A model of image creation and

image transfer in event

sponsorship
Kevin Gwinner

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School of Business, East Carolina University, Greenville,

North Carolina, USA
Introduction
Due to the proliferation of leisure events in todays society, the awareness and
opportunity for corporate event sponsorship is at an all time high. Loosely
defined, sponsorship can be regarded as the provision of assistance either
financial or in-kind to an activity [e.g., sport, musical event, festival, fair, or
within the broad definition of the Arts] by a commercial organization for the
purpose of achieving commercial objectives (Meenaghan, 1983, p. 9). Until the
past decade the majority of firms have viewed event sponsorship as an
obligation to the community (Catherwood and Van Kirk, 1992). Sponsorships
had been placed on a level somewhere between charitable donations and public
relation opportunities. Furthermore, the selection of which events to sponsor
was often determined by the current pet project of the firms CEO (Meenaghan,
1991). Today, although still representing a small percentage of the overall
promotional budget, the outlay of promotional dollars for sponsorship activities
is growing rapidly (Parker, 1991; Sandler and Shani, 1989; Scott and Suchard,
1992). Not only are todays sponsorships more sophisticated (i.e., more than
simply the donation of cash for event production), but most firms are expecting
a reasonable return on their sponsorship dollar in the form of increased sales
(Catherwood and Van Kirk, 1992).
While firms enter into sponsorship arrangements with a variety of goals,
two of the most important are: to increase brand awareness; and to establish,
strengthen, or change brand image (Crowley, 1991; Marshall and Cook, 1992;
Meenaghan, 1991; Meerabeau et al., 1991). Recently, these goals have been
theorized to be important in the development of customer-based brand equity,
defined as the differential effect of brand knowledge on the consumers purchase
decision (Keller, 1993). In Kellers conceptualization, brand knowledge (which
drives customer-based brand equity) is a function of both the consumers
awareness of the brand and the image(s) associated with that awareness. In
particular, the favorability, strength, and uniqueness of the brand associations
play a critical role in determining the differential response (Keller, 1993, p.8).
Brand awareness is achieved by exposing the brand to as many potential
consumers as possible (Aaker, 1991). Sponsorship activities present multiple
opportunities for achieving awareness objectives, and much of the research to

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date in the sponsorship literature has focused on awareness issues such as

sponsor recall (e.g. McDaniel and Kinney, 1996). Regrettably, less attention has
been given to event and brand image issues. A number of questions exist
regarding the effect of sponsorship promotional activities on brand and event
image. For example:
What factors contribute to an events image?
Do consumers associate an events image with sponsoring brands?
If there is an image association between event and sponsor, is there a
theoretical explanation that can be used to understand this linkage?
If there is an image association between event and sponsor, what factors
moderate (strengthen or weaken) this relationship?
How does event image influence attitude towards the brand?
Although attempts at measuring the return on the sponsorship investment
have been made (e.g., total event attendance, exit polls, sales following the
event, and number of media mentions), an understanding of how sponsorship
works has yet to be developed (Catherwood and Van Kirk, 1992; Javalgi et al.,
1994; Meerabeau et al., 1991; Parker, 1991). The purpose of this article is to
present a model explaining the mechanisms by which brand image may be
impacted through sponsorship activities. Specifically, drawing on the theory of
meaning transfer from the celebrity endorsement literature, a model is
presented which suggests the factors involved in creating an events image and
the subsequent transfer of that image to the sponsoring brand. Furthermore,
several factors are identified that may moderate the relationship between event
image and brand image. While the focus of this article is on the conceptual
development of image transfer in sponsorship, a variety of research
propositions are offered to guide future empirical inquiry.
A framework for the transfer of event image
Model conceptualization and overview
Brand image has been defined as perceptions about a brand as reflected by the
brand associations held in memory (Keller, 1993, p. 3). Keller suggests that the
favourability, uniqueness, and strength of the associations are critical to a brands
success. Brand associations are developed from a variety of sources including
product use, informational sources (e.g., advertising, packaging, word-of-mouth),
and association with other entities. The association with other entities source is
of particular relevance to sponsorship activity. Keller has suggested that when a
brand becomes associated with an event, some of the associations linked with the
event (e.g., youthful, relaxing, enjoyable, disappointing, sophisticated, lite, etc.)
may become linked in memory with the brand.
This transfer of associations is consistent with research in the celebrity
endorsement process. Initial research regarding celebrity endorsement focused
on the credibility and attractiveness of the message source (i.e., celebrity) to
explain the persuasive nature of endorsers. That is, more credible and attractive

