Optical Fiber Communication System

Objective:

This course is designed to develop proficiency in profession

in telecom sector. More specifically for an Optical Fiber Network engineer who
is responsible for efficient Installation, Testing and Splicing of optical fiber
cable. It aims to aware them of step by step process for laying optical fiber
cable, Testing and fault finding by using an OTDR.
This Course is divided into three Modules:
Module 1:

Technical Knowledge of Optical Fiber Systems

Module 2:

Installation of Optical Fiber Cable

Module 3:

Testing and Splicing of OFC

Module 1: Technical Knowledge of Optical Fiber Systems

Contents
1. Overview of Optical Fiber Communications
2. Key Advantages of fiber over copper wire
3. Structure of fiber optics cable
4. Principle of fiber communications
5. Types of optical fiber cable
6. Optical fiber characteristics
7. Fiber Optic Connector Types
8. Common Optical Parameters (KPI)
9. Test equipments and Functionality
10. Analyzing test values

1. Overview of Optical Fiber Communications

One often sees articles written about fiber optic communications networks that imply that
fiber optics is "new." That is hardly the case. The first fiber optic link was installed in Chicago in
1976. By 1980, commercial long distance links were in use and fiber optic data links for RS-232
were available. Since that beginning, fiber has become very commonplace - one should say
dominant - in the communications infrastructure.
If you make a long distance call today, you are undoubtedly talking on fiber optics, since it
has replaced over 90% of all the voice circuits for long distance communications. Most large
office buildings have fiber in the building itself. Only the last link to the home, office and phone
are not fiber and installations of fiber to the home are growing rapidly.
CATV also has discovered fiber optics, along with compressed digital video. Most large city
CATV systems have been converted to fiber optic backbones which allow voice and data
transmission in addition to video.
The LAN backbone also has become predominately fiber-based. The back-end of
mainframes and storage area networks (SANs) are almost totally fiber. Only the desktop is a
holdout, currently a battlefield between the copper and fiber contingents.
Fiber optics offers an unrivaled level of security. It cannot be easily jammed or tapped and is
immune to interference. It is widely used for security cameras, perimeter alarms and other
critical systems in military, government, utility and civilian applications.
Keeping in mind the user demand for high speed packet services internet architecture that is
now at a gradual stage of evolution by resorting to fiber optics technology; subscriber will
receive the best quality data transmission that is accessible through television, internet and
home phone.
Fiber optics is replacing copper wire as an appropriate means of transmission medium. A
fiber-optic system is similar to the copper wire system the only difference being fiber-optics use
light pulses to transmit information down fiber lines instead of using electronic pulses to transmit
information down copper lines. Organizations today are looking to control hardware expenses
i.e. upgrading existing hardware, limiting e-mail storage, qualifying new vendors, outsourcing
backups etc. With a number of networking equipments and cabling options available, one
should plan well and identify the best infrastructure to maximize your return on investment.
2. Key Advantages of Fiber over Copper Wire

All Dielectric

Low Signal Radiation

Secure Transmission

RFI and EMI Immunity

High Voltage Installations

Small Size

Less Duct Space

Fewer Additional ducts Installed

Low Attenuation

Greater Distance/Fewer Repeaters

Less Installation and maintenance

Optical Signal

No ground Loops

No Spark Hazard

o Operation in Flammable Area

High Bandwidth

Future Signal Capability Expansion

2.1 Secure communication (low signal radiation):

Data traveling over fiber is very secure. No electronic eves dropping can be used making it
extremely difficult to Tap fiber optic cable. Also, if tapped it is very easy to determine that cable
is tapped.
2.2 Immunity from EMI/RFI/High Voltage/Lightning:
Fiber Resulting in clean, error free data transmission over long distances bit error rates of better
than 10-9. Fiber is made of glass or plastic all dielectric material which is not affected by
proximity to high voltage or lightning. Fiber optic cable can be routed in same ducts or cable
trays as high voltage or power cables. Saving cost and providing ease of installation.
2.3 Small Size:
Fiber optic cables are physically very small and light weight, saving space, weight, and allowing
ease of installation.
2.4 Lightning damage:
Particularly outdoors between buildings etc. can be avoided with use of F.O cable. If lightning
strikes one plant it does not travel to other parts of same plant as F.O cable provides electrical
isolation.
2.5 No Ground Loops:
Expensive grounding and shielding not required saving on installation cost. Also, protects
equipment from high voltage damage.
2.6 Low Loss (low signal attenuation):
Data can be sent long distances error free. With proper F.O. equipment and cabling 100 Km is
possible without repeaters.

2.7 High data rate and High bandwidth:

Large data files such as engineering drawings can be transmitted in seconds. This allows main
computers or process controllers to be in a more controlled and safe area away from plant.
Also, future proofs installation.
2.8 No Spark Hazard:
Extremely important in chemical plants, oil refineries and other hazardous locations, since fiber
cable is made of glass or plastic, if cut no electrical sparks. This way cable cut cannot start a
fire.
2.9 Low Maintenance Cost:
The fiber optics is not water or chemical sensitive as they are made of glass and are generally
free from corrosion. There is no risk of being destroyed by any harsh elements and can bear the
living conditions that conventional copper cables fail to, for instance direct contact with the soil.
The maintenance and service expenses are much lower than the copper wires owing to this.
2.10 Safety and Efficiency:
The fiber optics has what is called unlimited bandwidth that helps in making the transmission of
data with greater flexibility. It provides a bandwidth that is 1000 times more than the copper
wires. As a result, what you have is a fast connection that operates in circles in and around the
bandwidth that is given by the cable connections. At the same time, the fiber optics provides
greater data safety.
2.11 Picture Quality:
Fiber optics generally use advanced technology that is powerful than the copper cables. The
GBIC transceiver deserves a mention here. Users can receive good picture quality of high
definition.
3. Structure of fiber optics cable

An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (non-conducting waveguide) that transmits

light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a core
surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials. To confine the
optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the
cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fiber,
or gradual, in graded-index fiber. Structure of Fiber-Optic Cables is made up of:

Core

Cladding

Coating

The typical fibers today are made out of glass or plastic since it is possible to make them thin
and long. Also both glass and plastic are transparent at particular wavelengths, which allow the
fibber to guide light efficiently. The fiber is constructed with a core with a high index surrounded
by a layer of cladding at a lower index. The core and the cladding can be made out of both
plastic and glass. For plastics, the core can be polystyrene or polymethylmethacrylate and the
cladding is generally silicone or Teflon. For glasses both the cladding and the core are made out
of Silica with small amounts of dopants such as boron, germanium to change its index. Major
differences exist between the two materials when it comes to making the optical fiber. In plastic
core fibers they are more flexible and inexpensive compared to glass fibers. They are easier to
install and can withstand greater stresses and weight 60% less than glass fibers. However, they
transmit light less efficiently leading to high losses, giving them very limited use in
communication applications. Such plastic fibers are practical for short runs such as within
buildings. Therefore, due to their restrictive nature glass core fibers are much more widely used
because they are capable of transmitting light effectively over large distances.

4. Principle of fiber communications

When light traveling in a dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle (larger than the "critical
angle" for the boundary), the light will be completely reflected. This effect is used in optical fibers
to confine light in the core. Light travels along the fiber bouncing back and forth off of the
boundary. Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical
angle, only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles can travel down the fiber
without leaking out. This range of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fiber. The size of
this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the fiber's core and
cladding. In simpler terms, there is a maximum angle from the fiber axis at which light may enter
the fiber so that it will propagate, or travel, in the core of the fiber. The sine of this maximum
angle is the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. Fiber with a larger NA requires less precision
to splice and work with than fiber with a smaller NA. Single-mode fiber has a small NA.

4.1 Refraction
Total Internal Reflection is the basis of fiber-optic communication. Total Internal Reflection
may be considered to be an extreme case of refraction. When a light ray strikes a boundary of
two materials with different RIs, it bends, or in other terms, refracts to an extent that depends on
the ratio of the RIs of the two materials.
The light in a fiber-optic cable travels through the core (hallway) by constantly bouncing from the
cladding (mirror-lined walls), a principle called total internal reflection. Because the cladding
does not absorb any light from the core, the light wave can travel great distances.
However, some of the light signal degrades within the fiber, mostly due to impurities in the
glass. The extent that the signal degrades depends on the purity of the glass and the
wavelength of the transmitted light (for example, 850 nm = 60 to 75 percent/km; 1,300 nm = 50
to 60 percent/km; 1,550 nm is greater than 50 percent/km). Some premium optical fibers show
much less signal degradation -- less than 10 percent/km at 1,550 nm.

4.2 Refractive Index

Refractive index of an optical medium = Speed of light in a vacuum (300,000,000 meters per
second) / speed of light in the optical medium
5. Types of optical fiber cable

Single-mode fiber

Multi-mode fiber

Step index fiber

Graded index fiber

5.1 Single-mode fiber

Single mode fiber optic cable has a small diametric core that allows only one mode of light
to propagate. Because of this, the number of light reflections created as the light passes
through the core decreases, lowering attenuation and creating the ability for the signal to travel
faster, further. This application is typically used in long distance, higher bandwidth links. Single
mode fiber is usually 9/125 in construction. This means that the core to cladding diameter ratio
is 9 microns to 125 microns.
A peculiar property of single-mode fibers is that the transverse intensity profile at the fiber output
has a fixed shape, which is independent of the launch conditions and the spatial properties of
the injected light, assuming that no cladding modes can carry substantial power to the fiber end.
The launch conditions only influence the efficiency with which light can be coupled into the
guided mode.
Intermodal dispersion can of course not occur in single-mode fibers. This is an important
advantage for the application in optical fiber communications at high data rates (multiple Gbit/s),
particularly for long distances. Essentially for that reason, and partly because of their tentatively
lower propagation losses, single-mode fibers are exclusively used for long-haul data
transmission, and nearly always for outdoor applications even over shorter distances. For shortdistance indoor use, multimode fibers are more common, mostly because that allows the use of
cheaper multimode data transmitters based on light-emitting diodes instead of laser diodes.

Conditions for Efficiently Launching Light into a Single-mode Fiber:

Efficiently launching light into a single-mode fiber requires that the transverse complex
amplitude profile of that light at the fiber's input end matches that of the guided mode. This
implies

that the light source has a high beam quality (with M2 1)

that the light has a focus at the fiber's input end (for matching the plane wavefronts of
the fiber mode)
that the beam profile has the correct size and shape and is precisely aligned
(concerning position and direction) to the core. More precisely, the error in position
must be well below the beam radius, and the angular misalignment must be small
compared with the beam divergence of the mode.
Generally, a long-term stable efficient launch of a free-space laser beam into a single-mode
fiber requires well designed mechanical parts, which allow precisely aligning and keeping fixed
the focusing lens and the fiber end while not exhibiting excessive thermal drifts.

