case study

Molding a Solution
How Six Sigma
enhanced
product
performance
at an indian
foundry

By Prasun Das,
Indian Statistical
Institute, and
Abhranil Gupta,
Auctus Solutions

erformance measures how well a product functions for its intended uses. If a
product has multiple independent functions, its performance can be defined
as performance of the interacting chunks or modules of the product.1
The performance of the individual chunks or modules, in turn, depends on
the properties of the individual modules intended at the time of design. While
manufacturing the product according to the design, the intended properties
should be embedded, or there can be a deviation of the intended properties.
This deviation of the properties will lead to a fall in the products performance
level. In turn, the overall product performance will deteriorate as a cascading
effect of the falling performances of the individual chunks.
To study this dilemma, we looked at a manufacturer and its casting process of
gear boxes used as parts of mechanical power transmission units, and we asked
how Six Sigma could be applied to improve product performance.
The design, standards and norms (or intended properties) were set by the
customer who needed the product free of defectssuch as blowholes, gas porosity, cracks, shrinkage, misrun, dimensional accuracy and chilled surfaceper the
standards in the quality plan.
The objective of this work was to improve product performance by reducing
the nonconformities of the manufactured product, thereby improving product
performance and ensuring the product adhered to the design and specifications.
The deviations in the process, if minimized and controlled, could lead to about
10-15% fewer defective parts shipped to the customer that wouldnt have been
typically caught by inspection.2 The deviations from the standards were found to
be the result of the process.
Six Sigma was used to contain the defects or noises in the process, thereby
improving performance. The process was mapped through root cause analysis
(RCA), and failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) was carried out using
domain knowledge to identify the key process input variables responsible for
failures.
Control mechanisms, too, were devised to monitor these inputs and thus
reduce defects. After the defects were totally contained, the product manufactured more consistently met standards and norms that were set in the design
stage by the customer.
At the foundry
In the example, quality consciousness became top of mind with management at the
foundry because of increased competition. In any foundry, better quality means
more competitive pricing of its product through less rework and rejection. Note
that the casting process in a foundry is complex and involves diverse skills, different
qualities of ingredients and technology. As variation in any process is inevitable, a
high amount of variation makes it challenging to anticipate and manage results.

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Statistical thinking focused on reducing variation

found in the casting process, including core making,
sand preparation, cupola operation, shot blasting
and the measurement system.3 These stages of casting
could be viewed as a series of interconnected processes
that can result in variation but generate opportunities for improvement if variation is reduced through
identification, analysis and adequate control.4
The thinking, methods and tools needed to understand the nature of variation must be integrated into
the decision-making process. The best results are
achieved when principles based on statistical thinking
are used as a guideline.
Six Sigma basics
Six Sigmathe systematic method for continuous process quality improvement and the process of achieving
operational excellenceseeks to improve the quality
of process outputs by identifying and removing the
causes of defects (or errors) and minimizing variability
in manufacturing and business processes.
Six Sigma has been on an incredible run for more
than 15 years, producing significant bottom-line savings
at many small and large organizations.5 Several papers
and books have already documented the many benefits
to deploying Six Sigma.6-12 Today, organizations have
employed Six Sigma strategies in not only manufacturing processes, but also in many types of business
processes aimed to continuously reduce defects.13-17
The design, measure, analyze, improve and control
(DMAIC) method is almost universally recognized and
should be used with the objective of reducing defects
and variation to improve business results and customer
satisfaction.
DMAIC first asks project members to define core
processes (define phase). Next is quantifying and
benchmarking the process using actual data (measure phase). Statistical tools are applied to validate
root causes of problems and formulate options for
improvement (analyze phase). Ideas and solutions
are put to work and then validated (improve phase).
Performance tracking mechanisms and measurements
are put in place to ensure, at a minimum, the gains
made in the project are not lost over a period of time
(control phase).
Motivation, objective and scope
Any product is only as good as it is designed. Product
design is an ideal scenarioif achieved and no causal
relationship is overlookedthat will result in the

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Table 1. Project charter

Philosophy

Performance of any product is linked with

the attribute and features of the product,
which are manifested by the production process. Any decrease in the variability of the
process automatically improves the product
performance by decreasing the variability in
the product features.