endorsers were viewed as more persuasive. However, McCracken (1989),

pointing to conflicting research results, suggested that endorsement
effectiveness is better explained by the meanings consumers associate with
the celebrity endorser and subsequently transfer to the brand. McCraken uses
the term meaning to describe consumers overall assessments of what a
celebrity represents based on characteristics such as social class, gender, age,
personality, and lifestyle. Thus, individual characteristics (e.g., regal, trashy,
maleness, strong, caring, sexual, irreverent, wise) are integrated to define the
meaning of the celebrity. Meaning which has been accumulated through their
roles in television, movies, military, athletics, and other careers is thought to
reside in celebrities (McCracken, 1989, p. 315).
According to McCracken, the meaning attributed to celebrities moves from
the celebrity endorser to the product when the two are paired in an
advertisement. That is, meanings associated with the celebrity become
associated with the product in the mind of the consumer. To complete the
meaning transfer process, consumers acquire the meaning in the product
through consumption. This process is illustrated in Figure 1.

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Figure 1.
Meaning movement in
the endorsement
process

McCrackens (1989) meaning in celebrities is analogous to Kellers (1993) event

associations. Following the convention set forward by Keller with reference to
brand image, this article uses the term event image to represent the
cumulative interpretation of meanings or associations attributed to events by
consumers. A comparison can be drawn between celebrity endorsers and
events. Just as consumers associate celebrities with certain meanings, so too are
events associated with particular attributes and attitudes. It is suggested here
that these associations are derived from the events type, event characteristics,
and several individual consumer factors. This is not unlike the meaning
attributed to a celebrity being formed by the various roles he or she occupies.
For example, event associations attributed to the annual Chicago Blues Festival
(a food and musical extravaganza drawing over 500,000 people) might include
tradition, celebration and civic pride.
Extending this concept of meaning transfer from the celebrity endorser
literature, it is suggested that events act in a manner analogous to endorsers in
the transfer of image to sponsoring brands. The framework presented in Figure
2 theorizes from McCrackens celebrity endorsement model to suggest that

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Figure 2.
A model of image
creation and image
transfer in event
sponsorship

event image is formed from a number of external and internal factors. Through
sponsorship, an events image, which may be relatively distinct for different
consumer groups, may be transferred through association to the sponsoring
product. As indicated in the figure, several factors may moderate the strength
of this image transfer. This discussion leads to the offering of the first research
proposition:
P1: Through sponsorship, an events image will become associated with the
sponsoring brands image.
Determinants of event image
An events image is represented by a particular market segments overall
subjective perceptions of the activity. The proposed framework suggests three
factors that may impact ones perception of a particular event: event type, event
characteristics, and individual factors.
Event type. In accordance with the earlier definition, event type can be
categorized into at least five areas: sports related, music related, festival/fair
related, fine arts related (e.g., ballet, art exhibit, theatre, etc.), and professional
meeting/trade show related. The type of event impacts event image in a variety
of ways. First, it conjures up image associations in the mind of the consumer.
That is, most individuals, through past patronage or other forms of exposure
(word-of-mouth, television, etc.) will develop some attitudes (i.e., positive or
negative predispositions towards an event) regarding particular events. These
attitudes will serve to frame the image of the particular event type. Note
however, that ones attitude towards an event is only one part of an events
image. Ones attitude towards an event represents a summary of experiences
resulting in some general predisposition to respond to an event in a consistently