5.2 Multi-mode fiber

Multimode fibers are optical fibers which support multiple transverse guided modes for a
given optical frequency and polarization. The number of guided modes is determined by the
wavelength and the refractive index profile. For step-index fibers, the relevant quantities are the
core radius and the numerical aperture, which in combination determine the V number. For
large V values, the number of modes is proportional to V2. Particularly for fibers with a relatively
large the number of supported modes can be very high. Such fibers can guide light with poor
beam quality (e.g. generated with a high-power diode bar), but for preserving the beam quality
of a light source with higher brightness it can be better to use a fiber with smaller core and
moderate numerical aperture, even though efficient launching can then be more difficult.
Compared with standard single-mode fibers, multimode fibers usually have significantly larger
core areas, but also generally a higher numerical aperture of e.g. 0.20.3. The latter leads to
robust guidance, even under conditions of tight bending, but also to higher propagation losses
without bending, as irregularities at the corecladding interface can scatter light more
effectively. A basic specification of a multimode fiber contains the core diameter and the outer
diameter of a multimode fiber. Common types for fiber-optic communications are 50/125 m and
62.5/125 m fibers, having a core diameter of 50 m or 62.5 m, respectively, and a cladding
diameter of 125 m. Such fibers support hundreds of guided modes. There are also large-core
fibers with even substantially larger core diameters of hundreds of micrometers.
Launching light into a multimode fiber is comparatively easy, because there are larger
tolerances concerning the location and propagation angle of incident light, compared with a
single-mode fiber. On the other hand, the spatial coherence of the fiber output is reduced, and
the output field pattern can hardly be controlled, for reasons explained below.

5.3 Step index fiber

Due to its large core, some of the light rays that make up the digital pulse may travel a direct
route, whereas others zigzag as they bounce off the cladding. These alternate paths cause the
different groups of light rays, referred to as modes, to arrive separately at the receiving point.
The pulse, an aggregate of different modes, begins to spread out, losing its well-defined shape.
The need to leave spacing between pulses to prevent overlapping limits the amount of
information that can be sent. This type of fiber is best suited for transmission over short
distances.

Optical fibers can have different refractive index profiles. Apart from such fibers where light
is guided at the airglass interface, the simplest index profile is a rectangular one, where the
refractive index is constant within the fiber core, and is higher than in the cladding. Fibers of that
kind are called step-index fibers. The assumption of a step-index profile is often used for
calculations in fiber optics, even though standard fabrication techniques often lead to significant
deviations from this simple situation. In particular, preferential evaporation of the dopant during
the collapse of the preform (assuming that the preform is made with chemical vapor deposition)
often leads to a pronounced dip of the refractive index profile at the center. For profiles deviating
from a step-index profile, an effective step-index profile may be defined which leads to similar
mode properties as the actual profile.

The propagation modes of step-index fibers can be described with functions belonging to the
family of Bessel functions, multiplied by an exponential phase factor exp(iz) for the
longitudinal phase variation. Concerning the radial dependence, the field strength in the core is
proportional to the zero-order Bessel function of the first kind, and the cladding part is given by a
modified Bessel function of the second kind. The mode function and its first derivative are
always continuous at the corecladding interface.
5.4 Graded index fiber
Contains a core in which the refractive index diminishes gradually from the center axis out
toward the cladding. The higher refractive index at the center makes the light rays moving down
the axis advance more slowly than those near the cladding. Due to the graded index, light in the
core curves helically rather than zigzag off the cladding, reducing its travel distance. The
shortened path and the higher speed allow light at the periphery to arrive at a receiver at about
the same time as the slow but straight rays in the core axis. The result: digital pulse suffers less
dispersion. This type of fiber is best suited for local-area networks.

Difference between Single and Multimode Fiber

6. Optical fiber characteristics

Optical-fiber systems have many advantages over metallic-based communication

systems. These advantages include interference, attenuation, and bandwidth characteristics.
Furthermore, the relatively smaller cross section of fiber-optic cables allows room for substantial
growth of the capacity in existing conduits. Fiber-optic characteristics can be classified as linear
and nonlinear. Nonlinear characteristics are influenced by parameters, such as bit rates,
channel spacing, and power levels.
6.1 Interference
Light signals traveling via a fiber-optic cable are immune from electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and radio-frequency interference (RFI). Lightning and high-voltage
interference is also eliminated. A fiber network is best for conditions in which EMI or RFI
interference is heavy or safe operation free from sparks and static is a must. This desirable
property of fiber-optic cable makes it the medium of choice in industrial and biomedical
networks. It is also possible to place fiber cable into natural-gas pipelines and use the pipelines
as the conduit.
6.2 Linear Characteristics
Linear characteristics include attenuation, chromatic dispersion (CD), polarization mode
dispersion (PMD), and optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR).
6.3 Attenuation
Several factors can cause attenuation, but it is generally categorized as either intrinsic or
extrinsic. Intrinsic attenuation is caused by substances inherently present in the fiber, whereas
extrinsic attenuation is caused by external forces such as bending. The attenuation coefficient
is expressed in decibels per kilometer and represents the loss in decibels per kilometer of fiber.
6.4 Intrinsic Attenuation
Intrinsic attenuation results from materials inherent to the fiber. It is caused by impurities in
the glass during the manufacturing process. As precise as manufacturing is, there is no way to
eliminate all impurities. When a light signal hits an impurity in the fiber, one of two things occurs:
It scatters or it is absorbed. Intrinsic loss can be further characterized by two components:
o

Material absorption

Rayleigh scattering

Material Absorption:
Material absorption occurs as a result of the imperfection and impurities in the fiber. The
most common impurity is the hydroxyl (OH-) molecule, which remains as a residue despite
stringent manufacturing techniques. Figure shows the variation of attenuation with wavelength

measured over a group of fiber-optic cable material types. The three principal windows of
operation include the 850-nm, 1310-nm, and 1550-nm wavelength bands. These correspond to
wavelength regions in which attenuation is low and matched to the capability of a transmitter to
generate light efficiently and a receiver to carry out detection.

Attenuation versus Wavelength

The OH- symbols indicate that at the 950-nm, 1380-nm, and 2730-nm wavelengths, the
presence of hydroxyl radicals in the cable material causes an increase in attenuation. These
radicals result from the presence of water remnants that enter the fiber-optic cable material
through either a chemical reaction in the manufacturing process or as humidity in the
environment. The variation of attenuation with wavelength due to the water peak for standard,
single-mode fiber-optic cable occurs mainly around 1380 nm. Recent advances in
manufacturing have overcome the 1380-nm water peak and have resulted in zero-water-peak
fiber (ZWPF). Examples of these fibers include SMF-28e from Corning and the FurukawaLucent OFS AllWave. Absorption accounts for three percent to five percent of fiber attenuation.
This phenomenon causes a light signal to be absorbed by natural impurities in the glass and
converted to vibration energy or some other form of energy such as heat. Unlike scattering,
absorption can be limited by controlling the amount of impurities during the manufacturing
process. Because most fiber is extremely pure, the fiber does not heat up because of
absorption.
Rayleigh Scattering:
As light travels in the core, it interacts with the silica molecules in the core. Rayleigh
scattering is the result of these elastic collisions between the light wave and the silica molecules
in the fiber. Rayleigh scattering accounts for about 96 percent of attenuation in optical fiber. If
the scattered light maintains an angle that supports forward travel within the core, no
attenuation occurs. If the light is scattered at an angle that does not support continued forward
travel, however, the light is diverted out of the core and attenuation occurs. Depending on the
incident angle, some portion of the light propagates forward and the other part deviates out of

the propagation path and escapes from the fiber core. Some scattered light is reflected back
toward the light source. This is a property that is used in an optical time domain reflectometer
(OTDR) to test fibers. The same principle applies to analyzing loss associated with localized
events in the fiber, such as splices.

Short wavelengths are scattered more than longer wavelengths. Any wavelength that is below
800 nm is unusable for optical communication because attenuation due to Rayleigh scattering is
high. At the same time, propagation above 1700 nm is not possible due to high losses resulting
from infrared absorption.
6.5 Extrinsic Attenuation
Extrinsic attenuation can be caused by two external mechanisms: macro bending or
micro bending. Both cause a reduction of optical power. If a bend is imposed on an optical fiber,
strain is placed on the fiber along the region that is bent. The bending strain affects the
refractive index and the critical angle of the light ray in that specific area. As a result, light
traveling in the core can refract out, and loss occurs.
A macro bend is a large-scale bend that is visible, and the loss is generally reversible after
bends are corrected. To prevent macro bends, all optical fiber has a minimum bend radius
specification that should not be exceeded. This is a restriction on how much bend a fiber can
withstand before experiencing problems in optical performance or mechanical reliability.

The second extrinsic cause of attenuation is a micro bend. Micro bending is caused by
imperfections in the cylindrical geometry of fiber during the manufacturing process. Micro
bending might be related to temperature, tensile stress, or crushing force. Like macro bending,
micro bending causes a reduction of optical power in the glass. Micro bending is very localized,
and the bend might not be clearly visible on inspection. With bare fiber, micro bending can be
reversible.

Chromatic Dispersion
Chromatic dispersion is the spreading of a light pulse as it travels down a fiber. Light has
a dual nature and can be considered from an electromagnetic wave as well as quantum
perspective. This enables us to quantify it as waves as well as quantum particles. During the
propagation of light, all of its spectral components propagate accordingly. These spectral
components travel at different group velocities that lead to dispersion called group velocity
dispersion (GVD). Dispersion resulting from GVD is termed chromatic dispersion due to its
wavelength dependence. The effect of chromatic dispersion is pulse spread.

As the pulses spread, or broaden, they tend to overlap and are no longer distinguishable by the
receiver as 0s and 1s. Light pulses launched close together (high data rates) that spread too
much (high dispersion) result in errors and loss of information. Chromatic dispersion occurs as a
result of the range of wavelengths present in the light source. Light from lasers and LEDs

consists of a range of wavelengths, each of which travels at a slightly different speed. Over
distance, the varying wavelength speeds cause the light pulse to spread in time. This is of most
importance in single-mode applications. Modal dispersion is significant in multimode
applications, in which the various modes of light traveling down the fiber arrive at the receiver at
different times, causing a spreading effect. Chromatic dispersion is common at all bit rates.
Chromatic dispersion can be compensated for or mitigated through the use of dispersion-shifted
fiber (DSF). DSF is fiber doped with impurities that have negative dispersion characteristics.
Chromatic dispersion is measured in ps/nm-km. A 1-dB power margin is typically reserved to
account for the effects of chromatic dispersion.
Polarization Mode Dispersion
Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is caused by asymmetric distortions to the fiber
from a perfect cylindrical geometry. The fiber is not truly a cylindrical waveguide, but it can be
best described as an imperfect cylinder with physical dimensions that are not perfectly constant.
The mechanical stress exerted upon the fiber due to extrinsically induced bends and stresses
caused during cabling, deployment, and splicing as well as the imperfections resulting from the
manufacturing process are the reasons for the variations in the cylindrical geometry.

