NEW DEDICATED ENERGY CROPS FOR

SOLID BIOFUELS

ably higher; however, different sources indicate different numbers.

The resources from European forestry and by-products from wood industry are not sufficient to meet
the objective of the EU for bioenergy, especially if
we opt for second generation biofuels.

2 Energy crops characteristics

In the long term, bioenergy crops from agriculture

provide a significant potential for the biomass supply. The environmentally-compatible bioenergy
potential from agriculture can reach up to 142 Mtoe
by 2030 compared to 47 in 2010 (EEA report). Such
a development will occur if the high yield crops are
introduced and their productivity is increased.
New dedicated energy crops for energy production
would enable the EU to diversify its energy sources,
provide an income to European farmers and reduce
CO2 emissions.

1 Development of energy crops in

Europe
In Europe, solid biomass energy crops cover about
50 - 60 000 ha of land. It is rather a small area if

The best biomass crops for energy production is

one that can be harvested dry and has a perennial
growth habit (no need for annual planting or tillage)
to minimize cultivation costs. Low input of fertilizers
and other chemicals when growing these plants
helps to reduce the environmental impact as well as
to improve energy efficiency. It is also important
that plants can convert solar energy efficiently. Two
major pathways of photosynthesis are the C3 and
C4 pathway. In general, the C3 assimilation path is
adapted to operate under low temperature (1520C) whereas C4 metabolic pathway species are
more efficient converters in high light level and high
temperature situations.
Tropical grasses, such as sugar cane, maize, also
miscanthus and sweet sorghum are C4 plants. C4
plants can generate a theoretical maximum dry
matter yield of 55 t/ha year compared with 33 t/ha
from normal C3 temperate crops. However, C4
plants can only generate such a yield under hot climate conditions. In temperate climate C3 plants

Solid biomass energy crops statistics, 2007

20000
18000

Willow

16000

Miscanthus

14000
12000

Reed Canary Grass

10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0

source: Aebiom

SE

IR

UK

FR

DK

compared with traditional energy crops grown for

transport biofuels that amount about 2,5 million ha
of land. The largest areas of energy crops can be
found in the UK (mainly miscanthus and willow),
Sweden (willow, reed canary grass), Finland (reed
canary grass), Germany (miscanthus, willow, etc),
Spain and Italy (miscanthus, poplar). The picture
bellow provides an overview of energy crops development in Europe. However, this graph does not
cover all the EU countries as the statistics of energy crop plantations for solid biofuels are almost
inexistent in most of them. Empty squares show
that the actual production of the crop is most prob-

HU

AT

PO

FI

SK

IT

Baltics

might be more suitable. For example, short rotation

forestry suitable for energy production under temperate climate is mostly C3 species willow, poplar,
etc. Generally, the C4 crops such as Miscanthus are
more suitable for arable lands whereas C3 crops
can be grown on marginal land. In order to make the
crop growing process environmentally friendly, a
transportation distance should be as short as possible and should preferably not exceed 40 km.
Conversion
The primary product, in this case, Miscanthus,

C4 - plant that prefaces the Calvin Cycle with reactions that incorporate CO2 into 4-carbon compound. C4 plants have a distinctive leaf anatomy. This
pathway is found mostly in hot regions with intense sunlight.

Division of Selected Energy Crops into Groups

Poplar, Willow, Reed Canary Grass is converted to

solid biuofuels in the form of chips (using a chipper)
or briquettes, pellets and bales using compaction
technology and then can be used for electricity and
heating purposes.
There are three types of plants that are suitable to
produce solid biofuels:
annual plant species - planted and harvested
every year - such as cereals, hemp, or kenaf;
perennial species planted once usually every
12 - 25 years and harvested annually - such as
Miscanthus, reed canary grass and other reeds;
short rotation coppice (SRC) planted once usually every 20-30 years and harvested every 2 to
8 years - such as willow, poplar, black locust or
paulownia with a perennial harvest rhythm.
Technical properties

should be considered: the agronomic factors such

as crop yields, soils and climate, suitability of existing machinery, energy input/output per hectare, and
effective utilization of all of the components of the
crop at the processing stage. Calorific value, ash
content of the harvested plant and ash properties
such as ash melting point as well as moisture content at harvest are of a crucial importance for energy production.
Dry mass (DM) yield and the heating value of the
crops are the most important factors in determining
the energy source potentials for solid fuels.
Therefore, it should be noted that dry mass yield
largely depends on soil and climate conditions
whereas the water content depends on the time of
harvest.
For comparison of the crops discussed bellow, the
yield, medium energy content as well as ash and
water content are presented bellow:

In order to determine suitability of energy crops to

grow them in a chosen area, the following factors
Crops

Dry mass yield

Lower heating value

Energy production per ha

Water content at harvest

Ash content

[tDM/(ha year)]

[MJ/kgDM]

[GJ/ha]

Weight %

2-4

17

35-70

14.5

Miscanthus

8 - 32

17,5

140-560

15

3.7

Hemp

10 - 18

16.8

170-300

n/a

n/a

Straw

Willow

8 - 15

18.5

280-315

53

2.0

Poplar

9 - 16

18.7

170-300

49

1.5

Giant reed

15 - 35

16.3

245-570

50

Reed canary grass

6 -12

16.3

100-130

13

Switchgrass

9-18

17

n/a

15

Black locust

5 -10

19,5

100-200

35

n/a

Wood

3-5

18,7

74,8

50

1-1,5

Sources: AEBIOM European Biomass Statistics 2007; N.El Bassam Energy plant species; M J Bullard and others Biomass and energy crops