favourable or unfavourable manner. Thus, event attitude is an enduring

evaluation (Cohen, 1990).
While an events image will be strongly influenced by ones attitude towards
the event, event image will also be impacted by non-evaluative perceptions of an
event that are formed through associations held in the consumers memory
(Keller, 1993). In this sense, event image reflects the meaning of the event for an
individual, and can be characterized using descriptive labels that represent a
summation of ones perceptions. These labels, termed image associations,
would include: youthful, mature, carefree, adventurous, educational, social,
traditional, exclusive, common, liberal, conservative, high class, family
oriented, children oriented, cerebral, athletic, artistic, pride, political, etc. Thus,
event image can be thought of as a collection of image associations.
In addition to past experiences and other indirect exposures, it is likely that
new experiences will shape ones perception of event image. In fact, image
perceptions formed from the most recent event experiences will likely be the
most influential in shaping ones overall event image perceptions (Bagozzi and
Warshaw, 1990). New experiences can be divided into two types: the specific
activities engaged in or observed; and all interactions with other event
attendees/participants and event staff. It is through these two experiences that
past event images may be changed or modified and new image associations can
be added.
The specific activities engaged in or observed may be the same for all
participants[1] (e.g., attendees at a soccer match) or quite varied (e.g., the
individual rides and attractions selected at a local festival), depending on the
type of event. Regardless of the similarity of experiences, the essential issue is
that a given consumers specific event experiences or observations will shape
their perceptions of event image. It is also argued here that the number and type
of other participants will have an impact on ones evaluation of the events
image. For example, the number of spectators may impact ones assessment of
the success of the event. Perhaps events may be viewed as more successful
when they draw more attendees. In addition, the number of participants may
impact perceptions of crowding, event availability, and wait times. Type of
participant represents the demographic and psychographic characteristics of
others attending the event. The attendees at some events represent relatively
homogeneous market segments in terms of social class, family life cycle, age,
gender, political affiliation, etc. For example, spectators of professional golf
tournaments may be middle aged, white males, with above median incomes. In
other cases, events draw heterogeneous types of participants. Just as other
customers can have a substantial impact on consumers perceptions of service
firms, so too can other participants have an impact on ones event experiences
and subsequent assessment of event image (Bitner et al., 1994).
These factors, perceptions based on past experiences, event activities, and
the number and type of spectator/participant, constitute one aspect that will
serve to shape consumers overall subjective perceptions of a given event. Based
on the above discussion, several research propositions are suggested:

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P2a: Direct experience and/or indirect information (word-of-mouth,

advertising, etc.) with an event type will influence event image.
P2b: The specific activities experienced or observed during an event will
influence event image.
P2c: The number and type of other spectators/participants will influence
event image.
Event characteristics. Within a given event type (e.g., music concert series, trade
show, etc.), a number of characteristics will vary from event to event. The level
of the following five event characteristics will likely influence consumers
perceptions of an events overall image: event size, professional status of
participants (professional or amateur), tradition/history associated with the
event, event venue, and promotional appearance.
Event size can be considered along a number of dimensions, including length
of event, level of media exposure (local, regional, national, international),
number of performers (if applicable), and amount of physical space occupied.
The same type of event, for example electronic industry trade shows, can vary
along all of these dimensions, creating different images for the same event type.
Likewise, other event characteristics such as the professional status of
performers (professional versus amateur) or the venue in which the event is
staged (e.g., temperature, convenience, physical condition, etc.) will impact ones
overall assessment of the events image. One could theorize that, in most cases,
perceptions of quality, legitimacy, and attendance desirability will be higher
with long running, large, elaborately staged events, featuring professionals in
attractive and convenient venues.
The perceived promotional appearance of a brands sponsorship activities may
appear anywhere along a spectrum from advertiser to benefactor. A perception
towards the benefactor end of the spectrum may lead to increased feelings of
goodwill towards the brand because it is perceived as donating funds to make the
event possible (McDonald, 1991). Conversely, there may be a negative reaction to
the commercialization of events that have not been sponsored in the past. These
events may be perceived as selling out to the corporate world. This has become
especially true in the Arts, where some individuals feel that sponsorship
(corporate or governmental) of the Arts leads to censorship (Jacobson, 1993;
Wood, 1996) . However, due to increasing costs, it has become even more critical
for events to obtain outside sponsors in order to continue to exist. To take full
advantage of the goodwill aspects, the sponsoring brand may need to educate
attendees regarding the beneficial role sponsorship plays in event production.
Due to its association with the event, a sponsoring brands promotional
claims can be legitimized, which serves to increase the believability of the
promotional message (McDonald, 1991). Additionally, a sponsoring firm may be
perceived as making an event possible for the consumer (Chew, 1992;
McDonald, 1991). The perception may be especially strong for small events
which often have difficulty securing financial support. In this sense, the
consumer does not view the sponsorship as a form of promotion, but rather the

