Trustworthiness Trumps Attractiveness and Expertise:

Enhancing Brand Credibility via Celebrity Endorsement

Stephen Wang, PhD

Angeline Close Scheinbaum, PhD

Journal of Advertising Research, December 2017

ABSTRACT
Building on source credibility theory, the authors test a structural model for advertisers and
scholars to explain brand outcomes of celebrity endorsement. The empirical context is the
global airline industry with a fitting sample of at an international airport (n=637). Results of
structural equations analyses show that consumers’ perception of a celebrity endorser’s
attractiveness and trustworthiness brings a lift in brand attitude, brand credibility, and in turn
purchase intention towards endorsed brands. The contribution to source credibility theory is
the finding that endorser trustworthiness is the only component of source credibility that is
important to low involvement consumers. The takeaway for advertisers in this industry is to
use attractive celebrity endorsers with a global appeal who are trustworthy to enhance brand
credibility.

Keywords: Trustworthiness, source credibility theory, brand attitude, brand credibility,

involvement; structural equation modeling

MANAGEMENT SLANT
• When advertising in the airline industry, consumer trustworthiness of a celebrity
endorser impacts the brand credibility for the brand the celebrity endorsed.
• A way to enhance brand credibility is to integrate a trustworthy into advertising
campaigns.
• Endorser trustworthiness is the only component of source credibility theory that is
important to airline consumers who are not highly involved with airline travel.
• Endorser attractiveness is an important factor to consumers who are highly involved.
• Regardless of involvement, airline consumers’ perception of a celebrity endorser’s
attractiveness and trustworthiness lift brand attitude and brand credibility towards the
endorsed brand.
• In turn, brand attitude and brand credibility lead to purchase intention for the brand
endorsed by the celebrity.
• Involvement strengthens relationships between: attractiveness and brand credibility,
brand attitude and brand credibility, and brand credibility and purchase intention.
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INTRODUCTION

In advertising, it has been claimed in the media that “nothing sells like celebrity” (Creswell,

2008), whereas esteemed advertising scholars have recently warned that including a celebrity

endorser in advertising is “not necessarily a recipe for success” (Taylor, 2016, p. 167).

Celebrities do not enhance ad likability (Tomkovik, Yelkur, and Christians, 2001).

Furthermore, in the context of the last five years of Superbowl advertising, ads with

celebrities underperformed slightly (Taylor, 2016). Still, there remains a sustained interest in

celebrity endorsement in the advertising industry. Approximately 20% of all television

commercials incorporate a celebrity-- equating to 10% of all advertising expenditures to pay

the celebrity endorser (Agrawal and Kamakura, 1995) and there is no confirmed research

suggesting the occurrence of this practice has changed much since then. In fact, the recent

Superbowl had such a notable rise in celebrity endorsers in the ads that the media termed it as

the “Celeb Bowl” (Poggi, 2016; Taylor, 2016).

A reason for the sustained interest in celebrity endorsement in the advertising industry is

because a celebrity source for the message can make it easier for consumers to process the

information. As it is important to optimize the processability of a message (Carrillat, d'Astous,

and Charette Couture, 2015) one way of doing so is to include a celebrity. Celebrities are

likely to help attract and maintain attention in advertising (Kamins, 1989); celebrities may

also have a role in how consumers perceive an endorsed brand’s credibility. A recent

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meta-analysis of almost fifty studies on celebrity endorsement efficacy (Knoll and Matthes,

2016) rejects many average effects in areas such as enhancing awareness, endorsement

explicitness, and endorsement frequency. Their meta-analysis finds that endorser match,

consumer’s familiarity with the endorser, and attitude toward the endorsed object are each

significant (Knoll and Matthes, 2016). Consumer evaluations of celebrity source

characteristics may reflect upon the endorsed brand. As such, aspects of source

credibility—namely a celebrity endorser’s attractiveness, trustworthiness, and expertise are

important to examine from a source credibility theoretical lens (e.g., McGuire, 1969; Petty et

al., 1983; McCracken, 1989; Ohanian, 1991; Erdogan, 1999).

Research on celebrity endorsement in advertising is important is because advertisers

cannot assume that celebrity endorsement equates to more successful marketing

communications. That is, while it has been established that celebrity sources optimize

consumer information processing, a celebrity source does not necessarily contribute to the

message or a positive brand outcome. It can be risky for a sponsor to be associated with

celebrities; modern celebrities’ lives are public and more global with the proliferation of

social media. Important for international brands, celebrity endorsers can have a more

international exposure.

Objective and Intended Contribution

Hence, the authors apply source credibility theory to explain how the celebrity endorser’s

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source characteristics impact outcomes for the endorsed brand. The objective is to examine

the impact of celebrity endorsers’ source characteristics (i.e., trustworthiness, expertise, and

attractiveness) on consumers’ brand attitude, brand credibility, and purchase intention for

endorsed brands. A secondary objective is to examine how consumer involvement moderates

these relationships.

The intended contribution is to both scholars and advertising or marketing professionals.

While extant studies often focus on one or two of the axioms of the theory, here, authors test

three components of source credibility (i.e., expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness).

