Teaching Week 1

Dynamical Meteorology

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Teaching Week 1 - Dynamical Meteorology

Just as water flows in a stream, wind flows over the Earth's surface in a similar a fashion. Smooth
flow is a preference however we all know that due to mountains and other obstructions wind flows are
subject to many local variations some of which can be hazardous to the control of a pilot's aircraft.
1.1

Measurement of Wind

Obtaining a true measurement of surface wind speed and direction is difficult owing to the roughness
of the ground, the type of surface and the proximity of buildings as well as the Stability of the
atmosphere (See Teaching Week 4 - Stability of the Atmosphere).
1.1.1

Surface Roughness

The surface over which the wind blows affects its speed. Rough surfaces, such as areas with trees
and buildings, will produce more friction and turbulence than smooth surfaces such as lakes or open
cropland. The greater friction means the wind speed near the ground is reduced.

(Source: http://www.energy.iastate.edu/renewable/wind/wem/wem-08_fig08)
The approximate increase of speed with height for different surfaces can be calculated from the
following equation:
v2 = v-! x (h2/h1)n where v., is the known (reference) wind speed at height h., above ground, v2 is the
speed at a second height h2, and n is the exponent determining the wind change. Values for n are
listed in the following
table for different types of wind cover. If the wind comes across a fallow crop field, you do not have to
reach as high for greater wind speeds as you would in a forest or suburb.
ground cover

smooth surface ocean, sand

.10

low grass or fallow ground

.16

high grass or low row crops

.18

tall row crops or low woods

.20

high woods with many trees suburbs, small towns

.30

Here is an example of how this method is used. Suppose you are interested in buying an
anemometer and have taken measurements for a year with a wind speed instrument on a 3 metre
tower in an area of low woods. The average speed is 19 km/h. You want to estimate the speed at the
planned 10 metre height of the standard World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) anemometer
measurement.
In your calculation v is equal to 19 km/h, h., is 3 metres, and h2 is 10 metres. Since your surroundings
consist of low woods, the correct value for n is .20. Plugging these values into the formula, the
average wind speed at 10 metres is:
v2 = 19km/h x (10m/3m)20

Teaching Week 1

Dynamical Meteorology

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v 2 = 19 x (3.33) 20
v2 = 19 x 1.27
v2 = 24.17 km/h
Again, this method only provides a rough estimate of wind speeds, not a precise value, it is most
useful when using average and not instantaneous wind speeds. In addition, this formula should only
be used for relatively flat terrain because hills and mountains often have unpredictable influences on
wind characteristics.
Lastly, within dense vegetation, such as a forest or an orchard, a new effective ground level is
established at approximately the height where the branches of adjacent trees touch. Below this level
there is little wind in a dense cornfield, this height would be the average corn height. In a forest, it
would be the average height of the tree canopy, and so on. When using the wind speed equation all
heights should be expressed above the effective ground level.
1.1.2

Trees and Buildings

Trees and buildings are the most common obstacles to wind in the vicinity of potential site for
measuring wind speed and direction. They act to disturb the air both upwind and downwind of the
obstruction by reducing wind speed and increasing turbulence.

(Source :http://www. energy. iastate.edu/renewable/wind/wem/wem-08_power. html)

1.2

Wind and Pressure

The building blocks of meteorology are based upon the relationship between pressure and wind,
(commonwealth
Bureau of Meteorology, 2003 Aviation Meteorology, Wind p47)
1.2.1

Buys Ballot's Law

Large scale wind flow and the relationship to pressure can be described via the Buys Ballot law. If an
observer stands with back to the wind the lower pressure is on the right in the southern hemisphere
with comparatively higher pressure on the left. This law was formulated in 1857 by the Dutch
meteorologist Buys Ballot.
This law only applies to large scale wind flow and becomes invalid for smaller scale wind flows like
katabatic winds and sea and land breezes. (See Teaching Week 7 - Mesoscale Meteorology).
1.3

Coriolis Force

An apparent force is created as a result of the Earth's rotation. This apparent force deflects the wind

