ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my sincere gratitude and I am thankful to Mrs

Shashi Dhar, our chemistry teacher, under whose guidance I
was able to complete my project. I also thank our chemistry
department who obliged me with their supervision and kind
help all through the project

I would also like to thank the lab assistant Mr Om prakash

for helping me by providing all the required equipments

CERTIFICATE
This project was carried out in Kerndriya vidyalaya, Shalimar
Bagh and chemistry laboratory towards the partial fulfilment of AISSCE practical examination.

This authenticity of this project and related experiment remain undisputed to the best of my knowledge.

Ashwath of class XII A deserves full credit for his devotion

and sincere efforts to complete this project.

Mrs. Shashi Dhar

(Dept. of Chemistry)

CONTENTS
OBJECTIVE

SOLUTION

RAULTS LAW

IDEAL SOLUTION

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

EXPERIMENTS

OBSERVATIONS
RESULTS

OBJECTIVE

TO DETERMINE:

EFFECTS OF IMPURITIES
ON BOILING POINT

SOLUTIONS
Homogeneous mixture of two or more substance is called
as solution. The substance making up the solution are called
as components of solution. In a binary solution has two
components solute and solvent. Solute is in lesser amount
and solvent is in large amount as compared to solute.

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Solution may exist in gaseous, liquid or solid states. For binary, depending upon the physical state of the components,
the following pairs are possible:
a)

Gas gas

b)

Gas Solid

c)

Gas Liquid

d)

Solid Solid

e)

Solid Gas

f)

Solid Gas

g)

Liquid Gas

h)

Liquid Liquid

i)

Liquid - Solid

RAOULTS LAW
Let us consider a solution of two miscible liquid components A and B. if mole fraction of A and B are Xa and Xb respectively and their partial vapour pressure is Pa and Pb respectively then the vapour pressure of volatile compound
present in a solution is directly proportional to the mole
fraction of that compound at given temperature that is,
PA = P0a X A and PB = P0b X B
Where Pa and Pb represent the vapour pressure of pure
compounds A and B. the relationship between vapour pressure of components and its mole fraction is referred as Raouls law which states that For solution partial pressure of
each components is directly proportional to its mole fraction. This law will not applicable for mixture of volatile liquids as they dont form ideal solutions.

According to Raoults Law the total pressure exerted by

sum of Pa + Pb in solutions, the vapour pressures are intermediate between the values of Pa and Pb and they lie on the
straight line going Pa and Pb. Let us revert to a solution,
which is obtained by adding a non-volatile solute into
volatile solvent. In such case, there is no contribution of
solute and the vapour pressure of solution will only due to
the solvent. Thus the vapour pressure of solution will decrease.

It is now given by:

Since for binary mixture:

Poa Pa represents the lowering of vapour pressure of a solution and (Poa

Pa/P0a) is called relative lowering of vapour pressure for the solution. Thus an
alternative statement for Raoults for
non-volatile solution can be:

RELATIVE LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE FOR A SOULUTION IS EQUAL TO THE

MOLE FRACTION OF THE SOLUTE WHEN THE
SOLVENT ALONE IS VOLATILE

Plot of vapour pressure and mole fraction of an ideal solution at constant temp

IDEA OF MOLE FRACTION

Mole fraction is one of the common ways to express solution in conc mole fraction, X of a component is defined as
the ratio of number of that component of total number of

mole of all the substance present in the solution.

Where Xa = Mole fraction of A

And na, nb, nc are the number of moles of A, B, C. The

sum of the mole fraction of all the components present is
the solution must be equal to one.
For a solution containing 1 number of components

IDEAL SOLUTION
Ideal solution are those, which obey Raoults law at parallel
concentration and temp. It may be noted that in order that
a solution may behave ideally the solute must be at same
nature. As there is no change in interaction forces between
two components when they are mixed to form an ideal solution, head change of mixing. Moreover, in such case the
volume of the components before mixing, volume change
on mixing is also zero. Thus the condition for an ideal solution of formation are:
a)

Raoults law should be satisfied

b)

Both the components present in a solution must

similar structures and polarity

c)

Enthalpy of mixing should be zero

d)

Volume of mixing should be zero

Example:
a)

Benzene and toluene

b)

Ethyl bromide and Ethyl iodide

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
What are colligative properties?
There are some of the interesting properties of dilute solution with important applications. There are those properties,
which depends only on molar conc of solute and are independent of the nature of the solutes. There are in fact for
such properties, which have on common characteristics as
listed above. In other words these have been colligated with
respect to the no of particles of the solute or the molar con
of the solute in the solution.
The main colligative properties with ideal solutions are:
a)

Relative lowering in vapour pressure

b)

Elevation in boiling point temp

c)

Depression in freezing point temp

d)

Osmotic pressure

BRIEF SKETCH OF THE COLLIGATIVE

PROPRIETIES:
1. Relative lowering in vapour pressure:

We know that when a non-volatile solute is added in the

solution the vapour pressure of solution becomes less than
that of solvent. Actually the particles of the solute occupy
some surface of the container from which the evaporation
takes place. Therefore lesser surface area is available now to
the particles of the solvent so that they may change to the
vapour or evaporate. Thus the vapour pressure of the solution (Poa). According to Raoults law, the vapour pressure
of the solution (Ps or Pa) is the product of the vapour pressure of the pure solvent (Poa) and its mole fraction (Xa).
Thus

2) Elevation in boiling point temp

It is found that the boiling point of the solution is always
higher than that of the pure solvent. The increase in temp is
called as elevation in boiling point. The reason for the elevation in boiling point may be:
We know that the vapour pressure of the solution is lower
than that of the pure solvent and vapour pressure increases
with increase in temp. Hence the solution has to be heated
more to make the vapour pressure equal to the atmospheric
pressure.
The boiling point may be defined as the temp. At which the
vapour pressure of liquid becomes equal to the atmospheric
pressure.