Objective

Reduce the process variability to improve

the process, which affects the product
performance.

Scope

Sand, sand mixing, mold making, cupola

operation and pouring.

Present status

Quality level of process (sigma level) is

around 3.5.

desired outputs. This goal should motivate organizations to silence or at least quiet the noise in any process
and improve product performance to the highest possible levels.
The foundrys objective was to use Six Sigma to
reduce defects and nonconformity. To define the
scope of work (the projects boundary) and to keep
the studys objective on the right track, the following
principles were adopted to yield maximum results:
No metallurgical innovations would be performed.
No dilution or change in the design and standards, set by the customer, would be done.
Define, select, measure and improve on the
defects would only be done by the selected
team.
Management would periodically review the
progress of the DMAIC phases.
Any further changes in scope could only be made
through the proper channels and authority.
DMAIC at the foundry
Define phase: The purpose of this phase was to identify
the project scope, define its objective and map the core
process to quantify the extent of the problem in the
next phase. The selection process of this project is outlined in the project charter shown in Table 1. Figure
1 is a detailed process map of the foundry operations,
which shows the process along with identification of
critical process variables.
The following are definitions of terms used in the
analysis:
Defect: Any deviation of any characteristic from
the standard.
Defective unit: Any unit (casting item) that
doesnt conform to one or more of the standard

M o l d i n g a S o l u ti on

Keep ready
for pouring

Mold box

Dry

Takeout
pattern

To mold
area

Cut gates

Figure 1. Foundry process map

Ram

Add
mold
sand

Pattern

Core box

Store

Inspection

Operation

25

Transportation

10

Delay

To Assemble
store

Start

Dry

Takeout
pattern

Issue

Cut gates

Ram

To reclaimed sand store

To
Weigh
cupola pig iron
Mix

Green

Pan

Reclaimed

Keep ready
for molding

Measure
out
proportion

Inspection

Felting

Shake out

Cool

Pouring

Check temperature

Dry mix

To
sand mix

Weigh
To
home
cupola return
Coal

To home return
Put in furnace
fire

Weigh
To
cupola scrap

Betonite
Water

Storage: Storage of in-process, raw material and finished product in the inventory.
Inspection: Points in the system where the inspection is carried out.
Operation: Functions carried out to transform the raw material to finished product.
Transportation: Transporting work in progress inventory from one work station to another.
Delay: Delay in the process for any reason, including no job, no material and absence of workers.

parameters. A defective unit can have more than

one defect.
Defect opportunity: The way one or all types of
defects can occur in a unit.
Defect per million opportunities (DPMO): The
number of defects occurring per million defect
opportunities.
Measure phase: The purpose of this phase is to quantify the problem using available data in terms of the
baseline sigma level. In the analysis at the foundry,
historical data from the last three years of records were
collected, and a Pareto chart was prepared for differ-

ent defect categories to extract the vital few defects.

Figure 2 (p. 12) shows that blowholes, gas porosity and
shrinkage were causing the majority of the problems
(total defects). Table 2 (p. 12) shows the rejection
percentage and the subsequent sigma level calculated
from the raw data.
Analyze phase: The objective of this phase of our
study was threefold:
1. Characterizing the vital few defects.
Blowholes/gas porosity. These are defects in the
castings that occur when gas is trapped inside the
mold and unable to escape from the vents created to

