61

Feedback Control Systems.

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS
Recall step response: we have seen that pole locations in the system
transfer function determine performance characteristics; such as rise
time, overshoot, settling time.
We have also seen that feedback can change pole locations in the
system transfer function and therefore performance is changed.
Suppose that we have one variable parameter in our control system.
Then, we make a parametric plot of pole locations as that parameter
changes. The poles are the roots of the denominator of the transfer
function (a.k.a. the characteristic equation.) This plot is a plot of the
locus of the roots or the ROOT LOCUS PLOT (First suggested by
Evans.)
VERY IMPORTANT NOTE :

Root locus is a parametric plot (vs. K ) of the

roots of an equation
1+ K

b(s)
= 0.
a(s)

A common control configuration is

r (t)

G(s)

Unity feedback, proportional gain.

We will generalize control configuration later.

y(t)

62

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

Closed-loop transfer function

T (s) =

K G(s)
.
1 + K G(s)

Poles = roots of 1 + K G(s) = 0.

Assume plant transfer function G(s) is rational polynomial:
b(s)
G(s) =
,
such that
a(s)
b(s) = (s z 1)(s z 2) (s z m )
a(s) = (s p1)(s p2 ) (s pn )

nm

(b(s) is monic.)
(a(s) is monic.)

[a(s) may be assumed monic without loss of generality. If b(s) is not

monic, then its gain is just absorbed as part of K in 1 + K G(s) = 0]
zi are zeros of G(s), the OPEN-LOOP transfer function.
pi are poles of G(s), the OPEN-LOOP transfer function.
CLOSED-LOOP poles are roots of equation
1 + K G(s) = 0
a(s) + K b(s) = 0,
which clearly move as a function of K .
Zeros are unaffected by feedback.
1
. Find the root locus.
s(s + 2)
a(s) = s(s + 2); b(s) = 1.

EXAMPLE :

G(s) =

Locus of roots: (aside, stable for all K > 0 .)

s(s + 2) + K = 0
s 2 + 2s + K = 0.

63

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

For this simple system we can easily find the roots.

2 4 4K
s1,2 =
2

= 1 1 K .
Roots are real and negative for 0 < K < 1.
Roots are complex conjugates for K > 1.
=(s)
K =1
s1 , K = 0

s2 , K = 0
<(s)

Suppose we want damping ratio=0.707. We can recall that

2
2
s + 2 n s + n = 0

K =2
m

s 2 + 2s + K = 0
or we can locate the point on the root locus where
|<{poles}| = |={poles}|.

| 1| = | 1 K |
2 = K.
(or, K = 0, not an appropriate solution).
How to Plot a Root Locus
A value s = s1 is on the (180) root locus iff 1 + K G(s1) = 0 for some
real value of K , 0 K .

64

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

[A value of s = s1 is on the (0) complementary root locus iff

1 + K G(s1) = 0 for some REAL value of K , < K < 0.]
1
So, K =
G(s)
Note, G(s) is complex, so this is really two equations!


 1 

|K | = 
G(s) 
 
1
6 G(s) = 6
.
K

(6.1)
(6.2)

Since K is real and positive, 6 K = 0.

Therefore, 6 G(s) = 180 l360,
l = 0, 1, 2, . . .
So once we know a point on the root locus, we can use the
magnitude equation 6.1 to find the gain K that produced it.
We will use the angle equation 6.2 to plot the locus. i.e., the locus of
the roots = all points on s-plane where 6 G(s) = 180 l360.
NOTES :

1. We will derive techniques so that we dont need to test every point on

the s-plane!
2. The angle criteria explains why the root locus is sometimes called the
180 root locus.
3. Similarly, the complementary root locus is also called the 0 root
locus.
KEY TOOL :
6

EXAMPLE:

For any point on the s-plane

X
X
6
6 (due to poles).
G(s) =
(due to zeros)
G(s) =

(s z 1)
.
(s p1)(s p2 )

65

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

=(s)
p2

z1

p1
<(s)
6

G(s1) = z1 p1 p2 .

