1

Scalar
s
and
vec
tor
s
A
scal
ar
qua
ntit
y
has
ma
gnit
ude
only
.
Exa
mpl
es:
ma
ss,
dist
an

2
Kine
mat
ics
The
ave
rag
e
spe
ed
v of
an
obj
ect
is
(tot
al
dist
anc
e)/ti
me.
The
inst
ant
ane
ous
sp

ce,
tim
e,
spe
ed,
den
sity,
ene
rgy,
po
wer
,
tem
per
atur
e,
cha
rge,
resi
sta
nce
,
p.d.
A
vec
tor
qua
ntit
y

eed v
is
the
rate
of
cha
nge
of
dist
anc
e x:
v=
x/
t
The
disp
lace
me
nt s
of
an
obj
ect
is
the
r

has
ma
gnit
ude
and
dire
ctio
n.
Exa
mpl
es:
vel
ocit
y,
dis
pla
ce
me
nt,
acc
eler
atio
n,
forc
e,
wei

esulta
nt
dist
anc
e
mo
ved
in a
give
n
dire
ctio
n.
Vel
oc
ity
v
is
th
e
ra
te
of
ch
an
ge
of
di
s

ght,
gra
vita
tion
al
fiel
d
stre
ngt
h,
curr
ent.
The
res
ulta
nt
(or
effe
ctiv
e
co
mbi
nati
on)
of

place
me
nt
s:
v=
s/t
Acc
eler
atio
na
is
the
rate
of
cha
nge
of
velo
city
v: a
=
v/
t

two
vec
tors
can
be
fou
nd
usi
ng
a
tria
ngl
e,
par
allel
ogr
am
or
rect
ang
le
to
repr

esent
the
m
in a
dia
gra
m.
A
vec
tor
V
incli
ned
at
an
ang
le
to
the
hori
zon
tal
has

compo
nen
ts:
hori
zon
tal
co
mp
one
nt =
V
cos

and
vert
ical
co
mp
one
nt =
V
sin

 4
Linea
r
mot
ion
For
mot
ion
at
con
sta
nt
velo
city
we
use
the
equ
atio

 3
Motio
n
gra
phs
The
mot
ion
of
obj
ect
s is
ofte
n
repr
ese
nte
d
by

nv=
x/t
For
mot
ion
at
con
sta
nt
acc
eler
atio
n
we
use
the
se
five
equ
atio
ns:
v=
u+
atts
=

displa
ce
me
nt
tim
e gr

aphs
or
by
vel
ocit
y
tim
e
gra
phs
.
The
gra
die
nt
of a
dis
p

(u +
v)tt
s=
ut +
at
2
2
v2 =
u2 +
2as
s=
[(v+
u)]/
2]t
For
a
proj
ectil
e,
suc
h
as
a
golf
ball
mo
ving
t

lacem
ent

tim
e
gra
ph
repr
ese
nts
vel
ocit
y: v
=
s/
t
The
gra
die
nt
of a
vel
ocit

hroug
h
the
air,
the
hori
zon
tal
and
vert
ical
mot
ions
are
ind
epe
nde
nt.
The
proj
ectil
e
the

y
tim
e
gra
ph
repr
ese
nts
acc
eler
atio
n: a
=
v/
t
The
are
a
und
er a
vel
ocit
y
tim

refore
mo
ves
with
a
con
sta
nt
hori
zon
tal
velo
city,
and
with
vert
ical
velo
city
cha
ngi
ng
du

e
gra
ph
repr
ese
nts
dis
pla
ce
me
nt.

5
Force
Force
s
alw
ays
o

e to
the
acc
eler
atio
n of
free
fall.

6
Resis
tive
for
ces
an

ccur in
equ
al
and
opp
osit
e
pair
s,
acti
ng
on
two
bod
ies.
Wh
en
forc
es
cau
se
the
vel
oc

d
ter
min
al
vel
ocit
y
Object
s
mo
ving
thro
ugh
air
or
liqui
ds
exp
erie
nce
air
resi
sta
nce

ity of
an
obj
ect
to
cha
nge
:
res
ulta
nt
forc
e=
ma
ss

acc
eler
atio
n16
F=
ma
The
ne
wt

or
visc
ous
dra
g.
The
ma
gnit
ude
of
the
dra
g
forc
e
dep
end
s
on
the
me
diu
m,
the
size
of