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Molding a S olutio n

Figure 2. Pareto chart for vital

few defect analysis

Table 2. Basic statistics for sigma level

120

360

100

300

80

240

60

180

40

120

20

60

Ga
s

Bl

po
ro
si
ty
Sh
rin
ka
ge
M
is
ru
n
Di
m
en
si
on
Cr
ac
ks
Ha
rd
m
et
al

ow
ho
le

Defects

Frequency

Blowhole

98

Gas porosity

83

Shrinkage

64

Misrun

50

Dimension

20

Crack

18

Hard metal
Number of defects
Number of castings in charge

7
340
1,838

Defect opportunity

12,866

Defects per million opportunities

26,426.24

Sigma level

3.44

Table 3. Process variables and their significance

Process variable

Significance

Amount of
green sand

Amount of green sand, if incorrect, will make incorrect permeability in the mixed sand, which is a determining
factor for the formation of the blowholes gas porosity. Also, the consistency of the mold will not be satisfactory. The grain size of green sand is different than the reclaimed sand. Hence, an incorrect mixture of the
two will cause a difference in inter-grain size, which will inhibit the free flow of entrapped gas and cause
blowholes.

Amount of reclaimed
sand

Reducing binders and catalyst is possible in reclaimed sand. Also, better dimensional control of castings can
be made while reducing large variations in impurity levels and screen analysis. An incorrect mixture of the
two will cause a difference in inter-grain size, which will inhibit the free flow of trapped gas and cause blowholes.

Amount of additives

Bentonite is the additive for binding sand, the amount of which is the strength-determining factor for mold/
core. This will affect consistency and strength in the pattern during pouring of hot metal and also affect the
dimensionality of the finished products.

Amount of water

Too much will cause blowholes, and too little will deteriorate mold/core strength significantly after baking.
Amount of water is directly proportional to forming water vapor inside the mold when hot metal is poured.
This water vapor can get trapped and form gas porosity.

Size and age

of sieve

Sieve is used to filter out the oversized grains from the sand. This filtration depends on the size of the sieve.
Hence, size and age of the sieve becomes important. As the sieve ages, its dimensional features are affected. Incorrect size of sand grains results in an incorrect size of mould, which will affect the intergrain distance
and cause blowholes.

Pan mixing time

The determining factor for the right mix of ingredients. Less time in pan making will result in heterogeneous
mixing and, therefore, inferior mold of sand.

Pattern age

As the patterns age, the dimensionality of the patterns lose their actual values, and the tapering increases.
This causes the internal features to break off while the pattern is taken out after ramming.

Gating cross-section

Cross-section of the main entry of molten iron that is poured into the mold. While pouring, if the cross-section is not appropriate, the molten iron may not flow freely, causing defects such as shrinkage or misruns.

Cupola fan speed

Any decrease or stoppage of the cupola fan will result in low temperature of the molten iron, which will result
in defects such as a misrun.

Temperature of
molten metal

The accurate control of liquid metal temperature is important in the continuous and large-scale production of
a wide variety of castings to reduce casting rejects and scrap.

Pouring time and

temperature

Pouring time has an indirect relationship with temperature of the molten iron poured into the mold for casting. Lower pouring time will solidify the iron much faster and avoid the shrinkage defect.

Cooling time

One of the primary factors for casting. Shorter cooling time will chill the surface, which is not intended by the
customer.

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M o l d i n g a S o l u t i on

Figure 3. Cause and effect diagram for shrinkage

Low fluidity

Incorrect gating
of mold
Incorrect amount
of phosphorous
Inaccurate study
of pattern
features
Gate crosssection wrong

Scrap proportion
not OK

Scrap inspection
defective

Incorrect
phosphorous
ratio
Shrinkage

Pattern old

Environment
temperature
Temperature
gradient

Wrong methoding
Poor pattern
design

Pattern
conditions bad
Improper
maintenance

Sand coverage
thickness in mold
Poor casting
design

Rate of cooling

pass the air out of the mold. These have tremendous

effect on the casing because it can seriously compromise the casting consistency and significantly increasing the probability of the casing buckling, which is a
serious performance parameter.
Gas porosity is similar to blowholes, but they are very
small, smooth bubbles18 that are usually difficult to
detect if contained in the subsurface level. This, too,
causes the same effect as a blowhole, but sometimes its
effects are even more damaging because of its formation in the deep region of castings.
Shrinkage. This is a property of all metals and alloys
because they decrease in volume after solidifying
and cooling. Two basic types of shrinkage are found,
detected and distinguished: linear and volume. The
defect mentioned as shrinkage was not the natural
property of the metal or alloy, but rather was the
shrinkage cavity formed due to expansion, and shrinking was the defect.
Three stages of shrinkage and expansion of the
gray cast iron due to the phase changes19 coupled
with intricate designs of castings in certain areas of a
castingmade the casting cavity defective. The defect
shrinkage is the cavity formed due to the linear and

volume expansion and contraction.