Test point
s1

Locus on the Real Axis

Consider a test point s1 on the real axis.
If the point is right of all poles and zeros of G(s), then 6 G(s) = 0. NOT
ON THE LOCUS.
p2

=(s)

p1

z1

Test point
s1
<(s)
6

G(s) = 6 z 1 6 p1 6 p2 6 p2
= 0 0 6 p2 6 p2
= 0.

p2

If the test point is on the real axis, complex-conjugate

roots have equal and oposite angles which cancel and may be
ignored.

OBSERVATION :

If the test point is to the left of ONE pole or zero, the angle will be
180 or +180 (= 180) so that point is on the locus.

66

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

If the test point s1 is to the left of

1 pole and 1 zero: 6 G(s1) = 180 (180) = 360 = 0.
2 poles: 6 G(s1) = 180 180 = 360 = 0.
2 zeros: 6 G(s1) = 180 + 180 = 360 = 0.
NOT ON THE LOCUS.
GENERAL RULE #1
All points on the real axis to the left of an odd number of poles and zeros
are part of the root locus.

EXAMPLE:

G(s) =

1
.
s(s + 4 + 4 j)(s + 4 4 j)
=(s)

<(s)

EXAMPLE :

G(s) =

s+8
.
s+1
=(s)

<(s)

67

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

Locus Not on the Real Axis

OBSERVATION :

Because we assume that system models are

rational-polynomial with real coefficients, all poles must be either real
or complex conjugate pairs. Therefore, THE ROOT LOCUS IS
SYMMETRICAL WITH RESPECT TO THE REAL AXIS.

What happens at K = 0, ?
(s z 1)(s z 2 ) (s z m )
=0
(s p1)(s p2) (s pn )
(s p1)(s p2 ) (s pn ) + K (s z 1)(s z 2) (s z m ) = 0.
1 + K G(s) = 1 + K

At K = 0 the closed loop poles equal the open-loop poles.

As K approaches
(s p1)(s p2 ) (s pn )
+ (s z 1 )(s z 2) (s z m ) = 0;
K
the n poles approach the zeros of the open-loop transfer function,
INCLUDING THE n m ZEROS AT C .
Plug s = into G(s) and notice that it equals zero if m < n.
The idea of in the complex plane is a number with infinite
magnitude and some angle.
To find where the n m remaining poles go as K , consider that
the m finite zeros have canceled m of the poles. Looking back at the
remaining n m poles (standing at C ), we have approximately
1
1+K
,
(s )nm
or n m poles clustered/centered at .
We need to determine , the center of the locus, and the directions
that the poles take.

68

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

Assume s1 = Re j is on the locus, R large and fixed, variable. We

use geometry to see what must be for s1 to be on the locus.
Since all of the open-loop poles are at approximately the same place
, the angle of 1 + K G(s1) is 180 if the n m angles from to s1 sum
to 180.
(n m)l = 180 + l360,
l = 0, 1, . . . , n m 1
or

180 + 360(l 1)
l =
,
nm

l = 1, 2, . . . , n m.

So, if
n m = 1;
= +180.

There is one pole going to C

along the negative real axis.

n m = 2;
= 90.

There are two poles going to

C vertically.

n m = 3;
= 60, 180.
(etc)

One goes left and the other two

go at plus and minus 60.

To find the center, , reconsider our approximation

as |s| .

b(s)
1

a(s) (s )nm

b(s)
1
and match the top
and
a(s)
(s )nm
two coefficients of s, the dominant ones.

Divide (by long division)

An easier way...