3 Miscanthus
Miscanthus species
are perennial, rhizomatous
grasses
coming from Asia.
Rhizomatous implies
that it spreads naturally by means of underground
storage
organs
(rhizomes).
Miscanthus x giganteus, is not invasive
and each plant grows
to approximately 1
meter in diameter,
after which the plants
do not continue to
spread. Miscanthus
Miscanthus, source : Bical
can grow up to 3.5
meters tall and theoretically can give an annual harvest of up to 30 t/ha of
dry matter excluding the first couple of years. Like
other bioenergy crops, the harvested stems of miscanthus may be used as fuel for production of heat
and electric power, or in the future for conversion to
2nd generation biofuels such as ethanol.
Miscanthus is high in lignin and lignocellulose fibre
and uses the C4 pathway.
Climate conditions and soil preferences
Miscanthus can be grown in a temperate climate
and on many types of arable land. The yield of the
crop depends on sunshine, water availability and
temperature. Miscanthus does not grow at temperatures below a threshold of 6oC. This is considerably lower than for maize which means that the
growing season is longer.
The soil is an important factor for Miscanthus productivity. The yield on fertile soils can reach up to
30 tons dry matter per hectare per year
(DM/ha/year). However, the yield on less productive
soils can hardly reach 10t DM/ha/year. Increases in

productivity result in increases in water demand.

For example, in order to produce maximum yields,
Miscanthus x giganteus is able to utilize large quantities of water, up to 900 mm/year. Several conclusions can be made as regards to the soil preference
of Miscanthus (D.G. Christian and E. Haase, 2001):
Soil that is suitable for growing maize is also
likely to be suitable for Miscanthus
The most suitable soil for growing Miscanthus is
a medium soil such as a sandy or silty loam
(brown earth or para brown earth) with a good air
movement, a high water-holding capacity and
organic matter content
Maximum yields are not achieved when the crop
is grown on shallow soils in combination with long
dry spells during summer although establishment
and survival are possible.
Cold and heavy waterlogged soils (e.g. clays) are
not suitable for growing Miscanthus (low tiller
number and plant height).
It is possible to grow Miscanthus in sandy soils
with a low water capacity but yields are low in
these circumstances.
Planting
It is important to
establish the crop
correctly
before
planting. The fist
step is the weed
control by spraying
the site with an
appropriate broad
spectrum herbicide. Miscanthus rhizome, source : Bical
The soil should be
subsoiled if necessary
to remove compaction. After the crop is fully established, there is generally no need for further chemical inputs.
Two methods of Miscanthus propagation are used
in Europe micropropagation and rhizome division.
The later one is used more often and is a more economically viable way to plant Miscanthus.
Rhizomes need to be planted to allow for some
expansion of the plant during the life of the crop
and at a soil depth of 5-15 cm. Planting densities
vary from 10,000 to 15,000 or more rhizomes per
hectare. Miscanthus does not require a big input of
fertilizers due to good nutrient use efficiency and its
ability to recycle large amounts of nutrients into the
rhizomes during the latter part of the growing season (the maximum quantity of nitrogen is between
50 and 70 kg N/(ha*year)) (Clifton-Brown J.C and
others, 2000).

Miscanthus, source : Deplanque

The planting date should be late enough in the year

to avoid severe late spring frosts but early enough
to allow good establishment, growth and translocation of reserves to the rhizome prior to the wither
frosts. Young plants and rhizomes can be very sen-

sitive to frost (when micropropagation planting

method is used) if the temperature of the soil
drops to less than 3,5C during the first planting
year, the rhizomes die. Nevertheless, Miscanthus
plants grown from rhizomes can survive at least 5,5C below freezing and potentially colder temperatures.
Miscanthus is usually planted in March or April,

yields of 20 t/ha have been recorded.

Harvesting can be carried out using a number of different machines such as a mower conditioner, forage harvester, maize harvester with a specially
adopted head (kemper) to cut the grass, balers to
bale the product, and transport with conventional
transportation. Miscanthus can also be harvested
every year with a sugar cane harvester.
The cutting part of the harvester should be adjusted

Miscanthus planting machine, source: Bical

Miscanthus harvesting, source: Bical

reaches 1-2 meters in height by late August, starts

drying by late July and is harvested in winter.
However, in cold climates like in central and northern Europe Miscanthus dries after the first frost
(which kills the tree cells) in winter and is harvested
in spring (March), just before the growth of the new
shoots start so that the new shoots are not damaged. In warmer climates of southern Europe, the
plant starts drying in November and can be harvested from November to February, or in early March.

at the lowest possible way to avoid the yield losses.

Some machines are especially adapted to cut and
bundle the plant at the same time (developed by
Claas and Deutz-Fahr).
In south Europe the humidity of Miscanthus at harvest can be as low as 15%, however, in Germany
and in the UK it is between 16-25% if the plant is
harvested when the moisture content is the lowest.