sponsoring brand is seen as providing a service to the attendee and a level of

goodwill is generated by the firm. Again, the scepticism that can be associated
with traditional advertising may be circumvented. Brands that are viewed as
benefactors will be seen in a more favourable light. The consumer may even
feel the need or desire to reciprocate by purchasing the brand. Following from
the above discussion, the following research propositions are suggested:
P3a: Event size will influence event image.
P3b: Professional status of participants will influence event image.
P3c: Tradition/history associated with the event will influence event image.
P3d: Event venue will influence event image.
P3e: Promotional appearance will influence event image.
Individual factors. Because of the large number of factors influencing event
image and the unique manner in which participants may interpret those factors,
an event may have different images for different individuals. Qualitative
research has revealed each sport to have its own individual image, and
sponsors will tend to benefit from image transfer accordingly (Parker, 1991, p.
26). Three individual factors are suggested here that may impact event image:
the number of images an individual associates with an event; the strength of the
particular image; and the past history one has with a specific event. This last
factor differs from the past experience factor discussed under event type. Past
history refers to the unique experiences associated with a specific event,
whereas past experiences refers to encounters with a general event type.
Events that consumers perceive as having multiple images will be more
difficult to associate with a single identity. This will be compounded when the
meanings are of a conflicting nature. Thus, an individual with many event
associations may have a shifting image of the event, depending on which
association is currently most salient. Related to this is that images can be very
strong or relatively weak. It is likely that a single strong image will dominate
over several weaker ones. This will cause an event image to be consistent over
time, but limits the richness that multiple image associations would confer.
Finally, an individuals personal history with a particular event may have an
impact on ones perception of an events image. A long history will typically
lead to a more ingrained and consistent image. An individual that has attended
or has been associated with an event for a substantial time period may also
have nostalgic feelings that become associated with the events image. Events
that have multiple or vague images pose problems for a firms sponsorship
selection decision because it becomes more difficult to predict the image that
may become associated with the event, and ultimately transferred to the
product. The above discussion leads to the following research propositions:
P4a: Individuals associating an event with a large number of images will
have difficulty identifying a consistent event image.

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P4b: Individuals with a single, strong image association will have