Single-mode optical fiber and components support one fundamental mode, which consists of
two orthogonal polarization modes. This asymmetry introduces small refractive index
differences for the two polarization states. This characteristic is known as birefringence.
Birefringence causes one polarization mode to travel faster than the other, resulting in a
difference in the propagation time, which is called the differential group delay (DGD). DGD is the
unit that is used to describe PMD. DGD is typically measured in picoseconds. A fiber that
acquires birefringence causes a propagating pulse to lose the balance between the polarization
components. This leads to a stage in which different polarization components travel at different
velocities, creating a pulse spread as shown in Figure 3-13. PMD can be classified as first-order
PMD, also known as DGD, and second-order PMD (SOPMD). The SOPMD results from
dispersion that occurs because of the signal's wavelength dependence and spectral width.
PMD is not an issue at low bit rates but becomes an issue at bit rates in excess of 5
Gbps. PMD is noticeable at high bit rates and is a significant source of impairment for ultra-longhaul systems. PMD compensation can be achieved by using PMD compensators that contain
dispersion-maintaining fibers with degrees of birefringence in them. The introduced
birefringence negates the effects of PMD over a length of transmission. For error-free
transmission, PMD compensation is a useful technique for long-haul and metropolitan-area
networks running at bit rates greater than 10 Gbps. Note in Figure 3-13 that the DGD is the

difference between Z1 and Z2. The PMD value of the fiber is the mean value over time or
frequency of the DGD and is represented as ps/ km. A 0.5-dB power margin is typically
reserved to account for the effects of PMD at high bit rates.
Polarization Dependent Loss
Polarization dependent loss (PDL) refers to the difference in the maximum and minimum
variation in transmission or insertion loss of an optical device over all states of polarization
(SOP) and is expressed in decibels. A typical PDL for a simple optical connector is less than .05
dB and varies from component to component. Typically, the PDL for an optical add/drop
multiplexer (OADM) is around 0.3 dB. The complete polarization characterization of optical
signals and components can be determined using an optical polarization analyzer.

Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio

The optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR) specifies the ratio of the net signal power to the
net noise power and thus identifies the quality of the signal. Attenuation can be compensated for
by amplifying the optical signal. However, optical amplifiers amplify the signal as well as the
noise. Over time and distance, the receivers cannot distinguish the signal from the noise, and
the signal is completely lost. Regeneration helps mitigate these undesirable effects before they
can render the system unusable and ensures that the signal can be detected at the receiver.
Optical amplifiers add a certain amount of noise to the channel. Active devices, such as lasers,
also add noise. Passive devices, such as taps and the fiber, can also add noise components. In
the calculation of system design, however, optical amplifier noise is considered the predominant
source for OSNR penalty and degradation.

OSNR is an important and fundamental system design consideration. Another parameter

considered by designers is the Q-factor. The Q-factor, a function of the OSNR, provides a
qualitative description of the receiver performance. The Q-factor suggests the minimum signalto-noise ratio (SNR) required to obtain a specific BER for a given signal. OSNR is measured in
decibels. The higher the bit rate, the higher the OSNR ratio required. For OC-192 transmissions,
the OSNR should be at least 27 to 31 dB compared to 18 to 21 dB for OC-48.
Nonlinear Characteristics
Nonlinear characteristics include self-phase modulation (SPM), cross-phase modulation (XPM),
four-wave mixing (FWM), stimulated Raman scattering (SRS), and stimulated Brillouin
scattering (SBS).
Self-Phase Modulation
Phase modulation of an optical signal by itself is known as self-phase modulation (SPM).
SPM is primarily due to the self-modulation of the pulses. Generally, SPM occurs in singlewavelength systems. At high bit rates however, SPM tends to cancel dispersion. SPM increases
with high signal power levels. In fiber plant design, a strong input signal helps overcome linear
attenuation and dispersion losses. However, consideration must be given to receiver saturation
and to nonlinear effects such as SPM, which occurs with high signal levels.

SPM results in phase shift and a nonlinear pulse spread. As the pulses spread, they tend to
overlap and are no longer distinguishable by the receiver. The acceptable norm in system
design to counter the SPM effect is to take into account a power penalty that can be assumed
equal to the negative effect posed by XPM. A 0.5-dB power margin is typically reserved to
account for the effects of SPM at high bit rates and power levels.
Cross-Phase Modulation
Cross-phase modulation (XPM) is a nonlinear effect that limits system performance in
wavelength-division multiplexed (WDM) systems. XPM is the phase modulation of a signal
caused by an adjacent signal within the same fiber. XPM is related to the combination
(dispersion/effective area). CPM results from the different carrier frequencies of independent
channels, including the associated phase shifts on one another. The induced phase shift is due
to the walkover effect, whereby two pulses at different bit rates or with different group velocities
walk across each other. As a result, the slower pulse sees the walkover and induces a phase
shift. The total phase shift depends on the net power of all the channels and on the bit output of
the channels. Maximum phase shift is produced when bits belonging to high-powered adjacent
channels walk across each other.
XPM can be mitigated by carefully selecting unequal bit rates for adjacent WDM channels.
XPM, in particular, is severe in long-haul WDM networks, and the acceptable norm in system
design to counter this effect is to take into account a power penalty that can be assumed equal
to the negative effect posed by XPM. A 0.5-dB power margin is typically reserved to account for
the effects of XPM in WDM fiber systems.
Four-Wave Mixing
FWM can be compared to the intermodulation distortion in standard electrical systems.
When three wavelengths (1, 2, and 3) interact in a nonlinear medium, they give rise to a
fourth wavelength ( 4), which is formed by the scattering of the three incident photons,
producing the fourth photon. This effect is known as four-wave mixing (FWM) and is a fiber-optic
characteristic that affects WDM systems.
The effects of FWM are pronounced with decreased channel spacing of wavelengths and at
high signal power levels. High chromatic dispersion also increases FWM effects. FWM also
causes inter-channel cross-talk effects for equally spaced WDM channels. FWM can be
mitigated by using uneven channel spacing in WDM systems or nonzero dispersion-shifted fiber
(NZDSF). A 0.5-dB power margin is typically reserved to account for the effects of FWM in
WDM systems.
Stimulated Raman Scattering
When light propagates through a medium, the photons interact with silica molecules
during propagation. The photons also interact with themselves and cause scattering effects,
such as stimulated Raman scattering (SRS), in the forward and reverse directions of
propagation along the fiber. This results in a sporadic distribution of energy in a random
direction.

SRS refers to lower wavelengths pumping up the amplitude of higher wavelengths, which
results in the higher wavelengths suppressing signals from the lower wavelengths. One way to
mitigate the effects of SRS is to lower the input power. In SRS, a low-wavelength wave called
Stoke's wave is generated due to the scattering of energy. This wave amplifies the higher
wavelengths. The gain obtained by using such a wave forms the basis of Raman amplification.
The Raman gain can extend most of the operating band (C- and L-band) for WDM networks.
SRS is pronounced at high bit rates and high power levels. The margin design requirement to
account for SRS/SBS is 0.5 dB.
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) is due to the acoustic properties of photon
interaction with the medium. When light propagates through a medium, the photons interact with
silica molecules during propagation. The photons also interact with themselves and cause
scattering effects such as SBS in the reverse direction of propagation along the fiber. In SBS, a
low-wavelength wave called Stoke's wave is generated due to the scattering of energy. This
wave amplifies the higher wavelengths. The gain obtained by using such a wave forms the
basis of Brillouin amplification. The Brillouin gain peaks in a narrow peak near the C-band. SBS
is pronounced at high bit rates and high power levels. The margin design requirement to
account for SRS/SBS is 0.5 dB.
7. Fiber Optic Connector Types
SMA Due to its stainless steel structure and low-precision threaded fiber locking mechanism,
this connector is used mainly in applications requiring the coupling of high-power laser beams
into large-core multimode fibers. Typical applications include laser beam delivery systems in
medical, bio-medical, and industrial applications. The typical insertion loss of an SMA connector
is greater than 1 dB.
ST The ST connector is used extensively both in the field and in indoor fiber optic LAN
applications. Its high-precision, ceramic ferrule allows its use with both multimode and singlemode fibers. The bayonet style, keyed coupling mechanism featuring push and turn locking of
the connector, prevents over tightening and damaging of the fiber end. The insertion loss of the
ST connector is less than 0.5 dB, with typical values of 0.3 dB being routinely achieved. Drilledout, metallic ST connectors, with insertion losses of >1 dB, are used with Newports large-core
(>140 m) fibers.
FC The FC has become the connector of choice for single-mode fibers and is mainly used in
fiber-optic instruments, SM fiber optic components, and in high-speed fiber optic communication
links. This high-precision, ceramic ferrule connector is equipped with an anti-rotation key,
reducing fiber end face damage and rotational alignment sensitivity of the fiber. The key is also
used for repeatable alignment of fibers in the optimal, minimal-loss position. Multimode versions
of this connector are also available. The typical insertion loss of the FC connector is around 0.3
dB. Drilled-out, metallic FC connectors, having insertion losses of >1 dB are being used with
Newports large-core (>140 m) fibers.

SC The SC connector is becoming increasingly popular in single-mode fiber optic telecom

and analog CATV, field deployed links. The high-precision, ceramic ferrule construction is
optimal for aligning single-mode optical fibers. The connectors outer square profile combined
with its push-pull coupling mechanism, allow for greater connector packaging density in
instruments and patch panels. The keyed outer body prevents rotational sensitivity and fiber end
face damage. Multimode versions of this connector are also available. The typical insertion loss
of the SC connector is around 0.3 dB.

8. Common Optical Parameters

Port Configuration: Number of input ports x number of output ports. e.g. 2 x 2
Coupling Ratio: The ratio of the power at an output port to the launched power, expressed in
dB is equal to 10 log (P2/P1).
Isolation: The ratio of the power at an output port in the transmitted wavelength band to that in
the extinguished wavelength band, expressed in dB.
Directivity: The ratio of the power returned to any other input port to the launched power,
expressed in dB. e.g.- 10 log (P4/P1).
Bandwidth: The range of operating wavelengths over which performance parameters are
specified.
Excess Loss: The ratio of the total power at all output ports to the launched power, expressed
in dB. e.g. -10 log [(P2+P3)/P1].
Uniformity: The difference between maximum and minimum insertion losses.
Extinction Ratio: The ratio of the residual power in an extinguished polarization state to the
transmitted power, expressed in dB.
Return Loss: The ratio of the power returned to the input port to the launched power,
expressed in dB. e.g.-10 log (P5/P1).