Planting can be carried out using semi-automatic

potato planters for plants, bespoke planters or
manure spreaders for crushed rhizomes (the least
favored option). However, in the last 5 years special
planting machines have been developed by companies such as Bical enabling to plant Miscanthus at
the best daily rate possible. The planter has some
soil and seedbed requirements to enable it to operate efficiently.
Harvesting
Once established, the crop can be harvested annually for at least 15 years. Harvesting of Miscanthus
should be carried out after the crop has senesced,
when the moisture content is lowest and before
regrowth begins in the following spring. Miscanthus
is not harvested in the first year due to the low yield
of the plant, however, the yield of the second year
can reach maximum 10 t/ha of dry matter. From the
second season onwards the crop can be expected
to achieve a maximum height of 2.5 - 3.5 m. By the
third year harvestable yields are between 1015 tons of dry matter per hectare. Peak harvestable

Bailing , source: Bical

4 Short rotation coppice: willow and

poplar
Short Rotation Coppice (SRC) is densely planted,
high yielding species such as willow, poplar and
eucalyptus. It is harvested on a 2 to 5 year cycle,
although commonly every 3 years. Willow and
poplar are well adapted to cool climates and tolerate temporary wet conditions better than most of
other species.
Willow (Salix spp.)

should be avoided. Willows water consumption

can reach 4,8 mm/day in June and July. Irrigation is
necessary if the yearly rainfall is less than
600 mm/year. To a certain degree willows are tolerant of waterlodging (not a permanent one). The
optimal growing temperature of willow ranges
between 15C and 26C. Minimum growing temperature is 5C -10C and maximum 30C - 40C.
Planting willow
The planting of willow, with 12 000 - 15 000 cuttings
per hectare, is done in spring once the soil has
become sufficiently warm (+5C) to enable the cuttings start growing. It grows rapidly in the first year
reaching up to 4 metres height. Specific varieties of
willow are usually selected for their yield, ability to
produce long stems without branching as well as
their resistance to cold and rust. Good weed control is very important during the first year for a good
development of the plant. Weed control can be
done by spraying a soil-applied herbicide on the
entire field directly after planting. Additional
mechanical weed control can be done one or two
months later. However, weed control is also possible using only mechanical methods. Fertilisation is
low due to the fact that harvesting occurs in winter
when the leaves containing the biggest amount of
nutrients have fallen off the trees.
Willow is usually planted using a Step planter which

Willow, source : Ena-Energi

Willow is mainly found in northern Europe, Asia, and

north America as well as in the mountainous parts
of China. There are about 300 species in the world,
however, Salix viminalis is one of the most frequently grown species for energy uses.
Climate conditions and soil preferences
Willow can be grown on a wide range of soil types,
on light soils as well as on loamy soils, with a pH
range from 6.0 to 7.5 and an optimum pH of 6.5.
However, mineral soils are more advantageous for
growing willow. This is because it is easier to control weeds on mineral soils than on organic soils.
Furthermore, the later are more frequently found in
frost-sensitive areas. On pure sand soils production
of willow may be low due to the water deficiency.
Fine sand, loam, clay loam and heavy clay are suitable for production of willow.
Salix species are more dependent on water than
any other agricultural crops; therefore, dry locations

Weed control, source: Ena Energi

automatically cuts the whole-shoots into lengths of

16-20 cm cuttings before they are pressed into the
soil. Another option is Frobbesta planter - prepared
cuttings are fed automatically one at a time into a
narrow furrow, after which the furrow is closed and
covered with soil. Autstoft planting machine and
Lay flat planting system can also be used for
planting willow.
However, in Denmark, a more sophisticated the
Egedal Energy Planter was developed by Ny Vraa
Bioenergi and Egedal Maskinfabrik.
So far, the planter is operational in the UK,
Denmark, Austria, Hungary, Slovakia, France, USA
and Poland. If compared with a Step planter,

tance and standard a row distance of 75 cm. with a

unique cutting system. The Energy Planter is adapted to plant in almost all conditions and can plant
direct on set aside land or in stubble even on clay.
Harvesting
The harvesting of the wood takes place at the vegetative rest (November to February). At this time of
the year the wood has a water content of around
50%. Performance of SRC depends on the selection of species, environmental conditions, fertilizers,
soil etc. and can reach up to 20 t/ha. However, usually yield ranges from 8 to 12 t/ha of dry matter.

Frobbesta planter, source : AEBIOM

besides the differences with cutting and planting

system, the Egedal Energy 4 row planter has a double capacity. The machine is developed to cut and
plant willow cuttings in one operation. The 23 meters long willows are feed to the drum cut system of the machine, which cut the willows in
approximately 20 cm lengths and then plants the
cuttings vertically into the plant furrow by means of

Egedal planter, source: Ny Vraa Bioenergi

a hydraulic planting device. The machine (4 rows)

has a capacity of approximately 1,5-3 ha/hour (1213.000 cuttings per hectare), adjustable plant dis-

Harvesting can be carried out using 3 main methods: the coppice is cut and bundled in bundles; the
coppice is cut and chipped in a single operation,
then blown into a trailer; and an intermediate system where the coppice is cut into billets and blown
into a trailer.
For harvesting with direct chipping purposes, Claas
Jaguar is the most widely used technology. Claas
machine was initially designed for maize and forage
harvesting, however, adapted to willow harvesting
by fitting a modified header. Willow shoots are cut
off by two circular saws and are processed into
chips by a built-in chipper. The quality of chips is
similar to that of forest chips. Even though it is no
more widely used, the Bender machine can be used
for harvesting. The harvesting unit of this machine is
mounted on a large tractor. The shoots are cut from
the stools with a chain saw and chipped by a disc
chipper. The Austoft 7700, another willow harvesting machine, initially designed for sugar cane harvesting, is equipped with tracks that give the
machine extremely good accessibility. The machine
weights 12,5 tons and the chips produced are
slightly coarser than forest chips. The shoots are cut
off at the stumps with circular saws. After harvesting, the chips can be stored and dried in piles in the
field.
The harvesting with direct chipping is the most cost
effective way of harvesting, however, not the best
solution for smaller heating plants due to the high
moisture content of the chips (unless the plant has
a steam condensation installation). If dry chips are