Further, the authors examine the indirect effect that consumer involvement has on established

relationships in the source credibility model. Another aspect of the contribution is that extant

scholarship on brand credibility (e.g., Erdem, Swait, and Valenzuela, 2006; Erdem and Swait,

2004; Rao and Ruekert, 1994; Rao, Qu, and Ruekert, 1999; Wernerfelt, 1988) has not been

examined as a function of celebrity endorsement in advertising. Furthermore, the model will

be tested in an industry that has yet to be examined with respect to celebrity endorsement.

Past scholarship in this journal (Erdogan, Zafer, Baker, and Tagg, 2001) took a practitioner’s

perspective to celebrity endorsement, and with almost 500 citations, it suggests a strong

interest in both scholarship and practice for this topic. As such, an intended contribution to

practice will be seen in actionable managerial implications.

The paper is organized as follows. First, is a literature review and a source credibility

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theory-based conceptual framework conceptual framework with ensuing hypotheses. The

following sections are methods, results, and a discussion of the findings. The authors end

with implications for source credibility theory and for advertisers using (or considering using)

celebrity endorsement.

LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Source Credibility Theory

The source credibility model represents an established theory of source credibility that can

help explain or predict message efficacy. It captures the three most influential source effects

on purchase intent, brand attitudes, and attitude towards an advertisement (Amos, Holmes,

and Strutton, 2008). The source credibility model suggests that the efficacy of the message

communicated by an endorser depends on consumers’ perception of the brand endorser’s

expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness (c.f., Hovland and Wiess, 1951; McGuire, 1969;

Friedman et al., 1976; Ohanian, 1991; Amos et al., 2008). The impact of deploying a credible

spokesperson (Goldsmith et al., 2000; Mathur et al., 1997) improves persuasiveness of the

message. Again, extant studies tend to not consider consumer involvement and focus on one

or two of the axioms of the theory. As such, here authors examine three components of

source credibility (i.e., expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness) while also testing the

role of consumer involvement.

--Insert Figure 1 here--

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 The resulting theory-based conceptual framework is in Figure 1. The framework is

based on expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness of a celebrity endorser as predictors of

brand attitude, brand credibility, purchase intention, and involvement. An overview of the

source credibility components (i.e., celebrity endorser expertise, trustworthiness, and

attractiveness) and brand outcomes follow, along with ensuing hypotheses as supported by

the celebrity endorsement literature.

Expertise

The first theoretical axiom in the model of source credibility is expertise. Expertise is defined

as the degree of perceived understanding, skills, and knowledge that the endorser has

(Hovland et al., 1953). Endorser’s expertise is akin to the source’s qualification, which

directly influences the level of conviction in order to persuade consumers to purchase that

which is endorsed. Expertise has a positive influence on both brand attitude and purchase

intention (Till and Busler, 2000). When a consumer perceives that a celebrity endorser has a

high level of expertise, he or she is more likely to be persuaded by the message in the

advertisement (Speck et al., 1988; Ohanian, 1991; Amos et al., 2008). Therefore, a celebrity

with high expertise is assumed to be more persuasive (Ohanian, 1991; Erdogan, 1999) than a

celebrity with low levels of perceived expertise. In addition to expertise, trustworthiness is a

substantial component of source credibility theory.

Trustworthiness

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Trustworthiness, or how worthy someone is of trust, is a crucial construct to examine

theoretically and managerially. Defined, perceived trustworthiness is the attribute of dignity,

believability and honesty possessed by the endorser and observed by consumers (Friedman et

al., 1976). When a consumer believes that a source is trustworthy, he or she also assumes that

the communicated message is highly believable (Hovland and Wiess, 1951). Hence, an

integrated brand promotion strategy could be associating with celebrity endorsers who

consumers perceive as honest, believable and dependable. In addition, efficacy of a celebrity

endorser may transfer from a greater perceived trustworthiness of the celebrity by the

consumer (Hovland and Weiss, 1951; Choo, 1964; Horai et al., 1974; Mishra et al., 2015).

Roy (2016) calls this process a ‘meaning transfer’ in celebrity endorsement.

Scholars have established a link from perceived expertise to trustworthiness (e.g., Erdem

and Swait, 2004). In product categories generally studied (e.g., packaged goods, fashion,

sport equipment) main effects between trustworthiness and expertise constructs are

statistically significant; this indicates that higher expertise has lead to stronger

trustworthiness in such other product categories (Erdem and Swait, 2004). Hence, it is

predicted that the more a consumer perceives that a celebrity endorser has expertise in a

particular area, the consumer’s trustworthiness of the endorser will rise—regardless of

product category or industry. Formally stated:

H1: A celebrity endorser’s expertise positively impacts his/her perceived

trustworthiness.

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Attractiveness

A third axiom of the source credibility model is attractiveness. In addition to both

trustworthiness and expertise, a celebrity endorser’s attractiveness as perceived by consumers

is potentially important. Source attractiveness directly influences the effectiveness of a

communication message (McGuire, 1969). Attractiveness entails one’s physical outward

appearance. For instance, attractiveness entails someone who is perceived as beautiful,

elegant, or classy (McCracken, 1989; Ohanian, 1990; Amos et al., 2008).

Attractiveness has been found to be a function of how similar, familiar, and likeable

someone is (McGuire, 1969). Similarity represents the resemblance that was perceived

between the endorser and the consumer. Familiarity is a consumer’s knowledge about the

source that he or she gained through repeated coverage of the celebrity in the media.