Polarization-Dependent Loss (PDL): The maximum (peak-to-peak) variation in insertion loss

as the input polarization varies, expressed in dB.
9. Test Equipments and Functionality
9.1 The need for testing:

Ensure the fiber has been Properly installed

Check IL and reflectance of all splices and connections

Providers must maintain high quality of customer service

Quickly locate problem areas for repair

9.2 Types of Testing:

End to End loss testing

Cable Commissioning

Splice and connector optimization

System ORL characterization

Dispersion verification and wavelength measurements

End to End loss Testing:

o

Both units must be referenced with the test jumpers

Confirm power source is connected to test fiber

Reading is only accurate if both units at same wavelength

9.3 Testing devices

1. Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
o

Measures reflectance and ORL

Can characterize connectors and mechanical splices

Accuracy of plus/minus 2dB

2. Optical Continuous Wave Reflectometer

o

Also measures reflectance and ORL

Some units measure bi-directional loss

Accuracy of plus/minus 0.4 dB to 1.0 dB

Module 2: Installation of Optical Fiber Cable

Contents

1.

Planning for Installation

2.

Installation Requirements / General Guidelines

3.

Fiber Optic Components: Cables

4.

Installing Fiber Optic Cable

5.

Fiber Optic Splicing and Termination Hardware

6.

Testing the Installed Fiber Optic Cable Plant

7.

Administration, Management, and Documentation

1. Introduction
This module describes the procedures for installing and testing cabling networks that
use fiber optic cables and related components to carry signals for communications, security,
control and similar purposes. It defines procedures that should provide a high level of quality for
fiber optic cable installations. This document covers fiber optic cabling installed indoors
(premises installations) with the addition of outside plant (OSP) applications involved in campus
installations where the fiber optic cabling extends between buildings.

2. Planning for the Installation

Final planning for the installation is a critical phase of any project as it involves coordinating
activates of many people and companies. The best way to keep everything straight is probably
to develop a checklist based on the design path:
2.1 Pre-Installation checklist:
a) Main point of contact/project manager chosen
b) Link communications requirements set
c) Equipment requirements set and vendors chosen
d) Link route chosen, permits obtained
e) Cable plant components and vendors chosen
f) Coordination with facilities and electrical personnel complete
g) Documentation ready for installation, preliminary restoration plans ready
h) Test plan complete
i) Schedule and start date set for installation, all parties notified
j) Components ordered and delivery date set, plans made for receiving materials
(time, place,) arrange security if left outside or on construction site
k) Contractor/installer chosen and start date set
l) Link route tour with contractor
m) Construction plans reviewed with contractor
n) Components chosen reviewed with contractor
o) Schedule reviewed with contractor
p) Safety rules reviewed with contractor
q) Excess materials being kept for restoration reviewed with contractor
r) Test plan reviewed with contractor End to End loss testing

2.2 Before starting the installation:

a) All permits available for inspection
b) Sites prepared, power available
c) All components on site, inspected, security arranged if necessary
d) Contractor available
e) Relevant personnel notified
f) Safety rules posted on the job site and reviewed with all supervisors and installation personnel
2.3 During the Installation:
a) Inspect workmanship
b) Daily review of process, progress, test data
c) Immediate notification and solution of problems, shortages, etc.
2.4 After completion of cable plant installation:
a) Inspect workmanship
b) Review test data on cable plant
c) Set up and test communications system
d) Update and complete documentation
e) Update and complete restoration plan
f) Store restoration plan, documentation, components, etc.
3. Installation Requirements / General Guidelines

3.1 Receiving Fiber Optic Cabling and Equipment on Site

a) Fiber Optic equipment and components are subject to damage by improper handling and
must be handled accordingly.
b)

When initially received on the job site all fiber optic components should be carefully

inspected for damage and tested for continuity or loss if damage is suspected.
c)

Ensure that all components and parts have been shipped, received, match quantities

ordered (e.g. fiber optic cable contains the number and type of fiber ordered and is the length
ordered), and that any discrepancies or damaged goods are noted, the supplier notified and
replaced as required.
d) All equipment and cabling shall be stored in a clean and dry location, protected from harsh
environments and extremes of cold and heat.

3.2 Handling Fiber Optic Cables

a) Handle reels of fiber optic cable with care. All reels, regardless of size or length, must have
both ends of the cable available for the testing. A fiber tracer or visual fault locator and bare
fiber adapters can be used for continuity testing.
b)

Move small, lightweight spools of fiber optic cable by hand.

Move larger reels with

appropriate lifting equipment or using two or more installers skilled in the moving operation.
c) Lifting equipment shall only must reels with a matched set of slings or chokers, attached to
an appropriately sized piece of pipe inserted into the hole in the center of the reel. Slings and
chokers shall never be attached around the spooled area of the reel. The cable reels shall be
moved carefully to avoid damage to the cable.
3.3 Support Structures

a) Install support structures for fiber optic cable installations before the installation of the fiber
optic cable itself.
b) Allow for future growth in the quantity and size of cables when determining the size of the
pathway bend radius requirements.
c) Do not install a fiber optic cable in a conduit or duct that already contains cabling, regardless
of the cable type. Existing or new empty ductwork can be modified to accept several different
installations by the placement of inner duct within it.
3.4 Removal of Abandoned Cables

Unless directed by the owner or other agency that unused cables are reserved for future use,
remove abandoned optical fiber cable (cable that is not terminated at equipment other than a
connector and not identified for future use with a tag) as required by the National Electrical
Code.
3.5 Fire Stopping

a)

All telecommunications fire stopping shall comply with applicable codes and standards,

including TIA/EIA 569 and NECA/BICSI 568.

b) All penetrations shall be protected by approved fire stops. Fire stopping compounds and
devices shall be used whenever a fire separation has been breached by an installation.
c) In most geographical locals the breaching of a fire separation will require physical monitoring
until it has been repaired.
d) Check with the Authority Having Jurisdiction for specific requirements on the project before
commencing work.

3.6 Grounding and Bonding

a) Ground systems shall be designed as specified by the NEC and other applicable codes and
standards (ANSI/TIA/EIA 607, NECA-BICSI-568).
b) Although most fiber optic cables are not conductive, any metallic hardware used in fiber optic
cabling systems (such as wall-mounted termination boxes, racks, and patch panels) must be
grounded.
c) Conductive cables require proper grounding and bonding for applicable conductors.

4. Fiber Optic Components

4.1 Cables

Fiber optic cables are available in many types, for different applications. Premises cables are
usually tight buffer designs that include jackets rated for flammability. OSP cables are generally
loose tube designs with water blocking and may also have an armored jacket.
Some cables are usable for either OSP or premises applications. These include dry-water
blocked tight buffered cables that can be used for short outdoor runs and double jacketed OSP
cables that have a removable outside jacket and an inner jacket that is rated a flame retardant.
4.2 Fiber Optic Cables by Fiber Types

Fiber optic cables may contain multimode fibers, single mode fibers or a combination of the two,
in which case it is referred to as a hybrid cable. The type of cable shall be positively identified
and , if hybrid, the type of each fiber, since multimode and single mode fiber are terminated in
different manners. See the section on termination below.

4.3 Fiber Optic Cables by Construction Type

a) Tight Buffered Cables

Tight buffered fiber optic cable contains fiber with a soft 900-micron diameter coating that
protects the fiber and is color-coded for identification.
Simplex, Zip Cord: Tight buffered fibers are cabled with strength members (usually aramid
fibers) in simplex or zip cord cables for use as patch cords.
Distribution: Multiple tight buffered fibers may be cabled with aramid fiber strength members and
a central stiffener in a cable type called a distribution cable, often used for premises backbones,
horizontal runs or general building cabling.
Breakout: Several simplex cables can be bundled in a single cable called a breakout cable.
Simplex, zip cord and breakout cables may be directly terminated for connection to a patch
panel or network equipment as the cable provides adequate protection for the fibers.
Fibers in distribution cables are terminated directly, but the lack of protection for the individual
fibers requires they be placed inside patch panels or wall-mounted boxes.
b) Loose Tube Cable

Loose tube (also called loose buffer) fiber optic cable consists of one or more protective tubes,
each containing one or more fibers with only 250-micron primary coating over the fiber or
ribbons typically containing 12 fibers per ribbon. Loose-tube cable is primarily used for outside
plant installations where low attenuation and high cable pulling strength are required.

Many fibers can be incorporated into the same tube, providing a small-size, high-fiber density
construction. The tubes are usually filled with a gel, which prevents water from entering the
cable, although dry water-blocking compounds are becoming more common. The fibers in loose
tube cables are protected from the outside environment and can be installed with higher pulling
tensions than tight-buffered cables.

Fiber in loose tube cables may be spliced directly and placed in appropriate protective
enclosures. Fibers in loose tube cables which have only the 250 micron primary coating should
be sleeved with a break out kit for protection before termination and placed in patch panels or
wall-mounted boxes for protection.

Ribbon Cable is a special type of cable that combines 12 or 24 fibers into a single ribbon.
Ribbons can be cabled in loose tubes or in slots in a plastic core of the cable. Ribbon cables
have typical fiber counts of 144, 288, 864 or more. Water blocking, armoring, etc. is done as
with any loose tube cable.
4.4 Flammability - Cable Ratings and Markings

All premises cables shall be listed and have flammability ratings per NEC 770.50. Cables
without markings should never be installed inside buildings, as they do not comply with the
National Electrical Code. Optical cable markings are as follows:

OFN
OFC
OFNG or OFCG
OFNR or OFCR
OFNP or OFCP
OFN-LS

Optical fiber nonconductive

Optical fiber conductive
General purpose
Riser rated cable for vertical runs
Plenum rated cables for use in air-handling plenums
Low smoke density

4.5 Color Codes: Fiber Optic Cable

Cable Jackets
Colors of cable jackets for identifying indoor fiber optic cable are not standardized. Typical
colors are as follows:
Premises cables (Per TIA-598C ):

Fiber Types
Multimode (50/125) (TIA492AAAB) (OM2)
Multimode (50/125) (850 nm
Laser-optimized)
(TIA-492AAAC) (OM3/4)
Multimode (62.5/125)
(TIA-492AAAA)
(OM1)
Multimode (100/140)
(Obsolete)
Single-mode
(TIA-492C000 / TIA-492E000)
Polarization Maintaining
Single-mode

Non-Military
Orange

Color Codes
Military
Orange

Printed On Cable
50/125

Aqua

Undefined

850 LO 50/125

Orange

Slate

62.5/125

Orange

Green

100/140

Yellow

Yellow

SM/NZDS or SM

Blue

Undefined

Undefined

NOTES:

1) Natural jackets with colored tracers may be used instead of solid-color jackets.
2) Because of the limited number of applications for these fibers, print nomenclature is to be
agreed upon between manufacturer and end-user
3) Other colors may be used providing that the print on the outer jacket identifies fiber
classifications per sub-clause 4.3.3.
4) For some Premises Cable functional types (e.g., plenum cables), colored jacketing material
may not be available. Distinctive jacket colors for other fiber types may be considered for
addition to Table 3 at some future date.
Color Codes: Connectors

Since the earliest days of fiber optics, orange, black or gray was multimode and yellow single
mode. However, the advent of metallic connectors like the FC and ST made color coding
difficult, so colored boots were often used. The TIA 568 color code for connector bodies and/or
boots is Beige for multimode fiber, Blue for single mode fiber, and Green for APC (angled)
connectors.
4.6 Outside plant cables:

These are typically black to prevent UV radiation damage.