Claas machine, source: Styrian Chamber of Agriculture

filtration can replace conventional tertiary treatment

while increasing the SRC biomass yield due to irrigation and fertilisation. The system has many
advantages such as recycling of nutrients, reducing
health hazards as SRC is a non food crop, good
energy balance, cheaper purification system for
water companies, higher profitability for growers
due to a lower cost for fertilisers and a higher yield.
The main drawbacks are a lower purification potential during winter and the extensive character of the
system which needs relatively large areas. This type
of irrigation system for willow plantations is used in
Sweden, France and Ireland.
Stemster TR - whole shoot harvesting, source: AILE - Wilwater

required, the harvesting can be done using Empire

2000 machine which is designed for whole shoot
harvesting. This harvester weights 12 tons. The
shoots are cut off from the stool by means of two
circular saws and are transported then to a storage
hopper on the machine. The shoots are unloaded
with a built-in elevator and can be placed in piles up
to a height of 2 to 3 meters. In this way, the shoots
can be stored and dried in the field during the
spring and summer. A plantation could be viable for
up to 30 years before re-planting becomes necessary. However, Empire 2000 is not the most recent
machine for whole stems harvesting and the
machines such as Mantis a self-propelled whole
rod harvester which is used by Nordic Biomass and
Stemster TR tractor-trailed whole stem harvester
used in Ireland and Brittany (France) can be used
more efficiently than Empire 2000.

Reduction of pesticides use is another important

advantage of willow plantations. Comparing with
traditional grain production, about 60% less pesticides are used for willow plantations.
Poplar (Populus spp.)
Poplars are usually planted in south European
countries such as Spain and Italy. Poplars are more
frost sensitive than willows and, therefore, are not

Advantages of willow use

Willow is not only the source of bioenergy but also
helps to solve certain environmental problems.
Growing willow can be combined with purification
of urban or industrial water, can reduce the use of
pesticides, help to avoid further soil erosion, protect
ground water and increase biodiversity etc.
Purification of urban and industrial water. When irrigated with wastewater, the SRC plantation acts as
a biological filter and remove nutrients as well as
some heavy metals from the wastewater. Such bio-

Source: Styrian Chamber of Agriculture

usually planted in northern European countries.

Willow irrigation by pre-treated waste water, source: AILE - Wilwater

The plant is also grown in Central European countries where it reaches rather high yields per hectare,
up to 22 t DM/ha/y. Research has shown that
poplar can often outperform willow in terms of yield
but this appears to be site specific and highlights
the fact that choosing the appropriate varieties for a
site is essential. Unlike willow, poplar tends to produce better yields when allowed to grow for four
years or more from cutback.

Soil preferences
Poplar grows best in deep fertile soils, although it
can grow on wide range soils. However, shallow
soils and sites that remain waterlogged should be
avoided. Soil pH should ideally fall in the range 5.5
- 7.5. Preparation of the site should be the same as
that for willow SRC, including the weed control.
Weed control is very important in the establishment
year, so after planting and rolling a residual herbicide should be applied within 3-5 days. Cutback
takes place late in the winter following planting.
The soil should be well cultivated to a depth of at
least 25 cm. Where compaction is present, sub-soiling should be carried out to a depth of 40 cm. Due
to its apical dominance, poplar will generally produce only 1-3 shoots after cutback.

than the equivalent willow rods, and consequently

they are generally too thick to enter the delivery
tubes. However, the Egedal Energy Planter used for
willow (see planting willow) can be successfully
used for planting poplar. No fertilizer is applied in
the planting year because of the risk that the weeds
benefit more than poplars. Modified cabbage
planters can be also suitable to plant poplars but
due to the ridged nature of poplar stems, the cuttings occasionally block the planter mechanisms.
Harvesting
The rotation period of poplar is usually 5-7 years
longer than willows. Therefore, the harvest is carried out less frequently. Harvesting Poplar requires
heavier machinery as it produces fewer and heavier
stems. Higher stem diameter, rigid stems can cause

Planting
Planting should take place as early as possible in
the spring but avoiding frost. The density of planting
has generally been lower than that for willow at 1012,000 cuttings/ha. The planting and field manage-

Felling head, Source: Allan Bruks

problems with fully mechanized harvesters. If the

harvesting operations are carried out every 57 years in which case the stem diameter of poplar
reaches 10-15 cm, the forestry machinery used for
thinning operations is the most suitable. However,
the same harvesting machinery as for willow can be
used if poplar harvesting is carried out every 34 years.

Source: Styrian Chamber of Agriculture

ment in the establishing phase is very similar to willow cultivations.

The step planter (see page 14) is not suitable for
planting poplars for SRC because whole poplar
rods are much more brittle than willows and liable to
breakage. Also the stem diameter of poplar rods
tends to be much greater after one years growth

Source: Styrian Chamber of Agriculture

5 Reed Canary Grass (Phalaris arundinacea)

Reed canary grass is
perennial C3 plant. It
usually grows in
damp areas. Reed
canary grass is a
native plant in temperate regions, like
Scandinavia, which is
used since around
20 years for energy
production. The plant
is mostly grown in
Finland with the total
estimated cultivation
area of 20 000 ha in
2007. This rhizomasource : Vapo
tous grass grows
naturally to between
60 cm and 2 m high and has hairless light green or
whitish green leaves 10-35 cm long and 6-18 cm
wide.
Propagation and soil preferences
Reed canary grass spreads naturally by creeping
rhizomes, but plants can be raised from seed.
Flowering occurs in June to August, and seed is
produced. The plant frequently occurs in wet
places, along the margins of rivers, streams, lakes
and pools. The advantages of the species as energy crop are its adaptation to poor wet soils, its ability to be established from seed and its attainment of
high dry matter content. Reed canary grass needs
relatively little fertilizer.
Success of the crop depends on a sufficient supply
of nutrients and oxygen rich, non-stagnant water.
Reed canary grass tolerates well both drought and
wet conditions due to its excessive large root system. In the USA, where the grass is largely cultivated for forage, it is mainly used because of its good
resistance to dry conditions in prairies. However,
waterlogged soil is not suitable because of the deficiency of oxygen.