Likeability is the liking for the endorser that the consumer inculcated due to the qualification,

outward appearance and conduct of the endorser (McGuire, 1969). Together, these can

enhance perceptions of attractiveness.

Consequently, a consumer may be more likely to accept information given by an

attractive source (Kelman, 1961). Further, a consumer’s purchase intention also is impacted

when the source is attractive (Joseph, 1982; Petty et al., 1983; Petroshius and Crocker, 1989;

Erdogan, 1999). An attractive celebrity has a positive effect on brand attitude and purchase

intentions (Kahle and Homer, 1985). Based on source credibility theory and the literature,

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authors predict that regardless of the product category endorsed, how a consumer perceives

the attractiveness of a celebrity endorser will enhance the customer’s attitude for the endorsed

brand, or brand attitude.

Brand Attitude

The components of the source credibility model (trustworthiness, expertise, and attractiveness)

may be associated with a lift in a consumer’s attitude towards the brand endorsed by a

celebrity. Defined, brand attitude refers to consumer attitudes as the sum of the products of

beliefs multiplied by the evaluations (Bagozzi and Silk, 1983). These brand associations are

the attributes, benefits, and attitudes perceived by the consumer concerning the brand (Keller,

1993). Attributes are the features that describe and characterize the brand, while benefits are

the self-identified values that the product can do for the consumer. Furthermore, attitudes are

the overall evaluations of the brand from the consumer’s perspective. It is established (e.g.,

Atkin and Block, 1983; Friedman and Friedman, 1979; Langmeyer and Walker, 1991;

McCracken, 1989; Mowen and Brown, 1981; Till and Busler, 2000; Till and Shimp, 1998)

that there is a positive impact on a product and brand’s attributes through a celebrity

endorsement. Hence, the following three hypotheses are tested in an industry that has yet to

have endorsement research:

H2: A celebrity endorser’s attractiveness positively impacts consumers’ attitude towards

the endorsed brand.

H3: A celebrity endorser’s trustworthiness positively impacts consumers’ attitude

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 towards the endorsed brand.

H4: A celebrity endorser’s expertise positively impacts consumers’ attitude towards the
endorsed brand.

Brand Credibility

Just as it is important to examine brand attitude, it is important to note that brand credibility is

a related but distinct brand outcome. Brand credibility is defined as the believability of the

information conveyed by a brand, which requires that consumers perceive that the brand has

the ability and willingness to continuously deliver what has been promised (Erdem and Swait,

1998; 2004; Erdem, Swait, and Valenzuela, 2006). Previous literature has studied brand

credibility (e.g., Erdem, Swait, and Valenzuela, 2006; Erdem and Swait, 2004; Rao and

Ruekert, 1994; Rao, Qu, and Ruekert, 1999; Wernerfelt, 1988); however, generally brand

credibility is not examined as a function of celebrity endorsement in advertising. In general,

outside of a celebrity endorsement context, brand credibility not only impacts consumers’

brand choice (Erdem and Swait, 2004), but moderates consumers’ price sensitivity (Erdem,

Swait, and Louviere, 2002). Therefore, a firm can work towards building brand credibility as

it is largely driven by the quality of the information conveyed through the marketing

strategies associated with a brand (Erdem and Swait, 1998). While endorsement comprises

some of the signal of the endorsed brand, it seems likely that the credibility of an endorser

will subsequently transfer to the brand. Hence, a high extent of endorser credibility should

lead to higher brand credibility for the endorsed brand.

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 H5: A celebrity endorser’s attractiveness positively impacts brand credibility for the
endorsed brand.

H6: A celebrity endorser’s trustworthiness positively impacts brand credibility for the
endorsed brand.

H7: A celebrity endorser’s expertise positively impacts brand credibility for the
endorsed brand.

H8: Consumers’ attitude towards the endorsed brand positively impacts brand
credibility for the endorsed brand.

Purchase Intention

In addition to brand credibility, it is important to examine purchase intention for the endorsed

product or service as related to celebrity endorsement. While brand attitudes are summary

evaluations, intentions represent “the person’s motivation in the sense of their plan to carry

out a behavior” (Eagly and Chaiken, 1993). Purchase intentions are a consumer’s plan to

make an effort to purchase a brand. Intent to purchase is a kind of decision, which

investigates why a customer purchases a brand particularly. There is an effect of perceived

brand credibility and brand attitude on consumer’s willingness to purchase the endorsed

product (Bagozzi et al., 1979; Ostrom, 1969; Daneshwary and Schwer, 2000). Finally, as

synthesized in the literature (e.g., MacKenzie, Lutz, and Belch, 1986; Batra and Ray, 1986;

MacKenzie and Spreng, 1992), authors test the extent to which brand attitudes and purchase

intentions relate in the context of celebrity endorsement.

H9: The credibility of the endorsed brand positively impacts consumers’ purchase
intention for the endorsed brand.

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 H10: Consumers’ attitude towards the endorsed brand positively impacts purchase
intention for the endorsed brand.

Involvement

A consumer’s involvement with the product or service category is an important consideration

as it may indirectly influence various relationships in source credibility and brand outcomes

in celebrity endorsement. Involvement refers to the perceived importance of specific products

or services based on customer needs, values and interests (Mittal, 1995). Customers may have

varying levels of involvement on dissimilar product categories (Bloch and Richins, 1983).

