermal alteration
anomalies are edited from Landsat TM ratio images. From Sabins 1997, Fig. 11-13..
175
Fig. 13. Landsat TM band 4 image of Salar de Uyuni and vicinity, southwest Bolivia. From Sabins and Miller 1994, Fig. 2..
176
Fig. 14. Map of Salar de Uyuni. Triangles show high values for TM ratio 4r7 that correlate with high concentrations of ulexite. Contours
show boron concentration mg ly1 . in near-surface brine. From Risacher 1989, Fig. 34..
177
178
Fig. 16. Copper enrichment of vegetation and soil overlying a concealed copper deposit. From Sabins 1997, Fig. 11-19..
179
whereas mineralized red spruce have a lower reflectance than the normal trees Fig. 17.. In the green
spectral region, the mineralized trees of both species
have a higher reflectance. Labovitz et al. 1983, Fig.
1. summarized other investigations of vegetation
spectra. With some exceptions, vegetation reflectance in the green and red bands generally increased with increasing metal concentration in the
soil. In the reflected IR region, however, there is less
agreement; some studies show increased vegetation
reflectance and others show decreased reflectance.
Labovitz et al. 1983, p. 759. also noted that the
geobotanical model of Fig. 16 is not universally
correct. In Virginia, they found that the leaves of oak
trees growing in metal-rich soil may have a lower
metal content than leaves from trees in normal soil.
Geophysical Environmental Research used a nonimaging airborne system that acquires detailed reflectance spectra. The spectra in Fig. 18 were acquired for conifers growing in a mineralized area and
in an adjacent nonmineralized area. In the green
band 0.5 to 0.6 mm. reflectance is higher for trees
in the mineralized area, which is consistent with
other studies. Beginning at a wavelength of about 0.7
mm, vegetation spectra have a steep upward slope to
the high reflectance values in the IR region. In Fig.
18, this steep slope is shifted slightly toward shorter
wavelengths for the conifers growing in the mineralized area. This shift, called the blue shift, has been
noted in vegetation over several mineralized areas
Collins et al., 1983. and may have exploration
potential.
There is little research today on remote sensing of
vegetation spectra for mineral exploration, to my
knowledge. The original researchers are retired or
are working on environmental projects. The availability of hyperspectral data may encourage new
investigations.
8. Future technology
Fig. 17. Reflectance spectra of balsam fir and red spruce growing
in normal soil and in soil enriched in copper and molybdenum.
From Yost and Wenderoth 1971, Figs. 5 and 6..
180
Fig. 18. Airborne reflectance spectra of conifers in Cotter Basin, MT. Note the blue shift for conifers growing in a mineralized area.
From Collins et al. 1983, Fig. 4B..
Fig. 19. Thermal emissivity spectra of igneous rocks with different silica and quartz contents. Arrows show centers of absorption
bands. Note positions of spectral bands recorded by ASTER and
TIMS. From Sabine et al. 1994, Fig. 3..
ment package. The worldwide availability of hyperspectral images could be a major advance in mineral
exploration.
181
9. Summary
Remote sensing has proven a valuable aid in
exploring for mineral resources. Many ore deposits
are localized along regional and local fracture patterns that provided conduits along which ore-forming
solutions penetrated host rocks. Landsat and radar
images are used to map these fracture patterns. Hydrothermally altered rocks associated with many ore
deposits have distinctive spectral features that are
Acknowledgements
Much of my research on this topic was done
during my career with the Chevron. Many colleagues
in the remote sensing community allowed me to use
illustrations from their work and are acknowledged
in the figure captions.
182
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