Misrun. This can result from an incomplete union
of two streams of metal that has lost the required
fluidity before completely filling the mold cavity. This
type of defect occurs when overheated metal is poured
into the mold, sand is excessively moist or the molten
iron travels through thin cross-sections of castings.
2. Identifying process variables. After studying the
process, along with its significance in the foundry operations, the critical process variables that might cause
the occurrence of vital few defects were determined.
The variables are listed in Table 3.
3. Completing RCA and FMEA. The two key quantitative techniques used were RCA and FMEA. The
RCA for the identified vital few defects was carried out
using a cause and effect diagram to identify all possible
causes responsible for the generation of these defects
(Figure 3). Based on these causes, an FMEA was performed to identify the process variables (measurable)
responsible, using risk priority number (RPN) from
FMEA tables (Table 4, p. 14) so improvement actions
could be systematically planned.
The RPN values were based on historical data and
domain knowledge. Historical data were used to

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Current
prevention

Current
detection

Detection

RPN

N/A

N/A

90

Scrap proportion
not OK

N/A

N/A

105

Measure and pour scrap

proportion.

Scrap inspection
defective

N/A

N/A

252

Discuss possible solution

with vendor.

Poor casting
design

10

Poor methoding

N/A

N/A

80

Analyze failures due to

method and take corrective
action.

Pattern
making

Poor casting
design

Patterns too old

N/A

N/A

72

Replace old pattern.

Pattern
making

Poor casting
design

Improper
maintenance

N/A

N/A

30

Revamp maintenance
department.

Severity

Occurrence

Table 4. FMEA for the shrinkage effect

Potential causes

Inaccurate study of
features of pattern

Low fluidity

Charging

Low fluidity

Pattern
making

Potential
failure effect

Pattern
making

Incorrect
gating

Charging

Process

Recommended action

Introduce planning for

casting.

FMEA = failure mode and effects analysis

RPN = risk priority number

determine the probability of occurrence for each of

the parameters. The values of severity were based on
the organizations voice of the customer input.
The following elaborates on the potential causes of
the three defects identified from the analyses:
1. Blowhole/gas porosity.
Cupola fan not working: Any discrepancy in the
cupola fan operation affects the coal burning, which
affects the temperature of the molten iron, which
directly affects the castings and can cause blowhole.
Amount of coal: If not enough coal is added, it will
not generate the amount of heat (exothermic reaction) required. Again, there will be a fall in temperature.
Untrained labor: The ramming of sand is done manually, which means hard ramming. This will make the
sand inside the mold highly compact, and it will prevent air and water vapor from escaping. This trapped
air and water vapor will cause blowholes.
Wrong grain size: If the grain size is too small, the
intergrain space is too small for the air created to escape.
Wrong sieve: The same reason as wrong grain size.
The sieve is used to filter out the small-sized grains out
of the sand, which makes it difficult for the air thats
created to escape.
Humid environment: This condition lowers the rate
of water evaporation from the mold while it is in the
baking stage. Too much water in the mold will create a high amount of water vapor, which could cause
blowholes.