Flynn and Goldsmith (1993) further suggest that highly involved customers are inclined to

display better loyal buying behavior. Thus, authors consider indirect effects due to the

consumer’s involvement in the industry. Specifically, involvement may moderate the effects

of brand attitude and brand credibility on purchase intention on the endorsed product/service.

However, it has yet to be examined if and to what extent that consumer involvement

indirectly impacts the link from credibility to purchase intention and/or the link from attitude

toward the brand to purchase intention.

H11: The relationship between credibility toward a brand and purchase intention is
intensified when the consumer is highly involved.

H12: The relationship between attitude toward a brand and purchase intention is
intensified when the consumer is highly involved.

METHODS

Empirical Context

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The empirical context selected to examine the source credibility–based model is the global

airline industry. This empirical context was selected for many reasons. First, the prevalence

of celebrity endorsement for international airline brands suggests a need for scholarship

focused in this economically significant sector. As exemplified in Table 1, the airlines

industry is witnessing a sustained trend in celebrity endorsements that is deserving of

scholarly focus.

--Insert Table 1 and Appendix 1 here--

For examples from Table 1, consider the list of following celebrities endorsing an

international airline brand: Jennifer Anniston, Nicole Kidman, Kobe Bryant, Miranda Kerr,

Hugh Jackman, Pele, Kevin Costner, Richard Simmons, Pele, John Travolta and Lionel

Messi. Celebrity endorsement in the airline industry is prevalent internationally (e.g., Virgin

Atlantic, Quantas, Singapore Air; Turkish Air). Table1 lists these examples of international

airlines, the country of the airline, and the celebrity endorser (Table 1). As an example of

advertisements activating the celebrity endorsement, Turkish Air’s campaign “Feel Like a

Star” features celebrity Kevin Costner in their advertisements to help position the airline

brand as one with “extraordinary service” (Appendix).

A second reason authors chose this industry is because there is a need to test these

established relationships in such a service industry—where trust may be especially important.

Recall, that trustworthiness of the endorser is a focal concept in this research. Airlines are a

13
service and generally a utilitarian one (i.e., getting a consumer from point A to point B) at

that. Celebrity endorsement in general is often seen for products and hedonic goods—where

trust may not be quite as important in advertising in the clothing, soft-drink, perfume, or

make-up industries as it is in the airline industry. For instance, some of the highest-paying

brand endorsements activated in advertising are almost all products and not services. For

instance, some of the most successful celebrity endorsements of all time include: Michael

Jordan (Nike, Hanes), David Beckham (H&M), Nicole Kidman (Chanel), Tiger Woods

(Rolex), Taylor Swift (Coca-Cola), Brittany Spears (Pepsi), Ellen (Cover Girl), and Jessica

Simpson (Proactiv) (Greenman, 2014). Catherine Zeta-Jones for T-Mobile is an exception, as

it is a service and her endorsement was also one of the most successful. Comparatively,

testing some established relationships in a service industry such as the international airline

industry can give some important insights.

A third reason for the need to test a more established model in the airline sector is its

international nature. Many of the aforementioned celebrity endorsements are for American

brands (often with American celebrities). Hence, it is paramount to examine source

credibility of the celebrity endorser in a different and broader context—service branding and

more international in scope.

Procedure

An author administered a self-administered survey in person with international airline

14
passengers. The questions are based on a review of the literature and specific airline service

contexts, and the questionnaire was pre-tested and revised. The survey was distributed at a

large international airport based on a convenience sampling method in May 2014.

A relatively high 637 out of a total of 700 questionnaires are deemed usable, yielding a

91% response rate from those who agree to participate. One reason this response rate is high

is due to the in-person sampling procedure, and the fact that many people sitting at an airport

are waiting and may have time to help. The main reason, however, the fieldwork was done at

an international airport is because it is a match with the context (international airline industry)

in which the authors examine theory. The sample characteristics are in Table 2.

--Insert Table 2 here--

Measures

All measures use a five-point Likert-type scale. Since the original scales were in English,

the questionnaire was translated in a tripartite process that included language,

back-translation and a third-party re-translation to affirm the extent to which the translation

was a conceptually consistent attempt to measure each scale item.

To measure expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness of a celebrity endorser, authors

adopted four items from McCracken (1989) and Ohanian (1990). Brand attitude has three

items adopted from Brett et al. (2008) and Mitchell and Olson (1981). Authors adopted seven

items of the brand credibility construct and modified to fit the context from Erdem and Swait

15
(2004). To measure purchase intention, authors adopted two items from Jamieson and Bass

(1989) and Putrevu and Kenneth (1994). Finally, authors adopted nine involvement items

from Kapferer and Laurent (1985a; 1985b); Laurent and Kapferer (1985); and Rodgers and

Schneider (1993).

Exploratory Factor Analysis

Authors tested the theory-based model via a two-stage structural equation framework. First,

exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to check any deviation from the structure of the

constructs. Then, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) helped evaluate construct validity

(regarding convergent and discriminant validity) before structural path analysis. The sample

size (n=637) is large enough to compensate for model misspecification and complexity (Hair

et al., 2006). There were no univariate and multivariate outliers. Specifically, the value of

kurtosis ranges from -.671 to 1.645 and skewness ranges from -.197 to -.976. These results

satisfy evaluation criteria (ranging from -2 to +2) (Mardia, 1985).