Some indoor cables are black or other colors. Refer to manufacturers datasheets or cable
jacket markings to determine the fibers in the cable.

Color Codes: Fiber

Fiber color codes are specified by TIA/EIA 598-A. In loose tube cables, this color code will be
used for tubes as well as fibers within the tubes and sub-groups.
Fiber No.

Color

Blue

Orange

Green

Brown

Slate

White

Red

Black

Yellow

10

Violet

11

Rose

12

Aqua

5. Installing Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cable may be installed indoors or outdoors using several different installation
processes. Outdoor cable may be direct buried, pulled or blown into conduit or inner duct, or
installed aerially between poles. Indoor cables can be installed in raceways, cable trays, placed
in hangers, pulled into conduit or inner duct or blown though special ducts with compressed gas.
The installation process will depend on the nature of the installation and the type of cable being
used. Installation methods for both wire and optical fiber communications cables are similar.
Fiber cable is designed to be pulled with much greater force than copper wire if pulled correctly,
but excess stress may harm the fibers, potentially causing eventual failure.
5.1 Installation Guidelines

a) Follow the cable manufacturer's recommendations. Fiber optic cable is often customdesigned for the installation and the manufacturer may have specific instructions on its
installation.
b) Check the cable length to make sure the cable being pulled is long enough for the run to
prevent having to splice fiber and provide special protection for the splices.
c) Try to complete the installation in one pull. Prior to any installation, assess the route carefully
to determine the methods of installation and obstacles likely to be encountered.

Pulling tension

a) Cable manufacturers install special strength members, usually aramid yarn, for pulling. Fiber
optic cable should only be pulled by these strength members. Any other method may put stress
on the fibers and harm them.

b) Swivel pulling eyes should be used to attach the pulling rope or tape to the cable to prevent
cable twisting during the pull.
c) Cables should not be pulled by the jacket unless it is specifically approved by the cable
manufacturers and an approved cable grip is used.
d) Tight buffer cable can be pulled by the jacket in premises applications if a large (~40 cm, 8
in.) spool is used as a pulling mandrel. Wrap the cable around the spool 5 times and hold
gently when pulling.
e) Do not exceed the maximum pulling tension rating. Consult the cable manufacturer and
suppliers of conduit, inner duct, and cable lubricants for guidelines on tension ratings and
lubricant use.
f) On long runs (up to approximately 3 miles or 5 kilometers), use proper lubricants and make
sure they are compatible with the cable jacket. If possible, use an automated puller with tension
control and/or a breakaway pulling eye. On very long runs (farther than approximately 2.5 miles
or 4 kilometers), pull from the middle out to both ends or use an automated fiber puller at
intermediate point for a continuous pull.
g) When laying loops of fiber on a surface during a pull, use figure-8 loops to prevent twisting
the cable.

Bend radius

a) Do not exceed the cable bend radius. Fiber optic cable can be broken when kinked or bent
too tightly, especially during pulling.
b) If no specific recommendations are available from the cable manufacturer, the cable should
not be pulled over a bend radius smaller than twenty (20) times the cable diameter.
c) After completion of the pull, the cable should not have any bend radius smaller than ten (10)
times the cable diameter.

Twisting cable

a) Do not twist the cable. Twisting the cable can stress the fibers. Tension on the cable and
pulling ropes can cause twisting.
b) Use a swivel pulling eye to connect the pull rope to the cable to prevent pulling tension
causing twisting forces on the cable.
c) Roll the cable off the spool instead of spinning it off the spool end to prevent putting a twist in
the cable for every turn on the spool.

d) When laying cable out for a long pull, use a "figure 8" on the ground to prevent twisting. The
figure 8 puts a half twist in on one side of the 8 and takes it out on the other, preventing twists.

Vertical cable runs

a) Drop vertical cables down rather than pulling them up whenever possible.
b) Support cables at frequent intervals to prevent excess stress on the jacket. Support can be
provided by cable ties (tightened snugly, not tightly enough to deform the cable jacket) or
Kellems grips.
c) Use service loops can to assist in gripping the cable for support and provide cable for future
repairs or rerouting.

Use Of Cable Ties

Fiber optic cables, like all communications cables, are sensitive to compressive or crushing
loads. Cable ties used with many cables, especially when tightened with an installation tool, are
harmful to fiber optic cables, causing attenuation and potential fiber breakage.
a) When used, cable ties should be hand tightened to be snug but loose enough to be moved
along the cable by hand. Then the excess length of the tie should be cut off to prevent future
tightening.
b) Hook-and-loop fastener ties are preferred for fiber optic cables, as they cannot apply crush
loads sufficient to harm the cable.

Cable Plant Hardware

All premises hardware and support structures should follow the recommendations of TIA/EIA
569. Outside plant hardware and installation equipment should follow manufacturers
recommendations.

Cable Racks, Trays, Conduit and Inner duct

a) Outside plant cables can be installed underground in conduit or inner duct or direct buried,
depending on the cable type. Aerial cable installation may use cables lashed to a support

messenger

cable

or

be

self-supporting.

Underwater

cable

installation

must

follow

manufacturers directions.
b) Premises cabling can be installed in cable trays, ladder racks, J-hooks, or other appropriate
support structures.
c) Building cables can be installed directly, but installing them inside plenum-rated inner duct
provides extra protection for the fiber cable. Inner duct is bright orange and will provide a good
way to identify fiber optic cable and protect it from damage.

Fiber Optic Splicing and Termination Hardware

a) Breakout kits: The fibers in loose tube cables have only the 250 micron primary buffer
coating. Use breakout kits to separate and protect individual fibers in a loose tube cable for
termination directly on the fibers.
b) Splice enclosures: For long cable runs outside, splices are necessary to connect lengths of
cable. Splices require protection that is provided by a sealed splice closure. Choose closures
with adequate space for the number of fibers in the cables and port locations appropriate for the
final mounting. Splice closures can be sealed and buried in the ground, placed in a vault or
suspended aerially. Outside plant cables terminated in buildings may also need closures if they
are terminated by splicing on pre-terminated pigtails as is common.
c) Splice panels and patch panels: Terminate or splice distribution cables inside panels or
boxes to protect the fibers from damage. Boxes or panels may be rack- or wall-mounted. All
should have locks to prevent unauthorized entry.
d) Racks and cabinets: Enclosures for patch panels and splice panels are used to terminate
and organize cables. Use appropriate cable management hardware on the racks to route and
separate cables to minimize potential for damage and facilitate moves, adds and changes.
e)

Take care with all splicing and termination hardware to maintain cable bend radiuses,

prevent pinching or kinking of fibers and separate fibers to allow for future restoration, moves or
other work.
6. Fiber Optic Termination

Fiber optic termination processes vary according to the types of fiber being terminated, the style
of connectors or splices used and the termination process appropriate for that connector. Fiber
optic cable can be terminated in two ways, using:

1) Connectors that mate two fibers to create a temporary joint and/or connect the optical fiber to
network equipment.
2) Splices which create a permanent joint between two fibers.

The decision whether to use connectors or splices depends on the application. All terminations
must be of the right style, installed in a manner that provides low light loss and back reflection
and protected against the expected environment, dirt or damage while in use.
6.1 Choice of connector

Fiber optic connectors are manufactured in a number of different styles (e.g., ST, SC, LC, MTRJ) that attach to the fibers in a fiber optic cable by a number of different methods (e.g., epoxy
polish, prepolished/splice, etc.)

The connectors used in the cable plant being installed should:

1) Be compatible with the fiber optic cabling,
1) Be compatible with the equipment intended for use on the cabling
2) Provide adequate optical performance (loss and return loss)
3) Be compatible with the operating environment (temperature, humidity, etc.) of the installation
and
4) Be compatible with like style connectors. All fiber optic connectors used should have a
reference FOCIS document (Fiber Optic Connector Intermateability Standard) published by
TIA/EIA.
Fiber optic connectors may be field installed by direct attachment to the cable or by splicing preterminated pigtails onto the installed cable. Multimode connectors are generally installed directly
onto fibers in the field while single mode cables are more likely to be terminated by splicing on
pre-terminated pigtails.
6.2 Termination types

Several different types of terminations are available for optical fibers. Follow the manufacturers
directions exactly for the termination process used to ensure best connector performance and
reliability.

a) Adhesive Terminations
Many connectors use epoxies or other adhesives to hold the fiber in the connector. Use only
the specified epoxy, as the fiber-to-ferrule bond is critical for low loss and long term reliability.
1.

Epoxy/Polish: The fiber is glued into the connector with two-part epoxy and the end

polished with special polishing film. This method provides the most reliable connection and
lowest losses. The epoxy can be allowed to set overnight or cured in a special oven. A "heat
gun" should not be used to cure the epoxy as the uneven heat may not cure all the epoxy or
may overheat it which will prevent curing.
2.

Hot Melt: This connector is similar to the epoxy/polish connector but already has the

adhesive (a heat set glue) inside the connector. The adhesive is liquefied in an oven before the
fiber can be inserted. The fiber is secured when the adhesive cools.
3. Anaerobic Adhesives: These connectors use a quick-setting adhesive instead of the epoxy.
They may use a single part adhesive or an adhesive and setting agent. Some adhesives do not
have the wide temperature range of epoxies, so they should only be used indoors unless
otherwise specified.
b) Crimp/Polish or Crimp/Cleave Terminations

These connectors use a crimp on the fiber to hold it in the connector ferrule. The fiber can be
polished like an adhesive connector or cleaved with a special tool. Ensure the crimp is made
properly to prevent fiber pistoning (pulling back or pushing forward in the connector ferrule.)
c) Pre-polished/Splice
These connectors have a short stub of fiber already epoxied into the ferrule and polished.
Termination requires cleaving a fiber, inserting it into the back of the connector like a splice and
crimping. The loss of these connectors will generally be higher than adhesive connectors, since
they include a connector loss plus a splice loss in every connector. To achieve low loss, the
fiber must be cleaved properly, which requires a good cleaver (preferably the type used with
fusion splicers) and good technique. Ensure the crimp is made properly to prevent fiber
pistoning (pulling back in the connector ferrule.) The termination process can be monitored with
a visual fault locator.