consistent event images over time.
P4c: Individuals with a single, strong image association will have less rich
event images.
P4d: Individuals with long-term participation in an event will hold a
consistent event image for that event.
This section has identified three broad areas (event type, event characteristics,
and individual factors) that influence the creation of an events image, although
there may be some event image determinants not explicitly discussed in the
previous section. It is likely that any unrepresented factors could be
accommodated within the proposed areas. The next section discusses constructs
that may moderate the relationship between event image and brand image.
Moderating variables in the model
Potential moderating variables presented in the model are discussed in two
sections. In the first section variables potentially impacting the strength of the
image transfer from event to brand are discussed. As such, variables pertaining
to the formation of strong memory associations (degree of similarity) and
exposure to the sponsors message (level of sponsorship and event frequency)
are discussed. The second section on moderating variables examines how ones
involvement with a product may moderate the impact of the events image on
brand attitude. Attitude towards the event and attitude towards the brand are
conceptualized and discussed as being components of event image and brand
image, respectively. Although not illustrated in Figure 2, these attitude
components should be considered as a part of each of the respective image
boxes in the figure.
Moderators between event image and brand image
This section will discuss three moderating variables impacting the strength of
the transfer between an events image and the image of a sponsoring brand.
As indicated above, the basis of the relationship is the meaning transfer
between these constructs and it is this process that the moderating variables are
proposed to influence.
The first moderating factor to be discussed in the image transfer process is
the degree of similarity between the event and the sponsor. A product can have
either functional or image related similarity with an event. Functional similarity
occurs when a sponsoring product is actually used by participants during the
event. An example of this type of similarity is Valvolines sponsorship of
automobile racing. The link is established because, apart from being a sponsor,
Valvolines motor oil products are actually used by many of the participants
during the event. The second type of similarity is termed image related, and
occurs when the image of the event is related to the image of the brand. An
example of this type of linkage is Pepsis sponsorship of the 1993 Michael
Jackson World Concert Tour. Here the similarity comes from the youth and

excitement orientation of both the music and the product. Interestingly, some
sponsors do not appear to be linked to the events they sponsor. For example, the
USF&G Sugar Bowl combined a large insurance firm with a collegiate football
game. It is suggested here that either functional or image based similarities
forge stronger ties and help the consumer to link the event image with the
brand. Thus, sponsor-event similarity (functional or image based) will enhance
image transfer by more firmly anchoring the relationship in the consumers
mind. This assertion is consistent with some celebrity endorsement literature
which suggests that mis-matches between endorser and brand decrease the
effectiveness of the endorsement (Kaikati, 1987).
A second factor that may moderate the image transfer from event to
sponsoring brand is the level of sponsorship. Sponsorship arrangements can
run the gamut from a single sponsor to hundreds of sponsors at many different
levels. Multiple sponsors for a given event lessens the probability that a
particular brand will be associated with the event, due to the additional stimuli
each consumer must attend to and recall (Hutchinson and Alba, 1991). Often,
events allowing multiple sponsors will offer different levels of sponsorship.
By contributing different dollar amounts to the event, the sponsor can buy
enhanced packages. These enhancements include better sign/banner location,
more frequent media mentions, and premium ticket and hospitality packages.
Exclusive sponsorship, or at least a dominant position, will increase the
likelihood of meaning transfer from the event to the sponsoring brand by more
firmly establishing the link between event and brand.
The frequency of the event will also have an impact on the image transfer
process. Events may be on either a one-time or recurring basis. Although a onetime event does not allow recurring event-sponsor associations to be developed
over time, some events may be of such a unique nature that they attract a great
deal of media attention (e.g., Hands-Across-America). However, an ongoing
event (annual, semi-annual, monthly, etc.) should have the benefit of more firmly
establishing a link between the event and the brand due to repeated exposures
(MacInnis et al., 1991). The above discussion leads to the following research
propositions:
P5a: The higher the degree of similarity (image or functional based)
between event and sponsoring brand, the more effective the image
transfer between event and brand.
P5b: The more exclusive the level of sponsorship, the more effective the
image transfer between event and brand.
P5c: The more frequent the event, the more effective the image transfer
between event and brand.
Moderators between event image and attitude towards the brand
As discussed previously, ones attitude towards the event will help to shape
ones image of the event. Thus, event attitude is a component of event image.
Likewise, attitude towards the brand is considered under this framework as a