Measurement Model, Reliability, and Validity

The measurement models were estimated using LISREL 8.80 (Jöreskog and Sörborn, 1989).

The Chi-square statistics are significant at the .05 level, as expected with a large sample

(Doney and Cannon, 1997). The values for comparative fit index (CFI), non-normed fit index

(NNFI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean

residual (SRMR) are acceptable for the model based on the criteria suggested by Hu and

16
Bentler (1999) (i.e., .95 for CFI and NNFI, .06 for RMSEA, .08 for SRMR). Given that each

goodness-of-fit index (Table 3) meets the criteria and that the model was developed on a

theoretical base, there were no further model specifications. These goodness of fit indices are

summarized in Table 3.

--Insert Table 3 here--

After testing the measurement model, the authors assessed unidimensionality, reliability,

convergent validity, and discriminant validity. First, authors assessed unidimensionality on

the basis of principal component analyses on all items. All items load .65 or higher on the

factors, and no cross-loading was identified. Such shows unidimensionality for each of the

constructs. With regard to composite reliability, all Cronbach alpha values exceed the

suggested 0.6 benchmark (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988).

Next, in a CFA setting, authors assessed convergent validity (i.e., the degree of

association between measures of a construct) by examining t statistics related to the factor

loadings. The result that all t statistics are statistically significant at the .05 level suggests that

all indicator variables provide sound measures to their construct, offering evidence of

convergent validity (Hoyle and Panter, 1995). Moreover, average variance extracted (AVE)

values relate to all constructs at or higher than .50-- offering evidence for convergent validity

(Fornell and Larcker, 1981).

Finally, discriminant validity was verified using the procedures recommended by

17
Anderson (1987) and Bagozzi and Phillips (1982). A series of Chi-square difference tests

were performed on the nested models to assess whether the Chi-square values are

significantly lower for the unconstrained models where the phi coefficient is constrained to

unity (Anderson, 1987). The critical values related to the Chi-square difference (at the .05

significance level) are higher than 3.84 in all possible pairs of constructs; this outcome gives

support to discriminant validity. Thus, the constructs meet reliability and validity standards.

Common Method Variance Testing

Common method variance (CMV) is a potential problem in behavioral research (c.f., Bagozzi

and Yi, 1990; Cote and Buckley, 1987, 1988; Williams, Cote, and Buckley, 1989). Hence,

authors adopted procedural remedies including temporal, proximal, psychological, or

methodological separation of measurement to eliminate common method variance (Podsakoff

et al., 2003). Further, authors protected respondent anonymity and reduced evaluation

apprehension while balancing question order (Carson, 2007). This study came to an

insignificant (P=0.95, P>0.05) conclusion for common method variance test by ULMC

(Unmeasured Latent Method Construct) (Williams et al., 1989; Richardson et al. 2009).

When testing CMV with Harman’s one-factor test, EFA generates 4 factors; no factors have a

factor loading larger than 50% (Podsakoff and Organ, 1986). Finally, while comparing the

difference of CFA from a single factor and multi-factor structure (Lindell and Whitney, 2001),

the Δχ2 =388.092, Δdf=24, P=0 (Δχ2/Δdf =16.1705). Therefore CMV is not impacting

18
validity (Carson, 2007).

In addition, authors examined any nonresponse bias. As Armstrong and Overton (1977)

suggest, authors assessed nonresponse bias by comparing early and late respondents across

all variables in the study. No significant difference exists across the early and late responders.

Multi-group Analysis

The sample size (n=637) is considered sufficiently large for model specification and

multi-group analysis (Chen and Chang, 2008; Schitmann, 2007). To test any moderating

effects of involvement with air travel, authors performed Chi-square difference tests on the

nested models to assess whether the Chi-square values were significantly lower for the

unconstrained models with the phi coefficient constrained to unity (Anderson, 1987). Authors

tested moderating effects of involvement by median splitting the sample into high, medium,

and low-involvement groups (Aiken and West, 1996). Then structural equation modeling

(SEM) was run with two reduced groups (high involvement, n=159, and low involvement,

n=159).

Before hypothesis testing, authors tested the difference between these two groups.

Results of t-tests reveal that highly involved consumers are significantly different from low

involvement consumers in many items including: age, education, yearly trips abroad, expense

per trip abroad, having seen the endorsed advertisement or not, having been to the location in

the advertisement or not, and knowing of the location in the advertisement.

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Model Fit

Authors used simultaneous maximum-likelihood-estimation procedures to examine

relationships among: expertise, trustworthiness, attractiveness, brand attitude, brand

credibility, purchase intention, and involvement. The overall fit of the model is acceptable

based on many fit statistics. Fit statistics are shown in Table 4.

--Insert Table 4 here--

RESULTS

Main Effects

Results support eight of the ten direct path hypotheses. Two of the three source credibility

axioms examined-- trustworthiness and attractiveness have significant positive effects on

both brand attitude and brand credibility in the airline industry context, supporting H2, H3, H5

and H6. However, expertise is still important; it has a significant positive effect on

trustworthiness, supporting H1. Brand attitude positive significant impacts both brand

credibility and purchase intention, supporting H8 and H10 respectively. The effect of brand

credibility on purchase intention is also significant, supporting H9.