on is
that
forc
e
whi
ch
giv
es
a
ma
ss
of
1kg
an
acc
eler
atio
n of
1m
s2.
Wei
ght
(i

the
obj
ect
and
the
spe
ed
of
the
obj
ect.
Dra
g
incr
eas
es
with
spe
ed.
For
an
obj
ect
falli
ng

n N) =
ma
ss
(in
kg)

gra
vita
tion
al
fiel
d
stre
ngt
h
(in
N
kg1
).
The
equ
atio
nF
=
ma
can
not
b

in air
und
er
gra
vity,
the
dra
g
incr
eas
es
until
it
equ
als
the
wei
ght.
The
res
ulta
nt
forc
e

e used
for
part
icle
s
trav
ellin
g at
ver
y
hig
h
spe
eds
,
bec
aus
e
thei
r
ma
ss
incr
eas

and
the
acc
eler
atio
n
are
bot
h
the
n
zer
o;
the
obj
ect
con
tinu
es
at a
con
sta
nt
ter
min

al

es
with
ene
rgy.

velo
city.

7
Equili
bri
um
The
cen
tre
of
gra
vity
of
an
obj
ect
i

8
Car
saf
ety
The
thin
king
dist
anc
e is
the
dist
anc
e
tra

s the
poi
nt
wh
ere
its
wh
ole
wei
ght
ma
y
be
con
sid
ere
d to
act.
The
mo
me
nt
of a
fo

velled
whil
e
the
driv
er
rea
cts.
Thi
nkin
g
dist
anc
e=
(rea
ctio
n
tim
e)
(sp
eed
of
the
vehi
cle)
The
b

rce
abo
ut a
poi
nt =
forc
e
per
pen
dic
ular
dist
anc
e
fro
m
the
forc
e
line
to
th

raking
dist
anc
e
dep
end
s
on
the
ma
ss
of
the
vehi
cle
and
the
effic
ienc
y of
the
bra
kes,

e
poi
nt.
A
cou
ple
is a
pair
of
forc
es
that
are
equ
al
in
ma
gnit
ude
but
act
in
opp
o

and is
pro
port
ion
al
to
the
squ
are
of
the
spe
ed.
Air
bag
s
and
cru
mpl
e
zon
es
incr
eas
e

site
dire
ctio
ns
pro
duc
ing
rota
tion
.
The
torq
ue
of a
cou
ple
=
one
forc
e
per
pen

the
tim
e
and
dist
anc
e
tak
en
to
co
me
to
rest
,
and
ther
efor
e
red
uce
the
imp
act
for

dicular
dist
anc
e
bet
we
en
the
m.
The
prin
cipl
e of
mo
me
nts:
for
a
bod
y in
equ
ilibri

ces.
Glo
bal
Pos
ition
ing
Sys
tem
s
use
the
trila
tera
tion
tec
hni
que
.

um,
su
m
of
cloc
kwi
se
mo
me
nts
abo
ut a
poi
nt =
su
m
of
anti
cloc
kwi
se
mo
me
nts.

 9
Work
a
n
d
e
n
er
g
y
Work
d
o
n
e
=
fo
rc
e

di
st
a
n
c
e
m
ov
e
d
in
t

10
Pow
er,
de
nsi
ty,
pr
es
su
re
Powe
r is
the
rat
e
of
wo
rki
ng.
P

he
di
re
cti
o
n
of
th
e
fo
rc
e.
1
jo
ul
e
(J
)
is
th
e
w
or
k
d
o
n
e
or
e
n
er
g
y
tr
a
n
sf
er
re
d

ower
=
(w
ork
do
ne)
/
(ti
me
tak
en)
.A
po
we
r of
1
wa
tt
(=
1
J
s1)
is
de
vel
op
ed
if 1
jou

 11
Elasti
c
m
at
eri
als
Hook
es
la
w:
for
a
spr
ing
or
ma
teri
al
wh
ich
is
str
etc
h

12
The
Yo
un
g
m
od
ul
us
Tensil
e
str
es
s
is
for
ce
F
pe
r
uni
t
cro
ssse
cti
on
al

ed up
to
its
ela
sti
c
lim
it,
the
ext
en
sio
n
is
pr
op
orti
on
al
to
the
ten
sio
n.
Th

area
A.
Str
es
s=
F/
A
Te
nsi
le
str
ain
is
ext
en
sio
n
x
pe
r
uni
t
len
gth
L.
Str
ain