Harvesting, source : Vapo

However, harvesting, baling and logistics need further improvement in order to make this plant more
cost efficient. Harvesting losses can be very high up
to 50-60% due to the light weight of the fuel, especially in the chopped form. The transport of reed
canary grass can be economical only for short distances, less than 80 kilometers. Also the efficiency
of the transport of round bales which is the most
common type of baling is relatively low. The prevailing agricultural choppers and industrial crushers of
power plants are in most cases unsuitable for chopping of bales for fuel production. However, experiments carried out by VTT, showed that disc mower
and silage windrowers produce the lowest harvest
losses (20-30%). It was also shown that silage
mower with conditioner can reach low losses (20%)
if the adjustments are in optimum. A new type big
square baler reached maximum bale density
201 kg/m3 (moisture content 15%). Although tight
and optimum shaped big square bales are the best
solution for long distance transport of reed canary
grass, round bales are better suited for shorter
transport distances as they are significantly cheap-

Harvesting, baling and logistics

The fuel properties are improved when the grass is
allowed to dry for the following autumn or winter,
during which the nutrients accumulate into the
roots and water rinses out the harmful trace elements to some extent. Reed canary grass (RCG) is
usually harvested annually in spring with conventional technology either by mowing or baling using
a high density baler. The yield of this plant can
reach 11 t DM/ha/year, however, an average yield of
6-8 t DM/ha/year can be expected. Crop duration
of 12-15 years is possible. Due to its low moisture
content 85-90% of dry matter at harvest, canary
grass (those harvested in spring) can be easily converted to pellets, briquettes and powder.

10

Round bales, source : Vapo

er and lighter than big square baler. Another alternative to reduce the high cost of transportation is to
mix the grass with wood chips or peat before the

Square bales, source : Vapo

long-distance transport.
As for chopping the reed canary grass, slow speed
tworotor crushers can be appropriate for chopping
in certain conditions. This system under suitable
feeding speed which is one bale per two minutes
does not cause dust problem and can be economically viable. If the high speed crushers are used,
dust can be reduced by using water spray or even
better solution is crushing the grass with moist
wood simultaneously.
In Finland the plant is mainly used for co-firing with
other type of biomass or in coal fired power plants.
Due to the fuel properties, reed canary grass should
be used in mixtures with peat and wood chips otherwise it might cause blockages on conveyor systems. Studies and practical experience has shown
that the optimum amount of RCG in the mixture can
be 10-20% (which is 20-30% in volume) depending
on the main fuel. Such amount of reed canary grass
will not provoke corrosion in boilers or increase
fouling as it might be feared.

6 Other energy crops

Energy crops such as Miscanthus, Willow, Poplar
and Reed Canary Grass are widely grown and are
commercially viable in Europe. However, these are
not the only energy crops that can be used for
bioenergy production. At present, only small quantities of other crops such as Giant Reed,
Switchgrass, Hemp are grown for biomass purposes. Further studies on these plants should enable to
exploit them (and many more) on a larger scale.
Giant Reed (Arundo donax L.)
Giant reed is a wild C3 plant growing in southern
Europe regions.
Although Giant Reed grows best in a warm climate,
certain genotypes can
be adapted to cooler
climates and can be
grown in countries like
Germany or the UK.

Giant Reed, source : Hellabiom

Giant Reed is one of

the most productive
crops as its yield
reaches more than
30 t/ha of dry matter
(only in Southern
Europe) as well as one

of the most cost-ef fective energy crops because it

is perennial with low annual inputs after establishment of the crop. The annual input consists of harvesting, irrigation and/or fertilization costs. Giant
reed is one of the largest grass species that can be
grown in cool temperatures and it can grow up to
5 meters tall and 3.5 cm in diameter. Giant Reed is
usually harvested in late winter to make sure that
the moisture content is not over 50%. Giant reed is
usually established by planting rhizome cuttings;
however, appropriate machinery for planting is not
yet available. Propagation of the plant is also possible through stem cuttings or whole stems; nevertheless, further research is still needed. Planting
densities of 12,500 plants per hectare (100 cm x
80 cm) can be economically viable. Depending on
its use, giant reed is either harvested each year or
every second year. Harvesting operations can be
carried out using a mower-fodderloader combining machines with no rows cutter (KEMPER), generally used for maize harvesting.
Hemp (Cannabis sativa)
Hemp is an annual short day, C3 plant with a high
cellulose and lignin content in its stems and a high
fat and protein content in its seeds. The entire plant
consisting of bast fibres, leaves, seeds, and
processable remains can be used as a solid fuel
when compacted. The stalk contains a very strong
and durable fibre. The average height is 2.5 eters
but it can reach up to 4 meters height. For the energetic use the whole hemp crop is harvested. Direct
harvesting by a forage harvester was tested. Hemp
can be easily planted and cultivated but its growing
is prohibited in some EU countries as it can be
grown as a drug. The
plants vegetative period is
about 100 days, with the
main growth period in June
and July, followed by flowering in August. Hemp
yields can reach up to 18 t
DM/ha but the high plant
moisture content can create storage -problems. The
yields were tested in the
Netherlands and reached Hemp, source: Wikipedia
10-17 t odt/ha (oven dry tons
per hectare), with the highest yields on clay soils. In
Austria yields were lower and reached 6-14 odt/ha.
Hemp needs low inputs of pesticides and fertilisers.
Two different harvesting technologies are available
for the energy use of the whole hemp crop. The first
is the whole-fibre-technology where, with a modified chopping technology, the hemp culm is cut into
50 to 60 cm lengths. The straw stays for four weeks
on the field for drying before the bales are pressed.
Another technology is wet harvesting. This technology includes the chopping of the crops followed by
silaging. For combustion it is necessary to press the
hemp silage into bales to reduce the water content
of the fuel.