Moderated Effects

To examine the moderating effect of involvement (H11 and H12), the sample is divided using

the quartiles of the level of these involvement items (Chen and Chang, 2008). The first and

last quartiles are defined as high (µ=4.47) and low (µ=2.89) involvement groups, and are

20
subsequently used for testing the causal relationships. For the high involvement group, the

effect of attractiveness on brand attitude (H2), the effects of trustworthiness on brand

credibility (H6), expertise on brand attitude (H4), and expertise on brand credibility (H7) are

not significant (see Table 4). Hence, in the highly involved group, there is support for H1, H3,

H5, H8, H9, and H10. For the low involvement group, data supports the paths from expertise to

trustworthiness (H1), trustworthiness to brand attitude (H3), and brand attitude to purchase

intention (H10).

Multigroup SEM structural path results indicate that H11 is supported—meaning that

consumer involvement strengthens the associations among: attractiveness and brand

credibility, brand attitude and brand credibility, and brand credibility and purchase intention.

These results are now discussed with respect to source credibility theory and practice.

DISCUSSION

Results of a model of source credibility tested in the empirical context of the airline industry

demonstrate how celebrity endorser’s expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness impact

brand attitude, brand credibility, and purchase intention. Results also show moderating effects

of involvement, which is a more distinct contribution with respect to more established work

on source credibility in advertising. Highly involved customers focus on attractiveness and

trustworthiness of the endorser, while low involvement customers focus only on

trustworthiness. This takeaway relates to the crucial role of trustworthiness in celebrity

21
endorsement in the airline industry. Airline consumers who are low involvement are not

impacted as much on the airline celebrity endorser’s expertise and attractiveness; they focus

on the celebrity’s trustworthiness. Hence, trustworthy celebrity endorsers are important in

advertising because it resonates with low involvement consumers.

Of the source characteristics, trustworthiness most aptly explains consumer brand

attitude toward the endorsed airline brand by celebrity among customers who are low

involvement with air travel. While a celebrity endorser’s expertise leads to trustworthiness,

brand attitude impacts purchase intention for low involvement consumers. A celebrity

endorser's expertise and attractiveness do not influence brand attitude and brand credibility

toward the endorsed brand for these consumers. Thus, trustworthiness of celebrity endorser is

especially important for low involvement consumers.

Contributions to Source Credibility Theory and Implications for Advertising

There are contributions here for both theory and advertising practice. This contribution builds

on the model built upon source credibility theory (e.g., McGuire, 1969; Petty et al., 1983;

McCracken, 1989; Ohanian, 1991; Erdogan, 1999; Mishra et al., 2015). Results contribute to

the source credibility literature as it empirically delineates the importance of trustworthiness

above other source characteristics when considering consumer involvement. In contrast to

previous studies, this study classifies the sample according to their involvement with air

travel. Low involvement consumers tend to evaluate the air transportation service based on

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the trustworthiness of the celebrity endorser. These findings reveal the importance of

involvement and trustworthiness in air travel service. Trustworthiness trumps beauty

attractiveness and credibility when it comes to celebrity endorsement source characteristics in

the airline industry-- where trust is especially paramount.

There is a clear implication for advertisers. These results suggest that advertisers looking

to enhance their brand credibility should invest in a celebrity endorser who above all has a

perception of being trustworthy. Advertisers using celebrity endorsement should feature an

attractive celebrity who is and is perceived to be as trustworthy to best impact both their low

and high involvement consumer base. In a context of a global industry such as airlines, such

celebrity should be internationally recognized.

Limitations and Future Research

There are limitations; one, this research does not address the long-term result of advertising

as suggested by Wood and Poltrack (2015). Two, while this industry examined has

commonalities with some other relatively utilitarian service sectors (e.g., car rentals), the

airline industry may not be generalizable to other industries. For example, the airline industry

is more risk oriented due to the nature of its service. International airlines may be especially

sensitive to risk due to the longer or potentially more dangerous flights. In light of this

however, the finding of the importance of endorser trustworthiness has face validity.

Furthermore, the nature of celebrity endorsement in the airline industry necessitates an

23
endorser who has an international presence. In this industry context, it appears international

airline brands only feature certain types of celebrities—namely actors with an international

exposure. In referencing back to the examples of airline endorsers in international airline

brands (recall Table 1), it seems that international airline brands tend to have endorsements

by actors and to a lesser extent, athletes. Given the importance of the finding that a celebrity

endorser’s perceived trustworthiness resonates with even low involvement consumers, future

research can examine different types (e.g., actors, athletes, musicians, politicians, business

leaders, activists) of celebrity endorsers to see if there are certain types of celebrities that

resonate especially high on trustworthiness.