6.3 Termination process

a) Whichever process is used for termination, follow the manufacturers instructions carefully.
b) Use only adhesives approved by the manufacturer, and employ adhesive curing times in
accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
c) When special tools are required, use them in the appropriate manner.
d) Once installation is completed, connectors should be covered with an appropriate dust cap
and stored in a safe location waiting testing or connection to network equipment.
Connector performance

Connector performance shall be within industry normal limits or as specified in TIA/EIA 568.
Connector performance may be specified by end users at a different value, and if so, those
values shall be used for acceptance. Since TIA 568 includes adhesive/polish and prepolished/splice connectors as well as multi-fiber connectors, the limit is set high to
accommodate all types at 0.75 dB. Adhesive polish connectors will generally have losses well
under 0.5 dB.
Performance verification

Following completed installation and termination, all terminated cables must be tested. The
section on testing below provides more detail on testing requirements at the conclusion of
installation.
a) Examine all connectors requiring polishing with a microscope for proper end finish, cracks,
scratches or dirt per FOTP-57.
b) Test all fibers in all cables for loss using an OLTS power meter and source. Test multimode
cables using TIA/EIA 526-14, and single mode cables using TIA/EIA 526- 7 (single mode). Total
loss shall be less than the calculated maximum loss for the cable based on appropriate
standards or customer specifications as determined in a loss budget analysis done in the design
phase.
6.4 Fiber polarization/End To End Connections

In fiber networks, separate fibers are typically used for transmission in each direction, therefore
it is necessary to identify the fiber connected to the transmitter and receiver at each end.

a) Duplex connectors such as the duplex SC or MT-RJ are polarized, that is they are keyed to
allow connection in only one orientation. Follow the polarization rules given in TIA/EIA 568-B3,
Section 5.2.4.
b)

Simplex connectors should be documented for connections and when allocated to the

transceiver of networking equipment, marked for transmit and receive at each end of the link.

6.5 Fiber Optic Splices

Types of splices

Splices are a permanent joint or connection between two fibers. There are two basic types of
splices, fusion and mechanical.
a) Fusion Splices
These "weld" the two fibers together usually in an electric arc. Fusion splicers are generally
automated and produce splices that have minimal losses.

Fusion splicing should not be

performed in a dusty or explosive atmosphere as the electric arc may cause an explosion or fire.
b) Mechanical Splices

These align two fibers in a ferrule or v-groove with index-matching gel or adhesive between the
fibers to reduce loss and back reflection. Mechanical splices are used for temporary restoration
as well as permanent joints.

Splice performance

Splice performance shall be within industry accepted limits or as specified in TIA/EIA 568. While
TIA-568 specifies 0.3 dB loss for both multimode and single mode splices, single mode fusion
splices are typically under 0.1 dB. If splice performance may be specified by end users at a
different value, and if so, those values shall be used for acceptance.
Splice performance verification

End-to-end tests of fiber optic cable loss include the losses caused by splices. If the cable loss
exceeds the calculated maximum value, or if the customer requires splice loss verification, test

the cable with an OTDR to analyze the loss of individual components (fiber, connectors, and
splices) in the cable. Test splice loss in both directions and average the measured values to
reduce the directional effects of OTDR measurements.
7. Testing the Installed Fiber Optic Cable Plant

During the design phase, each cable run should have a Loss Budget calculated based on
component specifications. After installation, test each fiber in all fiber optic cables for verification
of proper installation by comparing measured loss to the calculated loss from the Loss Budget.
Perform the following tests:

a)

Continuity testing to determine that the fiber routing and/or polarization is correct and

documentation is proper.
b) End-to-end insertion loss using an OLTS power meter and source. Test multimode cables
using TIA/EIA 526-14, and single mode cables using TIA/EIA 526-7 (single mode). Total loss
shall be less than the calculated maximum loss for the cable based on Loss Budget calculations
using appropriate standards or customer specifications.
c) Optional OTDR testing may be used to verify cable installation and splice performance.
However, OTDR testing should not be used to determine cable loss, especially on longer
cables. Use of an OTDR in premises applications may be inappropriate if cables are too short.
d) If the design documentation does not include cable plant length, and this is not recorded
during installation, read the length from the distance marking on the cable jacket or test the
length of the fiber using the length feature available on an OTDR, or some OLTSs.
e) If testing shows variances from expected losses troubleshoot the problems and correct them.

7.1 Continuity Testing

Perform continuity testing of optical fibers using a visual fiber tracer, visual fault locator, or
OLTS power meter and source. Trace the fiber from end to end through any interconnections to
ensure that the path is properly installed, and that polarization and routing are correct and
documented.

7.2 Insertion Loss

Insertion loss refers to the optical loss of the installed fibers when measured with a test source
and power meter (OLTS).

Test multimode cables using TIA/EIA 526-14, and single mode

cables using TIA/EIA 526-7 (single mode).

a) Test multimode fiber at 850 and 1300 nm, and single mode fiber at 1310 and 1550 nm,
unless otherwise required by other standards or customer requirements.
b) Test reference test cables to verify quality and clean them often.
c) Cabling intended for use with high speed systems using laser sources may be tested with
appropriate laser sources to ensure that tests verify performance with that type of source.

7.3 OTDR Testing

The optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR) uses optical radar-like techniques to create a
picture of a fiber in an installed fiber optic cable. The picture, called a signature or trace,
contains data on the length of the fiber, loss in fiber segments, connectors, splices and loss
caused by stress during installation.

OTDRs are used to verify the quality of the installation or for troubleshooting. However, OTDR
testing shall not be used to determine cable loss.

OTDRs have limited distance resolution and may show confusing artifacts when testing short
cables typical of premises applications. If OTDR testing of premises cables is desired,
experienced personnel should evaluate the appropriateness of the tests.

OTDR testing should only performed by trained personnel, using certified equipment designed
for the purpose. The technicians performing the tests should be trained not only in operation of
the OTDR equipment, but also in the interpretation of OTDR traces.
8. Administration, Management, and Documentation

Documentation of the fiber optic cable plant is an integral part of the design, installation and
maintenance process for the fiber optic network. Documenting the installation properly will
facilitate installation, allow better planning for upgrading, simplify testing and future moves, adds
and changes.

Documentation of the fiber optic cable plant should follow ANSI/TIA/EIA-606, Administration
Standard for the Telecommunications Infrastructure of Commercial Buildings.

Fiber optic cables, especially those used for backbone cables, may contain many fibers that
connect a number of different links going to several different locations with interconnections at
patch panels or splice closures. The fiber optic cable plant should be documented as to the
exact path that every fiber in each cable follows, including intermediate connections and every
connector type.

Documentation should also include insertion loss data and optional OTDR traces.

Testing and Splicing of OFC

Contents
1. Equipment for Measuring Fibers
2. Events on Fibers
3. Important Parameters
4. Common Tasks
5. Practical Hints from OTDR Experts
6. Automatic Trace Analysis
7. Agilent Technologies OTDRs
8. Tables

1. Equipment for Measuring Fibers

In todays world, the demand for optical networks is growing faster and faster. The networks are
becoming bigger, more powerful and more reliable. This requires more operators, installers and
maintenance contractors to provide information on the networks faster and with higher accuracy
than ever before.
1.1 Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
The Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) is the preferred instrument for characterizing
optical fibers. With an OTDR you can evaluate the characteristic properties of a single fiber or a
complete link. In particular, you can see losses, faults, and the distances between Events at a
glance.
Agilent Technologies' OTDRs check the quality of fiber optic links by measuring backscatter.
Standards organizations, for example, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), accept
backscatter measurements as a valid means for analyzing a fiber's attenuation. Backscatter is
also the only fiber optic measurement method that detects splices within an installed link. It can
also be used to measure the optical length of a fiber. Thus, the OTDR is a valuable tool for
anyone who manufactures, installs, or maintains optical fibers.
The OTDR functions by looking for Events in a fiber, for example, irregularities or splices. This
makes it an invaluable quality control tool for anyone who manufactures, installs, or maintains
fiber optic cables. The OTDR pinpoints these irregularities in the fiber, measures the distance to
them, the attenuation between them, the loss due to them, and the homogeneity of the
attenuation.
It is an especially valuable tool for the field. You can use it to regularly check if the link meets
the specifications. In order to document the quality and to store it for maintenance purposes it is
necessary to measure the optical length, the total loss, the losses of all splices and
connectorsincluding their return losses.
1.2 Laser Safety
If you look into a laser beam then your eye may focus the light onto a very small spot on your
retina. Depending on the energy absorbed by the retina, the eye may be damaged temporarily
or permanently.

The wavelengths used in today's fiber optic communication links are invisible. This makes even
small optical powers more dangerous than bright visible light. Because you cannot see it, you
may look much longer into a laser beam.
National and international organizations define standards for a safe operation of fiber optic light
sources.
All Agilent OTDRs meet the safety requirements of the most common standards. In the United
States this is 21 CFR class 1, and in Europe it is IEC 825 class 3A. Products that are
conforming to these standards are considered safe except if viewed with an optical tool (for
example, a microscope). Nevertheless you should not look directly at the output or into any fiber
end whenever a laser might be switched on.
WA R N I N G: Switch the OTDR off before you start to clean its connectors! Or at least disable
the laser.
WA R N I N G:

INVISIBLE LASER RADIATION!

DO NOT STARE INTO BEAM OR VIEW DIRECTLY WITH OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. CLASS
3A LASER PRODUCT

2. Events on Fiber
An Event on a fiber is anything that causes loss or reflections other than normal scattering of the
fiber material itself. This applies to all kinds of connections as well as damages such as
bendings, cracks or breaks.
An OTDR trace displays the result of a measurement graphically on the screen. The vertical
axis is the power axis and the horizontal one is the distance axis. This section shows you drafts
of typical traces for the most common Events.

2.1 Single Fibers

A single fiber yields the following trace. You see the slightly decreasing power level
(attenuation) and strong reflections at the beginning and end of the fiber:

2.2 Whole Links

The trace of a whole link, for example, between two cities, may look like this. Besides the
normal attenuation you see Events and noise after the end of the link:

2.3 Beginning of a Fiber

If you are using a normal straight connector, the beginning of a fiber always shows a strong
reflection at the front connector:

2.4 Fiber End or Break

In most cases you see a strong reflection at the end of the fiber before the trace drops down to
noise level:

If the fiber is interrupted or broken, this is called a break. Breaks are non-reflective Events. The
trace drops down to noise level:

2.5 Connector or Mechanical Splice

Connectors within a link cause both reflection and loss:

A mechanical splice has a similar signature to a connector. Usually it has lower loss and
reflection values.
2.6 Fusion Splice
A fusion splice is a non-reflective Event, only loss can be detected. Modern fusion splices are so
good, they may be nearly invisible:

In the case of a bad splice, you may see some reflectance. Some splices appear as gainers as
if the power level increases. This is due to different backscatter coefficients in the fiber before
and after the splice:

If you see a gainer in a measurement taken in one direction, measure it from the other end of
the fiber. You will see a loss at this point in the fiber. The difference between the gainer and loss
(the "averaged loss value") shows the real loss at this point. This is why we recommend that
you take a 2-way aver- aging measurement of the fiber.
2.7 Bends and Macrobending
Bends in a fiber cause loss, but they are non-reflective Events:

To distinguish bends from splices, look at the installation and maintenance records. In the case
of macro bending, the loss is at an unknown location, Splices are at a documented, well-known
distance. If you measure at a higher wavelength, macro endings show a higher loss. We
therefore recommend that you make multi-wavelength measurements, so you can distinguish
between bending and splices.