11

Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.)

Switchgrass is a lignocellulosic perennial rhizomatous grass that uses the C4 pathway. Switchgrass is
usually grown as a prairie grass in North America on
marginal lands not well suited for conventional row
crops. Since the early 1990s the crop has been
developed as a model
herbaceous energy crop
for ethanol and electricity production in the USA
and
in
Canada.
Switchgrass can grow
to more than 3 m height
and develop roots to a
depth of more than
3,5 m. A normal switchgrass stand has a life
span of ten years.
However, the grass is
not harvested in the
seeding (establishment)
year. The harvest activiSwitchgrass, source: switchgrass.nl
ties start in the second
year of the stand life if
there has not been any reseeding. Harvesting activities involve mowing, raking, baling, staging, and
loading. Harvest is done during the autumn period
and in large square bales with a weight of about 400
kg/bale. Yields of up to 18 tons dry matter/ha were
found in North West Europe and up to 25 tons dry
matter/ha in Southern Europe. Switchgrass biomass can be used for thermal conversion to electricity and heat and also has potential to be a fibre
source for paper pulp production.
Sudangras (Sorghum sudanense)
Sudangrass is a C4 plant which origins lay in the
tropics, where it is used very often as feed grass for
animals. But this plant can also be grown in southern and central regions of Europe, where the first
experimental fields were planted in the past years.
Sudangrass requires a high quality of soil and the
yields on bad soil decrease considerably. With good
management practices and fertilizer this can be
counterbalanced.
Sudangras has high
tolerance for water
shortage; therefore
it can be grown in
drier regions like in
southern Europe.
But the yields are
higher if sufficient
water can be provided during the
growing season.
Sudangrass is very
sensitive to frost,
therefore, the planting site and time
Sudangrass, source: Agnation.com

12

should be selected carefully. A seeding rate of 15

kg/ha should be planted at a depth of 2-3.5 cm in
18-36 cm rows. The seeding is usually done in the
beginning of May with a distance between the rows
of 30 cm and a planting depth of 3 cm. At the beginning the plants are growing quite slowly, but after a
few weeks the plant grows rapidly reaching a height
of up to 3 meters.
Sudangrass is harvested using traditional machinery like the one used for maize.
Sudangrass can yield in an annual harvest of up to
30 t dry matter. For the moment Sudangras is used
for bioenergy production mainly in biogas plants
with a similar biogas output like maize. But in the
future it can be also used for the production of second generation biofuels.
Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia)
Black locust is a fast growing short rotation coppice
which uses the C3 pathway and originates from
North America. In Europe, it is cultivated in countries such as Hungary, France, Romania, Czech
Republic and Bulgaria. The plant grows on a large
number of soils, but not on very dry or heavy soils.
Black Locust prefers sites with loose structural
soils, especially silty and sandy loams and is resistant to environmental stresses such as drought, high
and low temperatures, and
air pollutants. Soil aeration
and water regime are the
most important soil characteristics for good black
locust growth. Propagation
of the plant is possible
through
root
cuttings,
greenwood
cutting,
seedlings or micropropagation. Propagation using root
Robinia - Source: AEBIOM
cuttings and greenwood
cuttings provides a guaranteed quality, but is more expensive than seed propagation. The best period for planting is April. As for
harvesting, black locust is different to other fast
growing trees such as willow and poplar. Black
locust has thorns, which makesok it difficult to handle manually, and it is thus preferable to chip it in the
field. Black locust can sprout from the roots, so
after the third or fourth cut regrowth will also occurs
between the rows. In addition, black locust has
harder wood than other fast growing trees.
Therefore, the cutting apparatus must be more
durable and powerful than that used normally. The
dry mass yield can reach from 5 to 10 t/ha by three
or four year rotations of black locust stands from
10 000 trees/ha. However, the yield of this plant
depends largely on planting density, soil properties,
fertilization, climate etc.

7 EU legislation and national policies

European Union has adopted various energy and
agricultural policies and measures to increase the
use of renewables/energy crops, however, the further establishment of energy crops in the EU
requires stronger measures and incentives at EU
and national levels. Key EU renewable energy policies indirectly affecting the growth of dedicated
energy crops are summarized in the following table:

financial and legislative support to farmers willing to

plant energy crops. Present situation in the crop
market makes it more profitable for farmers to grow
traditional crops. The European aid of EUR 45 is not
sufficient to make it more competitive. Therefore,
most European countries have a very slow growth
of energy crops plantations with an exception of
those where the European aid is backed by the
national support. Nevertheless, growing oil prices
make the energy crops more cost competitive.

Directive/communication

Date of publication

Purpose

Directive 2001/77/EC on electricity production from renewable energy sources

Published on 27 September 2001

The aim is to increase the share of renewable electricity

from 14% to 22% by 2010

Directive on transport biofuels

2003/30/EC

Published on 8 May 2003

To achieve a share of 5.75 % of biofuels for transport in the

total amount of fuels in Europe by 2010

Biomass Action plan COM (2005) 628

final (BAP)

This Commission communication was

adopted 7 December 2005

Designed to increase the use of energy from forestry, agriculture and waste materials in three sectors: heating, electricity and transport.