In presence of a non-volatile solute the solution has to be

heated to a slightly higher temp. so that the vapour pressure
of the solution is equal to the atmospheric solution and solution begins to boil. The difference in the boiling point
represented as which is the elevation in boiling point and it
is directly proportional to the solute conc

If Wa is the mass of the solvent in kg, then ne/wa is called

ebullioscopic constant defined as elevation in boiling point
caused by one mole of non-volatile solute dissolved per kg
of the solvent and is independent of the nature of the solute and conc of the solution.

3. DEPRESSION IN FREEZING POINT

Freezing point of a substance is defined as the temperature
at which the vapour pressure of the solid form is in equilibrium with liquid form of the substance. In other words, solid and liquid form of the substance have same vapour pressure.

The curves AB, BC and AB are the vapour pressure of the

solid solvent (ice) liquid water and solution containing
non-volatile solute respectively. As they are independent of
the nature of solutes they are colligative property.

For

dilute

We/me

<

solution

Wa/ma and

hence We may be neglected.

Therefore

If Wa is the mass of the solvent in kg then ne/wa is the molarity of the solution

Here R is gas constant, M1 is molar mass of solvent Tf is the

freezing point,

fusH

is the enthalpy of fusion Kf is freezing

point depression constant

4) OSMOSIS
Osmosis may be defined as the spontaneous movement of
the solvent molecules either from pure solvent in the solution or from dilute solution into concrete solution through
semi permeable membrane
It has been found experimentally that osmotic pressure is
proportional to the molarity of the given solution at given
temperature.

EXPERIMENT 1
AIM:
To determine the boiling point of the water

APPARATUS:
Beaker, ignition tube or small sized boiling tube, capillary
tube, stirrer, thermometer, tripod stand, wire gauze, iron
stand and clamp.

PROCEDURE:
1)

Take a clean and dry ignition tube and put about 1

ml of given liquid into it

2)

Tie the ignition tube with the bulb of thermometer

with a rubber band

3)

Suspend the thermometer vertically in beaker half

filled with water or mineral oil with the help of
clamp

4)

Place a capillary tube about 6 cm long sealed at one

end in ignition tube

5)

Heat the beaker slowly with occasional stirring of

the oil with the stirrer

6)

Note down the temperature at which brisk bubbling

starts at the lower end of capillary. This is the boiling
point of the given liquid

OBSERVATIONS:
Atmospheric pressure = 76 cmHg
Boiling point of water at atmospheric pressure is 101*c

RESULT:
Boiling point of water at 76 cmHg is 101*c

PRECAUTIONS:
1)

Thermometer should be held vertically

2)

Tie the ignition tube firmly with the thermometer

and preferably keep the rubber band above the level
of oil

3)

Stir the oil occasionally and carefully in order to

make uniform temperature

4)

One end of the capillary should dip in the liquid of

ignition tube

5)

Note only that temperature at which brisk bubbling

starts through capillary

6)

Use water as heating medium for liquids having

boiling less than 100*c

EXPERIMENT 2
AIM:
To determine the effect of impurities on the boiling point

APPARATUS:
Boiling tube filled with cork having 2 holes, sugar, thermometer, stand bath, burner, iron stand and beakers.

PROCEDURE:
1)

The five clean and dry beakers and label them 1, 2, 3,

4 and 5.

2)

Fit each with a cork with two holes, one for thermometer and other for a delivery tube

3)

Take 100 ml distilled water in each beaker

4)

Add 5 gram, 10 gram, 15 gram and 20 gram sugar in

beaker 2, 3, 4 and 5.

5)

Shake till sugar is dissolved

6)

Fix the tube no 1 with thermometer, keep its bulb

above the level of water

7)

Fix a delivery tube in the other hole and fit it in iron

stand and start heating on stand bath.

8)

Go on heating and watch the temperature rising

gradually

9)

Note the temperature when it remain constant and

water start boiling this is the boiling point of pure
water.

10) Repeat the experiment and similarly take the reading

for beaker no. 2, 3, 4 and 5.

OBSERVATION

Impurity

Weight
of impurity
gm

A
B
Sugar
Common
salt
Ammonium chloride
Sodium
carbonate
Cupric
sulphate

Boiling
point
without
impurity (*c)
X

Boiling
point
with
impurity ( *c)
Y

Elevation in
boiling
point
(*c)
Z=Y-X

RESULT

Boiling point of water increases due to the presence of any

dissolved impurity. Elevation in boiling point increase as the
quantity of the dissolved impurity.