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component of brand image. Indeed, recent conceptualizations of brand image

include an attitude component (Keller, 1993). As such, the model presented in
Figure 2 suggests that event image will have an impact on attitude towards the
brand. However, might there be situations in which this relationship is
moderated by another factor?
Advertising research with endorsers has demonstrated that product
involvement level (defined as the level of personal relevance a product has to a
consumer, resulting from the perceived level of risk associated with the products
consumption or non-consumption) can impact the attitude formation process
(Petty et al., 1983). Specifically, we have shown that when an advertisement
concerned a product of low involvement, the celebrity status of the product
endorsers was a very potent determinant of attitudes about the product. When
the advertisement concerned a product of high involvement, however, the
celebrity status of the product endorsers had no effect on attitudes, but the
cogency of the information about the product contained in the ad was a powerful
determinant of product evaluations (Petty et al., 1983, p. 143). Following from
this research, level of product involvement should moderate the relationship
between event image and attitude towards the brand, such that event image will
have a larger impact on brand attitude for a low involvement product.
The influence of event image on brand attitude can be understood further by
considering the type of persuasion process likely to occur. Petty and Cacioppos
(1986) elaboration likelihood model (ELM) suggests that persuasion can occur
along two routes. The central route to persuasion occurs when an individual
bases product evaluation on diligent consideration of information that a
person feels is central to the true merits of an issue or product (Petty et al.,
1983, p. 144). The second route to attitude change, peripheral, suggests that
change may also occur through the association of the object with positive or
negative cues (e.g., expert source, pleasant surroundings, forceful presentation,
etc.). This conceptualization of the peripheral persuasion route is consistent
with Kellers (1993) position of links in memory being established between an
event and the sponsor.
One characteristic of sponsorship that distinguishes it from some other
promotional methods is its indirect nature (McDonald, 1991). That is, the
sponsorship is, at best, a secondary concern (behind the actual event) for the
participant. Furthermore, other than the brands name and/or logo, seldom is
any type of commercial message associated with the firms products. Thus,
sponsorship would appear to operate along Petty and Cacioppos peripheral
persuasion route due to this indirect nature, and lack of available cognizant
information. Empirical tests of the ELM model suggest that the central route to
persuasion is more effective for high involvement goods, while the peripheral
route has a higher impact on low involvement goods (Petty et al., 1983).
Theorizing from the ELM, one could conclude that when the sponsoring
brand is a low involvement product, event image will be a potent force in
determining brand attitude. Conversely, the promotional benefit, in terms of
attitude change, for high involvement products appears to be small. Product

involvement is only likely to be applicable when the sponsorship is focused at

the brand level, as opposed to the sponsorship focus being at the firm level. The
discussion in this section gives rise to the following research propositions:
P6a: Brand attitudes of low involvement goods will be strongly influenced
by event image.
P6b: Brand attitudes of high involvement goods will be weakly influenced
by event image.
P6c: Persuasion processes from event sponsorship take place on the
peripheral route.
Implications for practice and research
Implications for practice
Several implications for marketing practice can be drawn from the proposed
model. First, firms should consider more than simply the number of potential
customers their sponsorship signage and other identifiers will reach. It is
important to consider the image of the event, as this image may become
associated with the brand. An events image can be assessed through a variety
of methods. However, given its potentially ambiguous and transitory nature,
qualitative methods in the form of depth interviews, focus groups, and
projective techniques, are likely to provide the best view of how consumers
perceive a given event. Event organizers might take it on themselves to conduct
such studies and use the results to recruit potential sponsors. In the course of
such research, event organizers may find that the image of their event is not
what they thought. Furthermore, it would be wise for event image studies to
take place on a regular basis to assess changes in event image over time. This
would allow event organizers to take corrective action in a timely manner. The
proposed model suggests a variety of event image determinants that could be
manipulated to position a given event in a different light.
In terms of the sponsoring brand, the model suggests several aspects of
sponsorship that should be considered when deciding on potential event
affiliations. One aspect that should be considered, in light of image transfer
benefits, is the degree of similarity between the event and the brand. Brand
awareness benefits are likely to accrue regardless of similarity levels, but it has
been argued here that image associations will be more likely when some link
exists, either image or functional, in the consumers mind. Firms looking to add
sponsorship activities to their promotional mix should also consider the level of
sponsorship and frequency of the event. Although most firms will look at these
aspects with an eye towards the total dollar commitment, it may also be wise to
consider the meaning transfer implications. As discussed previously, exclusive
sponsorships in events occurring on a frequent basis will likely maximize the
image transfer potential of the sponsorship purchase.
Finally, firms should consider whether image transfer benefits will actually
have any influence on consumers attitudes towards their brand and ultimately
their purchase intention. The model suggests that, in terms of impacting a