69

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

Note that roots of denominator of G(s) satisfy:

s n + a1s n1 + a2s n2 + + an = (s p1)(s p2) (s pn )
X
a1 =
pi .
Note that the roots of the denominator of T (s) are
s n + a1s n1 + a2s n2 + + an + K (s m + b1s m1 + + bm ) = 0.
If n m > 1 then the (n 1)st coefficient of the closed loop system
X
is such that a1 =
ri where ri are the closed-loop poles.
We know that m poles go to the zeros of G(s), and assume the
1
other n m are clustered at
. Therefore, the asymptotic
nm
(s

)
X
sum of roots is (n m)
zi .
Putting this all together,
X
X
X
ri = (n m) +
zi =
pi
or

P
pi zi
.
(n m)

GENERAL RULE #2
All poles go from their open-loop locations at K = 0 to:
The zeros of G(s), or
To C .
Those going to C go along asymptotes
180 + 360(l 1)
l =
nm
centered at

P
=

P
pi zi
.
nm

610

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

EXAMPLES :

Additional Techniques
The two general rules given, plus some experience are enough to
sketch root loci. Some additional rules help when there is ambiguity.
(As in examples , )

611

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

Departure Angles, Arrival Angles

We know asymptotically where poles go, but need to know how they
start, and how they end up there.
Importance: One of the following systems is stable for all K > 0, the
other is not. Which one?
=(s)

=(s)

<(s)

<(s)

We will soon be able to answer this. Consider an example:

EXAMPLE:

G(s) =

1
.
s(s + 4 + 4 j)(s + 4 4 j)
=(s)

p1

2
p2

p 1

<(s)

Take a test point s0 very close to p1 . Compute 6 G(s0).

If on locus

90 1 135 = 180 + 360l

l = 0, 1, . . .

612

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

where

1 = Angle from p 1 to s0 90.

1 = Angle from p1 to s0.
2 = Angle from p2 to s0 135.
1 = 45.

Can now draw departure of poles on locus.

Single-pole departure rule:
X
X
6
6 (remaining poles) 180 360l.
dep =
(zeros)
Multiple-pole departure rule: (multiplicity q 1)
X
X
6
6 (remaining poles) 180 360l.
qdep =
(zeros)
Multiple-pole arrival rule: (multiplicity q 1)
X
X
6 (poles)
6 (remaining zeros) + 180 360l.
qarr =
Note: The idea of adding 360l is to add enough angle to get the
result within 180. Also, if there is multiplicity, then l counts off the
different angles.

Imaginary Axis Crossings

Routh stability test can be run to find value for K = K 0 that causes
marginal stability.
Substitute K 0 and find roots of a(s) + K 0b(s) = 0.
Alternatively, substitute K 0, let s = j0, solve for
a( j0) + K 0b( j0) = 0. (Real and Imaginary parts)

613

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

Points with Multiple Roots

Sometimes, branches of the locus intersect. (see , on pg.
6610).
Computing points of intersection can clarify ambiguous loci.
Consider two poles approaching each other on the real axis:
=(s)
<(s)

As two poles approach each other gain is increasing.

When they meet, they break away from the real axis and so K
increases only for complex parts of the plane.
Therefore gain K along a branch of the locus is maximum at
breakaway point.
Gain K is minimum along a branch of the locus for arrival points.
Both are saddle points in the s-plane.
So,
dK
= 0,
ds
where 1 + K G(s) = 0
1
K =
G(s)


1
d
or,
= 0 multiple root at s0.
ds G(s) s=s0
[must verify that s0 is on the root locus. May be an extraneous result.]

614

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

Some similar loci for which finding saddle points helps clarify
ambiguity ...
=(s)

=(s)

<(s)

=(s)

<(s)

=(s)

<(s)

Finding K for a Specific Locus Point

Recall that the root locus is defined by the equation
1 + K G(s) = 0,
which can be broken up into a magnitude-equation and a
phase-equation (Eqs: 6.1 and 6.2).


 1 

|K | = 
G(s) 
 
1
6 G(s) = 6
.
K
The phase equation is used to plot the locus.

<(s)

615

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

The magnitude equation may be used to find the value of K to get a

specific set of closed-loop poles.