Directive on cogeneration 2004/8/EC

(CHP)

Published on 11 February 2004

Directive has the aim to promote cogeneration based on a

needed heat demand in the internal energy market.

Renewables roadmap COM(2007) 1

Communication published on 10 January

2007 and approved on 8-9 March 2007 by
the European Spring Council

The aim is to increase the share of renewables in the current energy mix to 20% by 2020.

Renewables directive

Proposal to be published on 23 January

2008, and adoption is planned for 2009

The aim is to deliver concrete measures to achieve 20%

RES share by 2020: proposal of the national RES targets,
strengthening the heat sector.

There are a couple major barriers for the development of energy crops for bioenergy production
(technical, economic, local and those related to
farming issues and reforestation of set-aside land).
First, the establishment costs are quite high due to
the fact that the crop cuttings and rhizomes are
costly and specific machinery has to be used for
planting. Second, varying climate conditions and
soil introduces the distortion in productivity yield.
Harvesting, logistics can be rather expensive and,
therefore, planting energy crops might becomes
less cost efficient. Furthermore, farmers have difficulties to see long term stability for growing energy
crops within the existing political framework. An
important barrier is the commercialisation of dedicated energy crops. The farmer growing energy
crops commits himself to grow it for at least 10-15
years. It is rather a big risk because the farmer
doesnt know whether dedicated crops will be competitive in 3 years time as compared with traditional
annual crops. In order to ensure the competitiveness of these crops the contracts between farmers
and processing industry should ensure the similar
income to farmers as growing traditional crops.
These and many other obstacles can be overcome
with further efforts in research and development
area, legislation at EU level, and with additional

Common Agriculture Policy (CAP)

The CAP reform introduced an aid to encourage the
production of crops for energy use. The reform provides an encouragement for farmers to grow energy
crops, via the energy crops aid and through the setaside scheme (allowing growing of crops for many
non-food uses, one of which is energy production).
An aid of EUR 45 per hectare is available to farmers
who produce energy crops. It is applied on a maximum guaranteed area in the whole EU, of 2 million
hectares. Farmers qualify to receive the aid if their
production of energy crops is covered by a contract
between the farmer and the appropriate processing
industry. This aid is additional to the SPS (single
payment scheme) and SAPS (single area payment
scheme mostly applied in new member states) payments.
However, the European aid of EUR 45 was reduced
to EUR 31,5 in 2007 due to the fact that the maximum area of 2 million hectares for which aid can be
granted was exceeded. Furthermore, due to a poor
harvest in 2006 and consequent increase of cereals
price, the set-aside land was/is no more obligatory
for autumn 2007 and spring 2008 sowings.

13

National aid
Council Regulation (EC) No 1782/2003 authorises
the payments of national aid. Member states may
now pay state aid up to 50% for the establishment
of perennial energy crops on land for which a farmer
has applied for the basic energy crop aid.
Additional support is possible with the agreement of
the European Commission.
National policies
National policies are non sufficient and in many
countries non-existent for development of energy
crops in the EU-27. Nevertheless, countries such as
Sweden, the UK, Ireland have introduced appropriate policy measures to enable the planting of dedicated energy crops.
Example of national support schemes - Sweden
Sweden has a highest share of willow plantation in
the whole EU and relatively high share of reed
canary grass. This is due to high taxation of fossil
fuels and an appropriate national support for energy
crops.
Support allowances in Sweden depend on the type
of the farm land. The support allowances for setaside land dedicated for energy crops vary between
125 and 276/ha/year.
Support for plantation of energy forest
The farmer that is growing energy forest can apply
for an aid to plant short rotation forest (willows).
Such energy forest can be planted on all types of

Willow, source: AILE - Wilwater

tions reach the county administrative board. Since

there is a limited amount of money to be granted,
the last applicants (each year) might be left without
support if there were too many applicants beforehand.
The aid amounts SEK 5,000 ( 536) per hectare. If
the plantation is on non set-aside land, the maximum amount is SEK 480,000 (51,482) per farm or
agricultural company for a four year period.
Farm support for annual industrial crops and
energy crops on set-aside land (support
allowances)
Support allowances are not granted to cultivate raw
material for food or feed on set-aside land.
However, farm support is available for energy crops
on set-aside land.
All agricultural crops except hemp, sugar beet,
Jerusalem artichoke (sunroot) and chicory can
receive this support. There are several rules to guarantee that the crops are used for the right purpose:

Step planter, source: AEBIOM

farmland except natural pasture (protected open

landscape fields with natural flora and fauna).
If the energy forest is to be planted on a non setaside land, the special requirements are requested
from a farmer such as a specific education and
experience in cultivating energy forest. Farmers
must also provide the information on available
finances for such plantations.
The support is approved as soon as the applica-

14

Contract with a buyer;

Copy of the contract must be sent to the county
administrative board;
The buyer must submit a warrant of 250 per
hectare to the Agency of Agriculture;
After the harvest and delivery both the cultivator
and the buyer must each submit a delivery declaration to the county administrative board. The warrant is released after the approval of both declarations.
Farm support for multi-annual industrial crops
and energy crops on set-aside land (support
allowances)
The contract between producer and buyer is not
necessary to receive the support allowances for cultivation of perennial energy crops on set-aside land.
The only requirement is a declaration to the county
administrative board (a signed document) that the
purpose of grown energy crops is for industrial or

energy production use.