2.8 Cracks
A crack refers to as a partially damaged fiber that causes relec- tion and loss:

The reflectance and loss may change when the cable is moved.
2.9 Patchcords
Patchcords are used to connect the OTDR to the fiber under test. The initial reflection is not
covering the beginning of the fiber. This allows better examination of the first connector:

3. Important Parameters
This section covers the definitions of the most important parameters used when characterizing
fibers.
3.1 Fiber Intrinsic Parameters
If you need more detailed information about your particular fiber, ask your fiber center.

The Refractive Index

An OTDR calculates the distances to Events by measuring the time elapsed between
transmission of the light and reception of the reflection. This can be, for example, the rising
edge of the reflection of the front panel connector, or the reflection from a connector. The
distance displayed and the time measured is linked by the refractive index (sometimes
called group index). This means that changing the refractive index causes a change of the
computed distance.
How an OTDR measures a distance:

Definition of the refractive index:

Refractive index = (speed of light in vacuum) /(speed of a light pulse in a fiber)
Displayed distance on the OTDR:
distance = measured time x (speed of light in vacuum) / refractive index
The refractive index depends on the used fiber material and needs to be provided by the
fiber or cable manufacturer.
It is important to understand the refractive index of the fiber you are measuring. The error
due to this value not being known exactly is usually greater than any inaccuracies within the
instrument.

The Scatter Coefficient

An OTDR receives not only signals from Events, but also from the fiber itself. As light travels
along a fiber, it is attenuated by Rayleigh scattering. This is caused by small changes of the
index of refraction of the glass. Some of the light is scattered directly back to the OTDR. This

effect is called backscatter. The scatter coefficient is a measure for how much light is scattered
back in the fiber. This affects the value of return loss and reflectance measurements.
The scatter coefficient is calculated as the ratio of the optical pulse power (not energy) at the
OTDR output to the backscatter power at the near end of the fiber. This ratio is expressed in dB
and is inversely proportional to the pulse width, because the optical pulse power is independent
of the pulse width.
A typical value is approximately 50 dB for 1 s pulse width, depending on the wavelength
and the type of fiber.
3.2 Measurement Parameters

The Pulse Width

One of the key parameters for good measurement results is the width of the light pulse
emitted into the fiber. It determines the distance resolution, which is very important to
separate Events clearly. The shorter the pulse, the better the distance resolution. A short
pulse, however, means that the dynamic range is smaller and the trace might be noisy.
If you want to measure long distances, you need a high dynamic range, so the pulse should
be long. Longer pulses, however, average the fiber over a wider section, which means lower
resolution.
Depending on the specific purpose of your measurement, you need a trade-off between
high-resolution and high dynamic range. Thus, choose a short pulse width if you want to
mea- sure the loss of splices or connectors that are close together. But choose a long pulse
width if you want to detect a break far away.
Short pulse width
It has high resolution but more noise. Decrease the pulse width in order to shorten the dead
zones and to separate close Events clearly.

Short Pulses for Better Resolution

Long pulse width

It has high dynamic range but long dead zones. Increase the pulse width in order to reduce the
noise and to detect Events far away.

Long Pulses for Large Dynamic Range

Typical values

5 ns / 10 ns / 30 ns / 100 ns / 300 ns / 1 s (short links),

100 ns / 300 ns / 1 s / 3 s / 10 s (long fiber links)

3.3 The Optimization Mode

A normal OTDR makes a trade-off between resolution and noise. The better the resolution, the
more the noise. This is because any hardware has a limited bandwidth. If the band- width is
narrow, you have less noise but also a poor resolution and a long recovery time after a strong

reflection. A wide band- width, however, can follow the received signal much fasterbut the
circuit also produces more noise.
Agilent OTDRs have three different receiver paths in each module. Besides the Standard Mode,
one has narrower band- width and is optimized for the best Dynamic Range. The other has a
wider bandwidth for a good Resolution. You select a path by selecting the Optimization Mode
during the setup.
When optimizing for Dynamic Range, the OTDR uses long pulses and the trace has much less
noise. Thus, you can mea- sure the fiber even from great distances. But due to the narrower
bandwidth the receiver rounds the edges more than when optimizing for Resolution. It also
needs longer time to recover from connector reflections.

3.4 The Measurement Span

An OTDR measures a specified number of sampling points (max 15710). The measurement
span determines where these sampling points are distributed along the fiber. Hence, it defines
both the distance of a measurement and the sampling resolution. This resolution is the distance
between two adjacent measurement points.
Markers can only be set at sampling points. In order to place markers more accurately, you can
try varying the measurement span to yield sampling points closer to an Event.
The table below shows how sampling point distance and the measurement span are related:

3.5 Performance Parameters

Dynamic Range

The dynamic range is one of the most important characteristics of an OTDR. It specifies the
maximum power loss between the beginning of the backscatter and the noise peaks.
If the device under test has a higher loss, the far end disappears in the noise. If it has less,
the end appears clearly above the noise and you can detect the break.
Please keep in mind that a trace is disturbed close to the noise level. For example, you need
the trace at least 6 dB above the noise in order to measure a 0.1 dB splice, and you need
approximately 3 dB to detect a break. This is why the dynamic range of the OTDR should be
at least 3 to 6 dB greater than your total system loss.
Like the deadzone, the dynamic range depends on the setup. The main influences are the
pulse width, the optimization mode and the wavelength. So any specification of dynamic
range must list the setup conditions.
The dynamic range can be given relative to the noise peaks or to the signal to noise ratio
(SNR) = 1. Using the noise peaks here is more appropriate. If the dynamic range is given as
SNR = 1, then subtract 2.2 dB to calculate the peak range.

The Attenuation Deadzone

The deadzone is that part of an OTDR trace where a strong reflection covers measurement
data. This happens because a strong signal saturates the receiver and it takes some time
for it to recover. The attenuation deadzone describes the distance from the leading edge of
a reflective Event until it returns to the fibers backscatter level.
It is easy to determine the point where the leading edge starts but it is difficult to say when
recovery ends. So many companies place a +/ 0.5 dB margin around the backscatter after
the reflection. The deadzone ends at the point where the back- scatter stays within this
tolerance band.
In order to detect a splice or a break on the fiber, you need to examine the backscatter.
Events in the deadzone might be undetected, because the backscatter cannot be displayed.
The size of the attenuation deadzone depends strongly on the instrument's setup.

The Event Deadzone

The Event deadzone is the minimum distance that you need between two Events of the
same type in order to see them separately.
For example, if you have two connectors two meters apart, you see a reflection with two
peaks and a drop between them. The drop indicates that there are really two reflections
from two different Events. If the Events are too close, then you would not see a drop and
you could not separate them.
The Event deadzone depends strongly on the instruments setup

Averaging Time

The OTDR sends light pulses repetitively into the fiber. The results of each pulse are
averaged. This reduces the random noise of the receiver:

A longer averaging time increases the dynamic range by decreasing the noise floor of the
OTDR. The best improvements for the trace are achieved within the first three minutes:

4. Common Task
This section introduces the most common tasks that occur when measuring fibers and links.
The exact procedures to per- form the tasks are found in the manuals of your device or software.
4.1 Cleaning a Fiber
To achieve accurate and repeatable measurements, all the connectors in your setup must be
clean. You can understand this requirement easily if you compare the diameter of a typical dust
particle with that of the core of a fiber. The dust is 10 to 100 m across while single-mode fibers
have a 9 m core. If you darken only 5% of the area where the light passes a connection, then
your insertion loss increases by 0.22 dB.
If you have doubts that the measurement result is correct, or if the measurement cannot be
repeated, then clean your connectors. In most cases a dirty adapter is the reason for such
errors. Thus, remove the connector interface and clean the instrument's connector, clean the
patchcord's connectors and clean the connectors on your fiber under test.
For cleaning the connectors, the following standard equipment is recommended:
Dust and shutter caps
All cables come with covers to protect the cable ends from damage or contamination. Keep the
caps on the equipment at all times, except when your optical device is in use.

Be careful when replacing dust caps after use. Do not press the bottom of the cap onto the fiber
too hard, as any dust in the cap can scratch or pollute your fiber surface.
Isopropyl alcohol
Only apply alcohol used for medical purposes. Never use any other solvent or alcohol with
additives, because they might damage your fiber.
After solving dust and dirt, remove the alcohol and dust with a soft swab or tissue.
Cotton swabs
Use natural cotton swabs instead of foam swabs. Be care- ful when cleaning the fiber. Avoid
too much pressure, because it may scratch the fibers surface. Only use fresh clean swabs
and do not reuse them.
Soft tissues
Cellulose tissues are very absorbent and softer than cotton tissues. Thus, they do not
scratch the surface unless you press too hard. Use care when cleaning the fiber and do not
reuse a tissue.

Pipe cleaner
Pipe cleaners can be used to clean connector interfaces. Again, make sure you use a new,
fresh and soft cleaner and be careful to not scratch the device.

Compressed air
The compressed air must be dry and free of dust, water and oil.
First spray into the air, as the initial stream of compressed air could contain some
condensation or propellant. Always hold the air can upright to keep propellant from escaping
and contaminating your device.
WA R N I N G: Disable the laser or switch the instrument off before you start to clean
connectors!

4.2 Connecting the Instrument to a Fiber

Depending on the application, there are three major ways of connecting the fiber under test
to the OTDR.

Direct Connection

Agilent offers user exchangeable connector interfaces. If your fiber or cable has one of
these connectors, then you can plug it in directly:

Patchcord (Connector at Both Ends)

This is the recommended way if you want to measure a link in a system, especially if the
terminal connector of the link is mounted in a rack:

Pigtail with a Bare End

If the fiber under test has no connector at all, then use a bare fiber pigtail and an
inexpensive mechanical splice. This pro- vides a good connection and repeatable
measurement results:

4.3 The OTDR Display

All OTDRs display the measured fiber or link as a trace on the screen. The horizontal axis is the
distance from the OTDR. The vertical axis is the relative power of the reflection of the emitted
light pulse. The shape of the trace allows conclusions on the condition of the fiber and the
included devices, such as connectors and splices.
In order to examine the trace in detail, you need to modify the trace view. The OTDR provides
functions to change the scales of both axes, to zoom into parts of the trace, and to shift the
trace along the axes.