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consumers attitude towards a brand, low involvement products will be more

effective in sponsorship promotions due to the peripheral nature of persuasion
taking place. However, brand attitude represents only one part of brand image.
Other image associations are likely to occur, regardless of product involvement
level. As such, firms of high involvement products should carefully consider
their promotional goals to determine if event sponsorship is the best use of their
promotional budget.
Implications for research
This article has set forward a number of research propositions that are
suggested by the proposed model. Although the propositions are in need of
empirical validation, in terms of research priorities, those dealing with image
transfer (P1) and product involvement (P6a-P6c) stand out as needing the most
immediate attention due to their potential importance to marketing managers.
The biggest challenge in the empirical testing of these propositions will likely
be in the measurement development of the event image construct and the
assessment of image transfer. Event image measures might be developed that
consist of a series of semantic differentials (e.g., young-old, exclusive-common,
adult oriented-family oriented, etc.). An event typology might then be
constructed using cluster analysis techniques to identify common image
groups. Such a typology would have significant implications for sponsorship
selection activities.
Another fruitful area of future empirical research might focus on the event
image determinants identified in the model. No predications were made with
regard to the relative strength of these image determinants. However, it is likely
that some determinants (e.g., event size) will have a stronger impact on the
formation of an events image. These determinants should be assessed to see
which explain the most variance in event image and to identify possible
interactions existing between the determinants.
Of course, research attempting to validate the image transfer process and the
presence or absence of moderating effects would represent a substantial
contribution to the sponsorship literature. Here researchers might consider the
use of experimental designs. Following such a research programme,
investigators could vary levels of similarity (both functional and image),
sponsorship level and frequency, and product involvement. Pre- and postmeasures of brand image could be compared in relationship to each of the
treatment level combinations (cf. McDaniel, 1997).
Another interesting area for further study would be to expand the event
image transfer model by examining the influence of sponsorship on brand image
creation as compared to other more traditional promotional activities (e.g.,
television and magazine advertising, packaging, etc.). Furthermore, it would be
useful to examine the effect on brand image when the brand sponsors multiple
events. Will some events have a larger impact on brand image than others? If so,
can specific event determinants be identified for driving this differential effect?

In addition, how do consumers sort out the meaning transfer from event to
brand, when brands sponsor multiple event with conflicting images?
Event image transfer is perhaps an even more critical issue in the ever
growing global community. Sponsors of events with international television
audiences, such as the Olympic Games, may need to consider the image of the
global event in relationship to the image goals of local markets. Cultural and
social norms may vary across national boundaries, such that a given events
image would not be appropriate for all consumer groups. It may also be possible
that culture will moderate the image transfer process. Perhaps in cultures where
an individuals self-concept is more closely tied to consumption activities (e.g.,
the type of clothing worn, the model of car driven), the transfer of image from
event to brand may proceed more effectively. In such cultures consumers are
more active in looking for meaning in products that can be used to change or
reinforce their concept of self.
As a result of its growing importance and lack of attention, more research in
the area of event marketing, and specifically the image transfer process is
needed. This article has put forward several theoretical arguments to explain
the mechanisms by which brand image may be influenced through various
sponsorship activities. Past research in the area of event marketing has tended
to focus on brand awareness issues and has been mostly descriptive in nature.
If this field of inquiry is to progress, we must have theoretical explanations from
which to build. This article represents a first step in the discussion of how
sponsorship actually works.
Note
1. Individuals consuming an event can be referred to using a variety of terms depending on
the specific event type. These labels include participant, attendee, spectator and observer.
All of these terms are used in this article to reflect the varied nature of event types, but
these terms should be regarded as synonyms.
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