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Low drying time: Again, a high amount of water will

create water vapor, which may be trapped inside and
cause a blowhole.
Improper vent design: Improper design, few vents
or blocked vents will prevent the trapped air or water
vapor from escaping, causing blowholes.
2. Shrinkage.
Inaccurate study of pattern features: When hot molten iron is poured into the mold, the volume is higher
than in its solidified state. So when the hot metal solidifies, it goes through a process of contraction. When
the liquid metal inside contracts, it needs more liquid
metal to fill the gap created between liquid metal and
the mold due to contraction. But sometimes this extra
metal required may not be available because of the low
area of cross-section that is designed. This may lead to
shrinkage.
Scrap proportion not OK: Scrap is the main source
of other required elements, such as silicon, phosphorus and sulphur. If the proportion of scrap is not calculated correctly, the required percentage of the elements is off, as well as the amount of scrap. This leads
to different unwanted properties of the liquid metal,
especially the phosphorous, which gives the required
fluidity to molten iron. This fluidity is required for the
material to flow freely and avoid shrinkage.
Scrap inspection defective: Scrap chemical inspection is done to check for the percentage of different chemicals. This result, if defective, will create the
wrong mix of chemicals in the hot metal.

M o l d i n g a S o l u t i on

Table 5. Action plan for

improvement

Table 6. Standard operating procedure for sand

mixing in mixing area
Process
variables

Vital
defect

Action plan

Blowhole/
gas
porosity

Check fan speed every 15 minutes

during operation.
Check coal amount before adding.
Check sieve regularly.
Rectify baking time according to atmospheric temperature and humidity.
Unload sand mix from chamber after
drying time ended.
Check vent before pouring.

Issue

Introduce planning for casting.

Measure scrap proportion and pour.
Analyze failures due to methoding and
take actions.
Replace old patterns based on
analysis.

Mix by volume

Discuss with customers about

possible changes of riser/runner
position.
Train workers in defined skill set and
prepare skill sets.
Develop gauge for centering.
Check fan speed every 15 minutes
during operation.
Measure scrap proportion and pour.
Make a detailed scrap inspection.

Final mixture

Shrinkage

Misrun

Activities

Issue green sand, reclaimed sand and bentonite

(additive) from stock.
Instruments/equipment
Sieve size

Sieve sand. Discard oversized grains. Take

proportionate volumes of sand and additive.

Process
Dry mixture

Core sand

Mold sand

Green sand

5 parts

4 parts

Reclaimed sand

5 parts

6 parts

part

1 part

4 parts

4 parts

Yellow clay
Bentonite
Mix by volume
Machine/
equipment
Time

Water
Pan-making machine.

Start pan-making machine. Note time. End at stipulated

time.
Visually inspect the mixed sand. Record, quantify and
date.

Poor methoding: Methoding is the planning of the

mold and the determination of how the metal will flow
inside the mold. If methoding is incorrect, the flow of
metal might get constricted, resulting in shrinkage.
3. Misrun.
Inaccurate study of pattern features: When hot molten iron is poured into the mold, the volume is higher
than it is in its solidified state. During solidification,
more liquid metal is needed to fill the gap created
between liquid metal and the mold due to contraction.
But sometimes this extra metal required cannot flow
to the area where it is required. This creates a misrun
in castings.
Improper timing of pouring: If hot metal isnt
poured into the mold in a specified time limit, the
metal flowing into the mold may solidify before reaching all the places, resulting in a misrun.
Incorrect measurement for centering or a low crosssection thickness away from gate: If the core is not
set exactly in the center of the mold, the thickness on
either side of the core becomes unequal. This will lead
to the constriction of molten metal flowing through
the unequal gaps and result in unequal pressure head.
Places where its less thick will cool faster and not allow
molten metal to flow further. This will result in a misrun.

Cupola blower not running properly: The cupola

blower distributes the required oxygen for the coal to
burn inside the cupola so the hot metal reaches the
required temperature. If this blower does not work
properly, the temperature of the cupola will fall and
cause less fluidity of the material. This will result in a
misrun.
From the FMEA, some of the significant processes
identified for improvement were better pattern design
and maintenance, training, gauge centering, monitoring the cupola, and adding the proper proportion of
input materials, coal and scrap.
Improve phase: Table 5 shows the action plan for
process improvement that was devised in terms of
individual activities to be carried out in a systematic
manner to prevent the generation of vital defects.
After implementing the improvement plans, fresh data
were collected.
Of the 525 defect opportunities, two defects were
found: one for blowhole and one for shrinkage.
From the collected data, DPMO and the improved
sigma level were obtained as 3,810 and 4.166, respectively.
Control phase: Standard operating practices (SOP)
were prepared for each of the six processes: sand