24
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 TABLE 1
Examples of Celebrities Featured in International Airline Advertising

Celebrity Featured in Airline Advertising Airline Name Country of Airline

Actors:

Kevin Costner (American Actor) Turkish Airlines Turkey

Nicole Kidman (Australian Actress) Etihad Airways United Arab Emirates (UAE)
Katrina Kaif (Bollywood Actress)
Jennifer Aniston(American Actress) Emirates United Arab Emirates (UAE)
John Travolta (American Actor) Qantas Australia
Miranda Kerr (Australian Actress)
Hugh Jackman (Australian Actor)
Mark Weber, Adam Goodes, Daniel Ricciardo, Greg Norman,
and Kelly Cartwright (Actors)
Richard Simmons (American Actor/Fitness Personality) Air New Zealand New Zealand
Orlando Bloom(American Actor) British Airways UK
Helen Mirren (English Actress) Virgin Air UK
Daniel Craig (English Actor)
Lin Chi-Ling (Taiwanese Actress) China Airline R.O.C.
Lin Huai-min (Taiwanese Actor)
Takeshi Kaneshiro (Taiwanese Actor) EVA Airline R.O.C.
Athletes:
Lionel Messi (Argentinean Soccer Player) Turkish Air Turkey
Kobe Bryant (American Basketball Player)
Didier Drogba (Ivorian Soccer Player)
Nicol David (Squash) KLM Netherlands
Cristiano Ronaldo (Portuguese Soccer Player) Emirates United Arab Emirates
Pele (Brazilian Soccer Player)
Kim Yu-Na(South Korean Figure Skater) Korean Air South Korea
Chen Wei-Yin (Taiwanese MLB player) China Airline R.O.C.

33
 TABLE 2
Sample Characteristics
High- Low- t-Test
Full Sample
Characteristics Category Involvement Involvement (group
times % times % times % differences)
Male 344 54.0 84 52.8 93 58.5
Gender --
Female 293 46.0 75 47.2 66 41.5
< 20 Years 20 3.1 3 1.9 8 5.0
21-30 129 20.3 45 28.3 26 16.4
Age 31-40 187 29.4 50 31.4 36 22.6 ***p ≦ 0.01
41-50 119 18.7 29 18.2 36 22.6
> 51 182 28.6 32 20.1 53 33.3
Elementary 3 .5 1 .6 0 0
Junior High 8 1.3 2 1.3 3 1.9
Education
Senior High 155 24.3 26 16.4 52 32.7 ***p ≦ 0.01
Completed
College 397 62.3 107 67.3 98 61.6
Graduate School 74 11.6 23 14.5 6 3.8
0 time 180 28.3 31 19.5 77 48.4
1 time 214 33.6 43 27.0 43 27.0
# Trips Abroad 2 times 129 20.3 46 28.9 21 13.2
***p ≦ 0.01
last year 3 times 58 9.1 24 15.1 7 4.4
4 times 19 3.0 8 5.0 3 1.9
5 times 37 5.8 7 4.4 8 5.0
Group traveling 431 67.7 101 63.5 106 66.7
Type of trip DIY tour 121 19.0 38 23.9 29 18.2
--
abroad Semi DIY tour 55 8.6 13 8.2 15 9.4
Abroad for official business 30 4.7 7 4.4 9 5.7
Less than $600 USD 110 17.3 18 11.3 42 26.4
$600~$1500 USD 332 52.1 78 49.1 84 52.8
Expense per
$1500~$2500 USD 142 22.3 49 30.8 22 13.8 ***p ≦ 0.01
abroad
$2500~$3000 USD 34 5.3 7 4.4 9 5.7
More than $3000 USD 19 3.0 7 4.4 2 1.3
Seen the endorsed Yes 500 78.5 131 82.4 105 66.0
***p ≦ 0.01
ad No 137 21.5 28 17.6 54 34.0
Been to the Yes 274 43.0 87 54.7 39 24.5
***p ≦ 0.01
location in the ad No 363 57.0 72 45.3 120 75.5
Know the location Yes 354 55.6 108 67.9 55 34.6
***p ≦ 0.01
in the ad No 283 44.4 51 32.1 104 65.4
Sub Total 637 100.0 159 100.0 159 100.0