Special support for energy crop production

Therefore, farm support is granted for willow and

reed canary grass cultivation on set-aside land,
however, it is limited to available support
allowances for set-aside land. One can apply for the
special support for energy crop production from willows or reed canary grass if the grown plantation
exceeds the area covered by the support
allowances for set-aside land. However, in such
case, the farmer must have a contract with a buyer.

This support is granted to energy crops grown on

land that does not benefit from the support for setaside land. It is applicable for all agricultural crops
(except hemp and sugar beet) as long as they are
grown for energy production. This is usually ensured
by the contract between the farmer and the first
refiner of energy crops. Beside the contract, the first
refiner of the crop must submit a warrant of 60 per
hectare to the Agency of Agriculture. After the harvest, both the farmer and the refiner submit a confirmation delivery and the warrant is released following the approval by the Agency of Agriculture.

Support for energy crops in the United Kingdom

Bioenergy crops scheme - provides establishment grants for approved energy crops

Willow, poplar and miscanthus are amongst the eligible energy crops.
Funding available for the period of 2007-2013
Short rotation coppice 1,000 per hectare
Miscanthus 800 per hectare

The Bio-energy Infrastructure - scheme helps develop the supply chains required to harvest,
store, process and supply energy crops and woodfuel to energy end-users
A total of 3.5 M is being allocated UK-wide. Maximum of 200,000 per group or business.
A sliding scale for administrative set-up costs for producer groups of up to 100% in the first year,
80% in the second year and 60% in the third year
The same sliding scale for the rental costs of specialist machinery.
Up to 40% for specialist machinery and additional storage and hard-standing
Specific training costs - up to 35% for small and medium producer groups and businesses and up to
25% for large produces.

Bio-energy Capital Grants Scheme - supports the installation of biomass-fuelled heat and combined heat and power projects in the industrial, commercial and community sectors in England.

Support for energy crops in Ireland

Bioenergy scheme for Willows and Miscanthus
50% of the costs associated with establishing miscanthus and willow on set-aside land and on areas
which have been subject to an aid for the EU Premium of 45 per hectare.
farmers can receive up to 1,450 per hectare
8 M is being allocated over the period 2007 to 2009
Top-up to Energy Crops Premium
80 per hectare in 2007 to support the growing of energy crops
125 paid on top of 45 aid for a period of 3 years
the current maximum area payable per producer over the three-year period is 37.5 hectares.

15

About the project

RESTMAC project Creating Markets for Renewable Energy Technologies - EU RES technology marketing campaign aims at developing and implementing a concise, well-targeted and thematic approach to ensure the dissemination and uptake of selected RES
technologies in the market. In other words the consortium works towards establishing a technology marketing campaign for the
different RE technologies involved. So far R&D formed a good basis for the outstanding industry development in the Renewable
Energy area. Nevertheless, the market uptake of these R&D results is not always happening in the best possible way and therefore
needs to be improved. Lack of information and limited use of synergies between various stakeholders (industries, governments,
investors..) are still the key critical barriers towards Renewable Energy Technologies.
The renewable energy sectors to be marketed include: PV (photovoltaic), SHP (Small Hydro Power), Biomass, Geothermal, Solar
Thermal and Wind Power.

CONTACTS
Project partners located in
Renewable Energy House
Rue dArlon 63-65
1040 Brussels, Belgium
Coordinator
EREC European Renewable Energy Council
Ms Christine Lins
Tel: +32 2 546 19 33
Fax: +32 2 546 19 34
Email: lins@erec-renewables.org
AEBIOM European Biomass Association
Ms Edita Vagonyte
Tel: +32 2 400 10 22
Fax: +32 2 546 19 34
Email: vagonyte@aebiom.org
Web: www.aebiom.org

EGEC - European Wind Energy Association

Mr Philippe Dumas
Tel: +32 2 400 10 24
Fax: +32 2 546 19 34
Email: p.dumas@egec.org
ESTIF - European Solar Thermal Industry Federation
Uwe Brechlin
Tel: +32 2 546 19 37
Fax: +32 2 546 19 39
Email: uwe.brechlin@estif.org
Project partners outside REH

EWEA - European Wind Energy Association

Ms Zoe Wildiers
Tel: +32 2 546 19 88
Fax: +32 2 546 19 44
Email: zoe.wildiers@ewea.org

ADEME French Environment and Energy Management Agency

Mr Stphane Pouffary
Tel: +33 4 93 95 79 55
Fax: +33 4 93 65 31 96
Email: stephane.pouffary@ademe.fr

EPIA - European Photovoltaic Industry Association

Ms Eleni Despotou
Tel: +32 2 400 10 13
Fax: +32 2 400 10 10
Email: pol@epia.org

NTUA National Technical University of Athens

Mr Arthouros Zervos
Tel: + 30 210 772 1030
Fax: + 30 210 772 1047
Email: zervos@fluid.mech.ntua.gr

ESHA European Small Hydropower Association

Ms Gema San Bruno
Tel: + 32 2 546 19 45
Fax: + 32 2 546 19 34
Email: gema.sanbruno@esha.be

ECB - Energy Centre Bratislava

Mr Roman Doubrava
Tel: +421 903 240 559
Fax: +421 2 593 00097
Email: doubrava@ecb.sk

EUBIA European Biomass Industry Association

Mr Stephane Senechal
Tel: +32 2 400 10 18
Fax: +32 2 400 10 21
Email: stephane.senechal@eubia.org

GAIA - GAIA S.L. Consultores en gestion ambiental

Cipriano Marin
Tel: + 34 922 230 688
Fax: + 34 922 200 951
Email: cipriano.marin@islandsonline.org

RESTMAC project

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