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Dynamical Meteorology

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from a straight path across the Earth's surface. This force is known as the Coriolis force, named after
the French mathematician.
The principle is the same on the earth. Moving objects
will appear to have been deflected to the left in the
southern hemisphere and to the right in the northern
hemisphere. The deflections are imperceptible for
objects like footballs travelling short distances, but
they are important over long distances. Corrections
have to be made for artillery shells, for example, or
they will not hit their target. Pilots must also make
navigational corrections to their flight plans.
The atmosphere spins with the earth as though it were
a solid body. If it didn't there would be extremely strong
winds, particularly at the equator, where a point on the
earth is moving at 1670 km/hr because of the earth's
rotation.
(Source: How to Forecast, Bureau of Meteorology)
Any movement of the air relative to the earth is the
wind. If a parcel of air at point X in the southern
hemisphere moves towards the equator, it is moving to
regions where the movement of the earth is greater
and, to a person on the earth, the parcel of air will
appear to be moving more slowly, and so have been
deflected westward. Conversely, if the parcel of air
moves toward the pole, it is moving to areas where the
movement of the earth to the east is slower, and so the
air is apparently deflected eastwards, once again to the
left of its direction of motion. In the northern
hemisphere, the deflections are to the right.

1.3.1

Properties of the Coriolis Force

it acts perpendicularly to the direction of motion; deflecting motion to the left in the southern
hemisphere and to the right in the northern hemisphere.
it is directly proportional to the wind speed; zero when the air is stationary and at a maximum when
the wind speed is at a maximum.
the magnitude depends on latitude; such that it is zero at the Equator and a maximum at the
poles.
Consider the difference between say 15 and 30 degrees south (1613 - 1446 = 167 km/h) and the
difference between 75 degrees south and the pole (432 - 0 = 432 km/h). The deflection is clearly
greater closer to the South Pole.
The Coriolis force -2Q x VR acts at right angles to the direction of motion and has the components of
force:
Cx = 2 v Sin - 2 w Cos
CY = 2 u Sin
Cz = 2 u Cos
where = the angular speed of rotation of the Earth = 7.292 x 10-5 s-1 and u =
zonal velocity, v = meridional velocity and w = vertical velocity and = latitude.

Teaching Week 1
1.4

Dynamical Meteorology

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Pressure Gradient Force

The differences which exist between high pressure and low pressure areas on the Earth's surface
drive the movement of air. The greater the pressure difference, the greater the pressure gradient
force is, which in turn means air will move in a faster fashion.

the cause of air movement is an unequal horizontal pressure distribution; the excess pressure
at one

point causing air to move away from it in the general direction of lower pressure.

isobars are lines of equal pressure and are shown on a mean sea level pressure (MSLP)
analysis.

distance between the isobars indicates the pressure gradient which is the change of pressure
per unit distance from one place to another at the same horizontal level.

the PGF (pressure gradient force) acts perpendicular to the isobaric flow directed from high
pressure to low pressure.

( Source: Australian Ultraflight Federation)

The pressure gradient force PGF = - 1/ P where = the standard sea level density of air = 1.225
kg m3 and P is the distance between two isobaric surfaces of nominal pressures.

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Dynamical Meteorology

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1 millibar = 1 hectopascal. Hectopascal (hPa) is the standard unit of pressure in Australian

meteorology. An isobar is a contour line of equal atmopheric pressure.
1.5

Frictional Force

According to Meteorology & Navigation, Thom, 1992, wind flow is retarded by frictional forces (near
the Earth's surface). A depth of approximately 2000 to 3000 feet is the depth of the atmosphere to
which frictional forces act. This depth is known as the frictional layer or the boundary layer.
1.5.1

Results of Frictional Retardation

The Coriolis force is reduced as a result of frictional effects and no longer counters the pressure
gradient force. The wind therefore flows slightly across the isobars in the direction of the PGF that is
towards lower pressure. The angle is determined by the strength of the friction force, which in turn is
determined by the roughness of the Earth's surface.
Over the sea, where friction is less than that over land, the surface wind speed is reduced to about
two-thirds the wind above the boundary layer and the flow is at an angle of about 10 degrees to the
isobars. Over the land, the surface wind may be only half or even one-third of the wind above the
boundary layer and the cross-isobar angle of the flow would be approximately 25 to 30 degrees.
The balance of forces for straight isobars with friction is illustrated below.

is the angular deflection Of the Wind. (Source: The Australian Weather Book, Colls & Whitaker,
1990)

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Dynamical Meteorology

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When friction is included, the balance of forces in the southern hemisphere is depicted above, for low
and high pressure respectively. (Source: Manual of Aviation Meteorology, Commonwealth Bureau of
Meteorology, 2003, pg 49). Ideally wind should flow directly across isobars from high to low pressure.
In reality though, wind some 2000 to 3000 feet above the Earth's surface, usually flows parallel to the
isobars, whilst the surface wind blows slightly across the isobars.
1.6
Useful URLs
http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/visualizations/es1904/es1904p
age01.cfm?
http://www.ems.psu.edu/~fraser/Bad/BadCoriolis.html
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fw/crls.rxml