 1 
 is the gain to put a pole at s0, if s0 is on the locus.
That is, K = 
G(s0) 
Summary: Root-Locus Drawing Rules180 Locus
The steps in drawing a 180 root locus follow from the basic phase definition. This is the locus of
b(s)
= 0,
1+K
a(s)

K 0



b(s)

phase of
= 180 .
a(s)

They are
STEP 1: On the s-plane, mark poles (roots of a(s)) by an and zeros (roots of a(s)) with an .
There will be a branch of the locus departing from every pole and a branch arriving at every zero.

STEP 2: Draw the locus on the real axis to the left of an odd number of real poles plus zeros.
STEP 3: Draw the asymptotes, centered at and leaving at angles , where
n m = number of asymptotes.
n = order of a(s)
m = order of b(s)
P
P
pi z i
a1 + b1
=
=
nm
nm
l =

180 + (l 1)360
,
nm

l = 1, 2, . . . n m.

For n m > 0, there will be a branch of the locus approaching each asymptote and departing to
infinity. For n m < 0, there will be a branch of the locus arriving from infinity along each
asymptote.

STEP 4: Compare locus departure angles from the poles and arrival angles at the zeros where
qdep =
qarr =

X
X

i
i

i 180 l360
i + 180 l360,

where q is the order of the pole or zero and l takes on q integer values so that the angles are
between 180 . i is the angle of the line going from the i th zero to the pole or zero whose
angle of departure or arrival is being computed. Similarly, i is the angle of the line from the i th
pole.

STEP 5: If further refinement is required at the stability boundary, assume s0 =

j 0 and

compute the point(s) where the locus crosses the imaginary axis for positive K .

STEP 6: For the case of multiple roots, two loci come together at 180 and break away at 90.

Three loci segments approach each other at angles of 120 and depart at angles rotated by 60 .

616

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

STEP 7 Complete the locus, using the facts developed in the previous steps and making
reference to the illustrative loci for guidance. The loci branches start at poles and end at zeros or
infinity.

STEP 8 Select the desired point on the locus that meets the specifications (s0), then use the
magnitude condition to find that the value of K associated with that point is
1
K =
.
|b (s0 ) /a (s0 )|

EXAMPLE :

r (t)

(s + 1)(s + 2)
s(s + 4)

y(t)

=(s)
<(s)

This example is NOT a unity-feedback case, so we need to

be careful.

EXAMPLE :

r (t)

s+2
s 10

y(t)

s+3
s+1
Recall that the root-locus rules plot the locus of roots of the equation
b(s)
1+ K
= 0.
a(s)

617

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

Compute T (s) to determine the characteristic equation as a function

of K .
s+2
K s10
T (s) =
(s+2)(s+3)
1 + K (s+1)(s10)
=
Poles of T (s) at

K (s + 2)(s + 1)
(s + 1)(s 10) + K (s + 2)(s + 3)

(s + 1)(s 10) + K (s + 2)(s + 3) = 0

or
1+K

(s + 2)(s + 3)
= 0.
(s + 1)(s 10)

=(s)
<(s)

1) Open loop poles and zeros:

2) Real axis
3) Asymptotes
4) Departure angles
5) Stability boundary: Note, characteristic equation
= (s + 1)(s 10) + K (s + 2)(s + 3)
= s 2 9s 10 + K s 2 + 5K s + 6K
= (K + 1)s 2 + (5K 9)s + 6K 10

618

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

Routh Array
s2 K + 1
6K 10
s 1 5K 9
s 0 6K 10

K > 1
9
K > = 1.8
5
10
K >
= 1.66
6

stability criterion

When K = 9/5, the s 1 row of the Routh array is zerotop row

becomes a factor of the characteristic equation. Imag.-axis crossings
where 



9
9
+ 1 s 2 + 6 10 = 0
5
5
r
2
14s 2 + 4 = 0
...
s = j
.
7
=(s)
<(s)

6) Breakaway points
(s + 1)(s 10)
K (s) =
(s + 2)(s + 3)
(s 2 9s 10)
=
s 2 + 5s + 6
d
(s + 1)(s 10)(2s + 5) (2s + 9)(s + 2)(s + 3)
=0
K (s) =
ds
(den)2