The ranges in which you can display the trace are, for example, vertically between 0.2 dB/Div
and 5 dB/Div and horizontally from full measurement to roughly 100 times larger.
Furthermore, you can set two markers A and B anywhere into the trace and make use of the
zoom functions Around Marker A, Around Marker B, and Between Markers.

You need to be familiar with these functions, because they are most commonly used when
working with an OTDR. Most of the tasks in the following sections are based on them.
4.4 Zooming into Traces
After the measurement is finished, the OTDR display presents an overview of the complete
measurement. The vertical scale and the vertical offset are fixed:

Use the zoom functions around marker A or B to view particular regions in detail. The horizontal
scale now is zoomed approximately to the factor of 10:

You can now move the marker position in this view gradually. The display, however, will still
show the marker in the center. As a result, the trace seems to move to the left or right:

The scales for the complete trace of a 60 km link may be 6 km/Div and 5 dB/Div. This allows
coarse positioning of a marker:

In the zoomed view, the scales may be 200 m/Div and 0.2 dB/Div. This allows much finer
positioning of a marker:

In a fiber or cable production, you may need to test the uniformity of the attenuation. Position
marker A at the beginning and marker B at least 500 to 2,000 m beyond marker A. Zoom the
view between the markers to examine the attenuation. Additionally, you can move both markers
parallel along the trace to view adjacent fiber parts:

4.5 Placing Markers Correctly

The position of an Event is always where the trace leaves the backscatter level. The exact
locations of all Events are auto- matically determined and listed in the Event table.
For the position of a connector or another reflective Event, this is just at the beginning of the
rising edge of the reflection:

The position of a non-reflective Event is just at the last back- scatter point before the trace
bends downwards:

The location of a break is found at the beginning of the falling edge:

In order to measure the distance between two Events, place marker A before the first one and
marker B before the second, as described on the previous page:

In order to measure the fibers attenuation between two Events, place marker A after the first
Event, but place marker B before the second one:

Make sure that there are no Events between markers A and B, so the part of the trace between
them is a straight line.
NOT E: Make sure that you use the correct refractive index in the setup; otherwise the
distance values will be wrong!
4.6 Determining the Total Loss of a Link
Make a measurement of the whole link. Place marker A at the beginning and marker B at the
end of the backscatter. Then zoom around marker A and position it precisely after the reflection
of the first connector:

Now go to marker B and place it immediately before the end reflection:

Finally, go back to the full view and check whether or not the two markers are really placed
correctly. Depending on your device, select the Loss function to display the total loss on the
screen:

4.7 Determining the 2-Point Attenuation of a Fiber

Use the same procedure as for the measurement of the total loss (See Determining the Total
Loss of a Link on page 44.). But instead of selecting the Loss function, choose 2-Point
Attenuation.
The 2-point attenuation is the loss between markers A and B divided by the distance between
the markers:

Because this function is only a division of the power difference by the distance it always gives
reasonable results, even if there are connectors or splices between the markers.
4.8 Determining the Attenuation of a Fiber
The straight line between splices and connectors is the back- scatter of the fiber. In order to
measure the attenuation of it precisely, place marker A after the first Event (to the left) and
marker B before the second Event (to the right). Then select the Attenuation (LSA) function:

The LSA line causes severe errors if you include Events between the markers. So avoid this
when using LSA.
Also, do not use the 2-point attenuation to measure a noisy fiber. The noise peaks may
decrease the accuracy.
4.9 Determining the Loss of a Splice (Analyze Insertion Loss)
Place Marker A at the splice and zoom the view around it. Select the Analyze Insertion Loss
function. Four additional markers appear, that you can move on the trace. Place all four levelmarkers at the backscatter on the left-hand and on the right-hand side in order to approximate
the fiber as closely as possible:

Keep the level-markers 2 and 3 close to the splice as shown above, and make the line
segments between 1 and 2 and between 3 and 4 as long as possible. However, keep the lines
strictly on the backscatter, even if it is noisy.
Make sure that the lines between the level-markers (the LSA line) follow a straight part of the
trace. The LSA should not cover any part of the trace containing an Event:

4.10 Determining the Loss of a Connector

This measurement is very similar to the splice loss measurement, so it uses the same loss
function. Place marker A at the connector and zoom around it. Start the Insertion Loss function.
Four level-markers appear. Place all four level-markers at the backscatter at the left and at the
right of the connector:

The same rules as for the splice measurement also apply to the level-markers here. Keep the
lines strictly on the backscatter, even if it is noisy. In any case, avoid the region where the trace
is rounded. This causes incorrect results:

4.11 Determining the Reflectance of a Connector

Place marker A at the beginning of the connector reflection and zoom around it. Make sure you
can see both the backscatter and the top of the peak. If necessary, adjust the vertical zooming
and the offset.
Activate the Reflectance function. Three level-markers appear. Move the first two markers to an
average backscatter level (not on a noise peak) in front of the reflection. Confirm the position

and then move level-marker 3 to the peak of the reflection. The OTDR computes and displays
the result in the readout field:

5. Practical Hints from OTDR Experts

This section contains practical hints and tricks collected from experienced people who use
OTDRs in factories, during installation and for maintaining telecommunication networks.
5.1 Know the Link to be tested
Before you start to characterize a fiber optic link, look at the installation plan. Make sure you
have the right module and accessories. Determine the wavelength to be used.
Determine whether you are measuring this link for the first time, or whether you are comparing
the measurement with an older one.
If you are comparing with an older measurement, you only need to load the previous trace as
the reference in the com- pare mode. The OTDR will do the setup automatically and you only
have to start the new measurement.
5.2 Clean the Connectors
A dirty connector makes measurements unreliable, very noisy, or even impossible. It may also
damage the OTDR. Further- more, watch out for indexmatching oil. Some types dissolve the
adhesives inside connectors.
5.3 Is the Connector or the Patch Cord Damaged?
Be sure that the connector is clean. And check whether the patch cord, the module, and the
fiber under test are single-mode or multimode. To test the patch cord, activate the laser in the
CW mode and measure the power at the end of the patch cord with a power meter, for example,
an Agilent E6006A. This should display between 0 and - 4 dBm for most single-mode modules
and wavelengths.

5.4 Instrument Settings

If you use the OTDR regularly for similar links, then optimize the setup for these applications
and store it in one of the four user definable settings. Use a meaningful name for it (for example,
INTER STATE, CITY LINK, FEEDER, TRUNK, and so on).
5.5 Recommended Setup Parameters
Set the measurement span slightly longer than the length of the link. For example, if your link is
56.3 km long, choose 60 km. For distances greater than approximately 15 km, make your first
measurement in longhaul mode, otherwise use shorthaul. Begin with a 1 ms pulse for spans
greater than 10 km, and 100 ns below that span. Set the refractive index according to your
information about the link. If the index is not known, use 1.4580 as this is a typical value.
5.6 Noisy Traces
If the trace is very noisy, increase the number of averages. If you already averaged more than
100 times, then increase the pulsewidth. Try to average over a longer time.
5.7 Real time Mode
Activate the instruments Real-time Mode, if you want to adjust the settings during a
measurement. In this mode the instrument averages for 0.3 seconds only, thus, you get three
display updates per second. This mode allows to change any setup parameter without the need
to stop the measurement.
This is in contrast to the continuous average mode with one update per second. In this mode, it
is required to stop a measurement explicitly before you can modify parameters. This avoids that
you erase a trace averaged over a long time by accident.
You use Realtime mode to check your connection, the quality of splices, and whether a fiber is
connected. Start in Automatic mode, then switch to Realtime mode and select the most suitable parameters.
5.8 Very Long Deadzone
If the deadzone is too long to separate the Events of interest, reduce the pulsewidth. If you are
in Optimize Dynamic mode, first try repeating the measurement in Optimize Resolution mode,
before you reduce the pulsewidth.
5.9 What to Do if No Trace is Visible
In case you lost the trace when zooming into it, return to the full view.
If you see only noise instead of a trace, then either the measurement span is far too long, or the
start position is beyond the end of the fiber. Check both values in the setup. Also check the
connection to the fiber.

5.10 Adjust the Refractive Index

You can measure the refractive index if you know the exact physical length of the fiber under
test. Start the measurement with refractive index 1.5000. Place a marker at the end of the fiber.
Then select the Refractive Index function and adjust it until the displayed marker position is
equal to the known fiber length. Now the effective refractive index is displayed.
5.11 The Exact One-Way Loss
The OTDRs loss measurements are based on the backscatter effect in the fiber. Because this
effect changes in different fibers, the loss accuracy may not meet your requirements. In order to
measure the links loss more precisely, the single-mode modules provide a CW mode. This
mode simply switches the laser on.
Measure the power (given in dBm) with a power meter (for example, the Agilent E6006A) at the
end of a short patchcord. The absolute value of the power varies from one source mod- ule to
another but the power for a particular module remains very stable over hours. Then connect the
link to the patchcord and measure the power at the far end. The difference between the two
results is the one-way loss of the fiber.
5.12 Bending Loss
In 1550 nm single-mode, fibers are very sensitive to macro bending as for example, a tight bend
or local pressure on the cable. It happens sometimes that you see a bending loss clearly at this
wavelength but not at all at 1310 nm. Hence, characterize your link at both wavelengths.
5.13 Before You Save a Trace
After your measurement is completed you should enter identification data before you save a
trace on a disk or memory card. For this purpose, the OTDRs provide the Trace Information
window, accessible from the File menu.
Use this feature to store the cable ID, the fiber ID, the origin and the termination location, and
the fiber operator. The used OTDR and modules as well as the date and time of the
measurement are saved automatically with the file.
This will help a lot if you need the trace later for comparison purposes or for further analysis on
a personal computer.
5. Automatic Trace Analysis
Many links consist of several sections which are connected or spliced together. A good quality
control after installation is the measurement of all losses on the link in order to verify that the
splices, connectors, etc. meet their specification. However, doing this manually is a time
consuming process.
5.1 Seeking Events above a Threshold
The Agilent OTDRs accelerate this task with a built-in trace analysis function: Scan Trace seeks
Events on the trace from the beginning to the end. If an Event exceeds a given threshold (for

example, 0.05 dB) then the OTDR lists it in a table. The table contains the Events position, its
loss and return loss (if it is reflective), and the fiber attenuation between the Events.
After a trace has been scanned automatically, the OTDR keeps the Event table together with
the trace and the setup. This means that the table is also saved when you store the trace in a
binary or in an ASCII file. By reading the ASCII file into a PC you can use this information to
compute statistics.
For noisy sections of the fiber the OTDRs increase the threshold in order to reduce the
sensitivity to noise peaks. However, it is still often very hard to decide whether something is a
real Event or a distortion due to the noise. So it is important to look at the Events closely. If
necessary, remove any reported Event that is just a noise peak. Or add any Event that was
assumed to be noise.