34
 TABLE 3
Measurement Scales and Summary Statistics

Constructs/ Mean/ Reliability/ Average Variance Explained Scale Source

Attractiveness (Mean=3.82; (µHigh Inv. =4.19; µLow Inv. =3.47), Reliability=0.849, AVE.=0.789)
I prefer to watch advertisements with physically attractive (beautiful, elegant, classy) endorsers. McCracken
I think that attractiveness is an important characteristic for celebrity endorsers. (1989);
I feel that a physically attractive endorser influences my purchase intention towards a celebrity Ohanian
endorsed brand. (1990)
I remember a brand that is endorsed by an attractive celebrity more.
Expertise (Mean=3.84 (µHigh Inv. =4.20; µLow Inv. =3.45), Reliability=0.813, AVE.=0.686)
I think an advertisement with a celebrity endorser who has expertise (skilled, qualified, McCracken
knowledgeable, experienced) is more respectable. (1989);
I pay more attention to advertisements using a celebrity with expertise. Ohanian
I will buy a product if the celebrity endorsing it is an expert. (1990)
I think a brand being endorsed by a celebrity with expertise is more trustable.
Trustworthiness (Mean=3.72 (µHigh Inv. =4.09; µLow Inv. =3.40), Reliability=0.820, AVE.=0.714)
I think the advertisement with a trustworthy (dependable, honest, sincere, reliable) endorser receives McCracken
less negative recalls. (1989);
I feel that an advertisement with a trustworthy endorser pushes me to remember that advertisement Ohanian
and the product that is being endorsed. (1990)
I prefer to buy a product if the celebrity endorser is a trustworthy person.
I think that a brand endorsed by a trustworthy celebrity is more respectable and desirable.
Brand Attitude (Mean=3.33 (µHigh Inv. =3.74; µLow Inv. =2.89), Reliability=0.778, AVE.=0.790)
I have bought products due to the influence of celebrity endorsements. Brett et al.,
I keep using a brand only because of the endorsing celebrity. (2008);
Celebrities help me to remember a brand. Mitchell and
Olson (1981)
Purchase Intention (Mean=3.38 (µHigh Inv. =3.84; µLow Inv. =2.89), Reliability=0.671, AVE.=0.743)
I will buy the product if the celebrity I like starts endorsing it. Jamieson and
I would continue to buy the same products from the market irrespective of advertising the same Bass(1989);
product through any specific celebrity. Putrevu (1994)
Brand Credibility (Mean=3.70 (µHigh Inv. =4.07; µLow Inv. =3.36), Reliability=0.886, AVE.=0.699)
This brand reminds me of someone who is competent and knows what he/she is doing. Erdem and
This brand has the ability to deliver what it promises. Swait (2004)
This brand delivers what it promises.
This brand’s product claims are believable.
Over time, my experiences with this brand have led me to expect it to keep its promises, no more and
no less.
This brand has a name you can trust.
This brand doesn’t pretend to be something it isn’t.
Involvement (Mean=3.71 (µHigh Inv. =4.47; µLow Inv. =2.89), Reliability=0.894)
I attach great importance to flying in an airplane. Kapferer and
Flying in an airplane interests me a lot. Laurent
Flying in an airplane leaves me totally indifferent. (1985a; b);
It would give me pleasure to purchase airline transportation for myself. Laurent and
When you buy an airline ticket, it is a bit like giving a gift to yourself. Kapferer
Having a chance to take an airplane is a pleasure for me. (1985);
You can tell something about a person by the airline transportation service (s)he picks out. Rodgers and
The airline transportation service you buy tells a little bit about you. Schneider
The airline transportation service I buy shows what type of man/woman I am. (1993)

35
 TABLE 4
Structural Parameter Estimates and Goodness-of-Fit Indices

Moderating effects of
Direct Paths H# Full Sample Involvement (H11-H12)
Model
High-Inv. Low-Inv.
Expertise→Trustworthiness H1 0.905(16.397**) 0.961(7.025**) 0.903(6.901**)
Attractiveness→Brand Attitude H2 0.205(3.002**) 0.245(1.001) 0.128(1.073)
Trustworthiness→Brand Attitude H3 0.593(3.490**) 0.774(3.357**) 0.398(2.348**)
Expertise→Brand Attitude H4 -0.162(-0.853) -0.15(-0.452) 0.017(0.015)
Attractiveness→Brand Credibility H5 0.325(2.140**) 0.284(2.084**) 0.075(0.82)
Trustworthiness→Brand Credibility H6 0.340(2.208**) 0.138(1.010) 0.162(0.184)
Expertise→Brand Credibility H7 0.255(1.516) 0.217(1.224) 0.317(0.371)
Brand Attitude→Brand Credibility H8 0.150(3.083**) 0.411(2.841**) 0.062(0.743)
Brand Credibility→Purchase Intention H9 0.198(4.427**) 0.339(2.713**) 0.134(1.009)
Brand Attitude→Purchase Intention H10 0.771(15.732**) 0.906(9.211**) 0.778(5.964**)

χ2 =835.693 µHigh Inv. =4.47 µLow Inv. =2.89

(P=0.00, df=232)
Fit Statistics χ2/df = 3.602,
GFI=0.893,
CFI=0.928,
RMSEA=0.048
Chi-square difference test between low
Moderated path in the chi-square difference test
& high involvement for moderated path
Brand Credibility→Purchase Intention H11 Δχ2=4.73, df=1, p<0.05 H11 Supported
Brand Attitude→Purchase Intention H12 Δχ2=1.85, df=1, p>0.05 H12 Not supported
Sample size N=637 N=159 N=159

**p≦0.05., The value in the parenthesis is t value

Estimates are standardized.

36
FIGURE 1
Conceptual Framework

Source Credibility Theory-Based Model of Celebrity Endorsement-Based Brand Outcomes

H5
Attractiveness

H2 Brand
Credibility H9
H6
Purchase
Trustworthiness H8 H11 Intention
H3
Brand H10
H1 Attitude
H7 H12
H4
Expertise

Involvement

Direct Effects

Moderate Effects

37
FIGURE 2
Results of Conceptual Framework

H5
0.325
(2.140**)
Attractiveness
H2
H9
0.205
Brand 0.198
H6 (3.002**)
Credibility (4.427**)
0.340
(2.208**) H8
Purchase
Trustworthiness H3 0.150 H11**
H10 Intention
0.593 (3.083**)
(3.490**) 0.771
H1 H7 Brand (15.732**)
0.905 0.225 Attitude
(16.397**) (1.516) H4 H12
-0.162
Expertise (-0.853)

Involvement

Direct Effects

Moderate Effects

38
APPENDIX
Examples of Celebrity Endorsement in International Airline Advertising

Credit: http://www.slamonlineph.com/wp-content/uploads/Turkish_Airlines_Lionel_Messi_Kobe_Bryant_Ad.jpg
Credit: http://www.resume.se/nyheter/artiklar/2009/05/15/turkiskt-flybolag-kor-stoppad-kampanj/

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