3
2
2
= 2s + 18s + 20s 5s + 45s + 50


3
2
2
2s 10s 12s + 9s + 45s + 54 = 0

619

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

= (2 + 2)s 3 + (18 5 + 10 9)s 2 +

(20 + 45 + 12 45)s + (50 54) = 0
= 14s 2 + 32s 4 = 0
p

32 322 4(14)(4) 32 1248

s=
=
28
28
roots at {0.118, 2.40}. Now we can complete the locus:
=(s)
<(s)

EXAMPLE :

r (t)

1
s+a

s+1
s2

y(t)

Two design parameters: K , pole location a.

s+1
G(s) = 2
.
s (s + a)
Test a = 2, a = 50, a = 9.
1) Poles and zeros of G(s).
=(s)
<(s)

2) Real axis.

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

3) Asymptotes:
nm = 2
P
P
pi zi
0 + 0 + (a) (1) 1 a
=
=
=
2
2
2
= {0.5, 24.5, 4}
180 + 360(l 1)
l =
= 90.
2
4) Departure angles for two poles at s = 0.
X
X
6 (zeros)
6 (remaining poles) 180 360l
2dep =
= 0 0 180 360l
360

dep = 90
l = 90.
2
5) Will always be stable for K > 0.
6) Breakaway points:
s 2(s + a)
K (s) =
s+1


d
(s + 1)(3s 2 + 2as) s 2(s + a)(1)
=0
K (s) =
ds
(s + 1)2


2
= s 2s + (a + 3)s + 2a = 0
(
)
p
2
a + 3 (a + 3) 4(2)(2a)
breakaway at 0,
2(2)
p


sa={2,50,9} = 1.25 j 7/16, (2.04 and 24.46), 3 and 0
|
{z
}
not on locus

620

621

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

a=2

=(s)

a=9

<(s)

a = 50

=(s)

<(s)

=(s)

<(s)

Matlab and Root Loci

b(s) b0s m + b1s m1 + + bm
If G(s) =
.
=
a(s)
a0s n + a1s n1 + + an
b = [b0 b1 b2 . . . bm];
a = [a0 a1 a2 . . . an];
rlocus(b,a);

% plots the root locus

Also, k=rlocfind(b,a); returns the value of K for a specific point on the

root locus (graphical, with a mouse).
Matlab is also able to draw space aliens!
z=[-5+5j -5-5j -4.8+2j -4.8-2j 0.35+0.2j 0.35-0.2j ...
2j -2j 2j -2j 0.7 0.7 1.0+1.5j 1.0-1.5j 1.0+1.5j 1.0-1.5j 2.2];
p=[-4.5+3.2j -4.5-3.2j -0.15+0.8j -0.15-0.8j 0.3j -0.3j 0.4+0.3j ...
0.4-0.3j 0.45+0.6j 0.45-0.6j 1+1.3j 1-1.3j 1+1.3j 1-1.3j 2+0.15j ...
2-0.15j 2];
num=poly(z); den=poly(p); rlocus(num,den);

622

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

6
4

Imag Axis

2
0
2
4
6
6

2
1
Real Axis

623

ROOT-LOCUS ANALYSIS

Extensions to Root Locus - Time Delay

A system with a time delay has the form
G(s) = ed s G 0(s)
where d is the delay and G 0(s) is the non-delayed system.
This is not in rational-polynomial form. We cannot use root locus
techniques directly.
METHOD

1:


b
s
+
b
0
1
Approximate ed s by
, a polynomial.
a0 s + 1
Pad approximation.
1 (d s/2)
First-order approximation
ed s 1 + ( s/2)
d

1 d s/2 + (d s)2/12

1 + d s/2 + (d s)2/12
1

1 + d s

Second-order approximation.
Very crude.

Extremely important for digital control!!!

METHOD

2:

Directly plot locus using phase condition.

i.e., 6 G(s) = (d ) + 6 G 0(s) if s = + j.
i.e., look for places where 6 G 0(s) = 180 + d + 360l.
Fix , search horizontally for locus.