 13
Char
ge
an
d
cu
rre
nt
Electr
ic
cur
re
nt
is
a
ba
se
qu
ant
ity
def
ine
d
in
ter
m

14
Char
ge
ca
rri
er
s
In a
me
tal,
ch
ar
ge
is
car
rie
d
by
mo
ve
me
nt
of
fre
e
ele
ct

s of
the
for
ce
bet
we
en
tw
o
lon
g,
pa
rall
el,
cur
re
ntcar
ryi
ng
co
nd
uct
ors
.

rons;
in
an
ele
ctr
oly
te,
ch
ar
ge
is
car
rie
d
by
po
siti
ve
an
d
ne
gat
ive
ion
s.
Th
ec

Curre
nt
I is
rat
e
of
flo
w
of
ch
ar
ge.
I=

Q/
(t

Q)
=I
t
Cu
rre
nt
is
me
as
ur
ed
u

onve
nti
on
al
cur
re
nt
is
the
dir
ect
ion
in
wh
ich
po
siti
ve
ch
ar
ge
s
wo
uld
m

sing
an
am
me
ter
co
nn
ect
ed
in
ser
ies
.
1
co
ulo
m
b
(C)
is
the
qu
ant
ity
of
ch
arg

ove.
Th
e
ele
ctr
on
cur
re
nt
is
in
the
op
po
sit
e
dir
ect
ion
.
Co
nd
uct
ors
,
se
m

e
whi
ch
pa
ss
es
wh
en
a
cur
ren
t of
1
am
per
e
pa
ss
es
for
a
tim
e
of
1
se
co
nd.
Th
e

icond
uct
ors
an
d
ins
ula
tor
s
ha
ve
diff
er
ent
nu
mb
ers
n
of
ch
ar
ge
car
rie
r

elem
ent
ary
ch
ar
ge
is
e=
1.6
0
10
19

C.
Thi
s
is
the
siz
e
of
the
ne
gat
ive
ch
ar

s per
uni
t
vol
um
e.
In
a
me
tal
wir
e
of
cro
ssse
cti
on
al
ar
ea
A
wit
h
ele
ctr
on

ge of
an
ele
ctr
on
an
d
the
po
siti
ve
ch
ar
ge
of
a
pr
oto
n.

s
mo
vin
g
wit
h
drif
t
vel
oci
ty
v,
the
cur
re
nt
is I
=
nA
ve

 15
Pote
nti
al
dif
fer
en
ce
an
d
e.
m.
f.
The
pot
ent
ial
diff
er
en
ce
bet
we
en
tw
o
poi
n

16
Resis
ta
nc
e
The
fun
cti
on
s
of
a
res
ist
or
in
a
cir
cui
t
ar
e
to
co
ntr
ol
the

ts is
def
ine
d
as
the
wo
rk
do
ne
in
mo
vin
g
uni
t
ch
ar
ge
bet
we
en
tho
se
poi
nts
.V
=

curre
nt,
an
d
to
dis
sip
ate
en
er
gy
in
he
ati
ng.
Th
e
res
ist
an
ce
R
of
a
co
nd
uct
o

 17
Curre
ntvo
lta
ge
ch
ar
ac
ter
ist
ics
The IV
ch
ar
act
eri
sti
c
(gr
ap
h)
fo

18
Resis
tiv
ity
The
res
isti
vit
y
of
a
co
nd
uct
or
of
len
gth
L,
cro
ssse
cti
o

ra
fix
ed
res
ist
or
at
co
nst
ant
te
mp
er
atu
re
is
a
str
aig
ht
lin
e
thr
ou
gh
the

nal
ar
ea
A
an
d
res
ist
an
ce
R
is

=
R
A/
L.
Th
us
R
=
L/
A
Th
e
uni
t of
res
isti
vit
y
is

 19
Powe
r
in
ele
ctr
ica
l
cir
cu
its
Powe
rP
de
vel
op
ed
in
a
cir
cui
t is
P
=
VI
=I

20
Serie
s
an
d
pa
ral
lel
cir
cu
its
Kirch
hof
fs
firs
t
la
w:
at
an
y
cir
cui
t
jun
ct

R=
V2/
R
En
er
gy
tra
nsf
err
ed
=
po
we
r
tim
ee
W
=
Pt
=
ItV
Fu
se
wir
e
is
ma
de
o

ion,
tot
al
cur
re
nt
in
=
tot
al
cur
re
nt
out
.
Thi
s
is
a
co
ns
eq
ue
nc
e
of
the
co
ns
er