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mixing, mold making, core making, cupola operation,

pouring, and shake out and fettling operation. An
SOP is shown in Table 6 (p. 15) as an example of the
control system implementation. The feedback system
of the six processes was designed to control the input
materials and process.
Lessons learned
This quality improvement journey was launched to
improve product performance, and Six Sigma accomplished that with castings at the foundry. The monthly
vendor evaluation report received by management
from the foundrys customers showed a marked
improvement in quality. In other areas such as delivery
and cost, the customers didnt seem to notice much
difference.
As expected, certain agility also was observed in the
manufacturing system as a result of reduced rework.
Other lessons learned from the analysis included:
To produce a good quality product and retain its
performance over time, the minimum requirement is to reduce the variation in the input to the
process and the process itself.
Correlation between output characteristics and
input parameters must be statistically derived and
based on actual data.
Close control on input rather than output variables is required. More time and effort must be
spent in this area rather than controlling output.
Significant improvement in productivity is possible by statistically controlling the process.
More improvement opportunities
Enhancing the performance of your product is possible
through the use of Six Sigma. This foundry looking to
improve the castings of a gear box benefited from:
1. Defining product performance and subfunctions
linked to casting defects.
2. Securing effective management involvement and
commitment.
3. Linking project selection to business goals and
product performance.
4. Implementing employee training and fostering
teamwork.
5. Tracking and monitoring progress.
Further improvement potential was found in areas
such as changing in the foundrys layout for better
material movement, computerizing process control to
eliminate human errors, and controlling the chemical
composition of melt through a humidity-controlled

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plant environment and numerical-controlled chemical

analyzer.
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1. Christoph H. Loch and Stylianos Kavadias, Handbook of New Product Development Management, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2008.
2. Jack ReVelle, Manufacturing Handbook of Best Practices: An Innovation, Productivity and Quality Focus, CRC Press, 2002.
3. Prasun Das, Focus on Improvement of Casting Quality Using Statistical
Principles, Indian Foundry Journal, Vol. 55, No. 10, 2009, pp. 38-50.
4. Ronald D. Snee, Statistical Thinking and Its Contribution to Total Quality,
American Statistician, Vol. 44, No. 2, 1990, pp. 116-121.
5. Roger Hoerl, One Perspective on the Future of Six Sigma, International
Journal of Six Sigma and Competitive Advantage, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2004, pp. 112119.
6. Forrest W. Breyfogle III, Implementing Six Sigma: Smarter Solutions Using Statistical Methods, John Wiley and Sons, 1999.
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Revolutionizing the Worlds Top Corporation, Doubleday, 2000.
8. Peter S. Pande, Robert P. Neuman and Roland R. Cavanagh, The Six Sigma
Way: How GE and Other Top Companies Are Honing Their Performance, McGrawHill, 2000.
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Engineering, Vol. 12, No. 3, 2000, pp. 9-14.
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Sigma Philosophy, Total Quality Management and Business Excellence, Vol. 16,
No. 5, 2005, pp. 645-656.
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15. Nandini Das, Susanta Gauri and Prasun Das, Six Sigma Principles in Marketing: An Application, International Journal of Six Sigma and Competitive
Advantage, Vol. 2, No. 3, 2006, pp. 243-262.
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Journal of Industrial Textiles, Vol. 36, No. 3, 2007, pp. 227-251.
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and Competitive Advantage, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2009, pp. 113-126.
18. Jonathan S. Colton, Casting Defects and Design Issues, presentation,
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colton/me4210/castdefect.pdf.
19. Ibid.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Monroe Charles A., and Christopher Beckermann, Development of a Hot
Tear Indicator for Steel Castings, Materials Science and Engineering A 413414, 2005, pp. 30-36.
Montgomery, Douglas C., Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, sixth edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2008.

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