 21
Resis
tor
s
in
cir
cu
its
For
thr
ee
res
ist
ors
in
ser
ies
:
Rs
=
R1
+
R2
+
R3
Fo
r

22
Pote
nti
al
di
vi
de
rs
A p.d.
V
is
ap
pli
ed
acr
os
s
tw
o
res
ist
ors
R1
an
d
R2
in
se

three
res
ist
ors
in
pa
rall
el:
1/
Rp
=
1/
R1
+
1/
R2
+
1/
R3
A
cel
l
ha
s
int
er
nal
re

ries.
Th
e
p.d
.s
acr
os
s
the
res
ist
ors
ar
e
V1
=
V
R1/
(R1
+
R2)
an
d
V2
=
V
R2/
(R1
+
R2)
Th
e

 23
Wave
m
oti
on
A
pr
og
res
siv
e
wa
ve
tra
nsf
ers
en
er
gy
fro
m
on
e
pla
ce
to
an

24
Wave
m
ea
su
re
m
en
ts
The
am
plit
ud
e
A
of
a
wa
ve
mo
tio
n
is
the
ma
xi
mu
m
dis
p

other,
but
the
me
diu
m
onl
y
vib
rat
es
or
os
cill
ate
s.
All
wa
ve
mo
tio
ns,
inc
lud

lacem
ent
of
the
vib
rati
ng
me
diu
m,
or
the
ma
xi
mu
m
val
ue
of
an
os
cill
ati
ng
si

25
Elect
roma
gneti
c
wave
s

26
Polar
isa
tio
n
In
un
pol
ari
se
All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed c in a
d
vacuum or free space. c = 3.00 108ms1
wa
All e-m waves are transverse waves and can be polarised.
ve
s
The wavelengths of visible light range approximately from
the
400nm for violet to 700nm for red.
vib
Typical wavelengths for other e-m radiations are:
rati
gammaaX-rayssultraviolettinfrareddmicrowavessradio
on
12
10
8
5
2
10 mm10 mm10 mm10 mm10 mm
of
11000m
the
me
diu
m
is
in
a

ll
po
ssi
ble
dir
ect
ion
s
in
the
pla
ne
pe
rp
en
dic
ula
r
to
the
dir
ect
ion
of
wa

27
Supe
rposi
tion
of
wave
s,
diffra
ction

28
Interf
er
en
ce
Two
co
he
re
nt
so
urc
es
ha
The Principle of Superposition: if two wave motions are
ve
superposed, the resulting displacement at any point is the
the
vector sum of the individual displacements.
sa
At any point: intensity (amplitude of wave motion)2
me
fre
Diffraction is the spreading out of waves when they pass
qu
through an aperture or round an obstacle.
en
If light of wavelength is incident on a diffraction grating of
cy
spacing d, then a pattern of order n is seen at angle
an
where n = d sin
da
co
nst

ant
ph
as
e
diff
er
en
ce
bet
we
en
the
m.
Co
nst
ruc
tiv
e
int
erf
er
en
ce
oc
cur
s
wh

 29
Stati
on
ar
y
wa
ve
s
Statio
na
ry
(st
an
din
g)
wa
ve
s
ar
e
for
me
d
wh
en
tw
o
ide
nt

30
Phot
on
s
A
ph
oto
n
is
on
e
qu
ant
um
of
en
er
gy
of
ele
ctr
om
ag
net
ic
ra
dia
t

ical
wa
ve
s
tra
vel
lin
g
in
op
po
sit
e
dir
ect
ion
s
ar
e
su
pe
rp
os
ed.
No
de
s
ar
e
fo

ion.
Th
e
en
er
gy
of
a
ph
oto
n
of
ra
dia
tio
n
of
fre
qu
en
cy
f is
E
=
hf
=
hc/

wh
er
e
h

31
The
phot
oelec
tric
effect

32
Wave

pa
rti
cle
du
ali
ty,
sp
A negatively charged and freshly cleaned zinc plate will
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lose electrons if ultraviolet radiation is incident on it.
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Photoelectric effect shows that e-m radiation has particle
The
properties.
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The work function of a metal is the minimum energy to
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release an electron from its surface. The threshold
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frequency is the minimum frequency of radiation to release
of
electrons from the metals surface.
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One photon of frequency f may release one electron. The
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maximum KE of the electron released is mvmax = hf
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