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Haberleşme - Kenneth K.clarke Communication Circuit Analysis and Design Ders Notu
Haberleşme - Kenneth K.clarke Communication Circuit Analysis and Design Ders Notu
al) 2M een
for all
tis also apparent that F; must be sufficiently large when v, = + ¥; to keep all
the diodes forward-biased 50 that the bridge presents a low impedanee to grounds
thats »@)should bee smal voltage with 9, = Y;. Todetermine te required magni
tude of F ia this case, we define the current leaving the , source as Jp and the current
leaving the a) source as it) Since, in general, the four bridge diodes exe integrated
‘on a single chip with ieatical geometries, the bridge is balanced and i(0) ane 15
split equally between the two bridge arms; thus
hth. 0. (42)
PRACTICAL CHOPPHR MODULATORS 377
ie
=n L
Fig. 84-1 Chopper movlator employing diode bide
If we assume that each diode is characterized by the voltampere nationship
y= 1era® = 1) yee, ee)
then
AT, dat lO _ yal
vor on) =n ae
orci
a \F= h/t]
By expanding 0) in a MacLaren sere in yf, we obtain
“40 afi egies get | 4-5)
heer = (7/1) the smalsignal diode resistance with [2 ea bison
tis apparent that. if we wish to keep noalnear components of i {which is propor
tional {0 the modviation gi] out of the ouipu to avoid envelope distortion ino),
then R/SHE « I. With this restriction ogi) = r(t) and the forward-bissed diode378 AMPLITUDE MODULATION 84
bridge may be modeled as a single resistor of value 7, shunting 2; hence the diode
bridge takes the form of an ideal voltage-controlled switch in series with a resistance
p= O
WO" Rr
> Se a, a6
forall, The inequalities of Bas. (84-1) and (8-4-6) may be satisfied simultaneously
by choosing /; > g() ~ 2% and choosing R, of the order of ypR,.. For example,
if lala = 10, then the bridge remains open with oy = Fy for ¥j > 85V
(y= 2) Mi we select V; = 9Y, then if
Rtn. Ry
eae
the bridge appears asa resistor r, with 0, = Vi,
‘A complete diode-bridge modulator which incorporates the floating source
‘,(0 as well as the output filter is shown in Fig. 84-2. In tis circuit the transformer
Fle. 842 Practical balanosd modulator.
84 PRACTICAL eHOPFER MODULAYONS 379
is a closely coupled transformer operating in its midband range, and therefore
functions as an deal transforms. In addition, (1+ fiReis larg in eompacvon with
2, so thatthe transistor does not load the bride. Consequently, ithe ou put-uned
Giruitis broad ex>ugh to pass the modulation and ye now enough te semove the
lowirequeney ara 3 ghes-harmonic components of oj then trom Ea (6219)
qt emsyt + Ve eo)
et) =
Equation (84-7) assumes, of course, that Eqs. (84-1) andl (84-6) have ben satisfied
and hat the transistor remains in is ative region,
‘The control voltage vy(f) may be supplied by a sulfiiently lange sine wave of
radian frequency wp instead of a square wave. I as shown in Fig. 3, Mi large
in comparison with Y, and ¥, (Eqs. 84-1 and 84-6), then the sine wave functions in
essentially the same fashion as the square wave in controlling the states ofthe bridge
0)
ae
ke raul
12M
Switch
&
Fig. 84-3 Sinusoidal contol voltage.
(One main advantage ofa sine-wave drive is that the transformer coupling #0)
to the diode bridge need not be nearly us broadband. On the other hand, the larger
value of H, with a sine-wave drive requires a much higher breakdown voltage for the
bridge diodes
Whether oy(f isa sine wave or @ square wave, in practical diode brid
uration transient “spikes” appear on v,() in the vicinity of the bridge i
{com open to closed because of parasitic capacitance and diode charge storage. These
spikes are, in general, of litle consequence, since they contain sulfiiitly high
frequency components so that they are not transmitted to the output through the
bandpass filter H(i).
FET Modulator
A junction or an ins.ited-gate FET may be employed insted of the dime bridge
as the voltage-controtied switch ina chopper modulator. Figure &4 4 illustrates a380 aMpurrupe MopuLaTiON 84
an)
ILIEE + ‘
apa R
x
Fig, 84-4 N-channel jnetion FET chopper modlator.
typical Nechannel junction FET shopper modulator. to this cei, wih 90) =
MV; (gb the prof oligo he FET the FET opeay porting 0)
toleliow On the other hand, with 9() = 0, then the FET ston as an oie
conductance fan oF vale
esl ses) 2, eos)
VAN" Volace=0 — Yr
provided that ltng) = oJ < 100 mV. Consequently the FET may be modeled as an
deal voltage-controlled switch in sores with a resistance rpes = Vgpss- For typical
junction and insulated-pate FETS, rags Varies froxs several ohms to several thousand.
ohms
With 46)
2
thus to ensure that jog) remains less than 100 mV for all ¢ we require Ry to be
sufficiently large so that
n> ro Slee — 1. ee)
For example, if Iga =-5V and rogs = SODQ, then Ry >24.5k2 To avoid
Toading by the output transistor when the FET is reverse bitsed, the resistor Ry
84 PRACTICAL CHOPPER MODULATIRS 381
should not be chosen too much greater than this value. If, on the other hund, Ry
is chosen to be less than 24.50, then 2) exceeds 100 mV, rags becomes nonlinear,
and », is no longer a linear Fction of g(); consequently nonlincar envelope diss
tortion begins to uppear on the ousput AM wave.
UU Ry sufficiently large so that transistor loading ean be neglected, then o,)
siven by (ef Eq. 84-7)
2a) Re
oa = cos nyt) + Keo (84-10)
However if Reis not sufficiently large, then the loading must be incorporated with
the g(-R, network as shown in Fig. 84-5 by forming a Thévenin equivalent nel-
work. Clearly gt) is decreased by a facior of n because of tne loading; however, in
addition, « de bias V"is added in series with g(). If g() = 0, us itis for suppressed
farrier medulation, then the presence of V produces an average component in the
‘modulation voltage being chopped and thus a nonzero carrier at the output. To
eliminate this undesired caerier component, either Ry must be increasod relative to
FR, oF an isolation stage such as a source follower must be inserted between the
chopper stage and the output transistor.
A, ie Valk
Timer Ry TTR, RI RHC
Fig. 84-5 Bec of wamsisorlouding
In adition to iv diode bridge or the PET chopper, a bipolar transistor being
switched between saturation and cutoff may be employed as the voltage-controlled
switch, Honever, when saturated, the transistor may be modeled as resistor in
series with a de voltage source of approximately 100 mv (fr silicon} This voltage
source his the effect of iniroducing a carrier component at the modulator output,
‘which i quite undesirable if suppressed carrier AM is being generated. Thissaturation
voltage may be largely balanced out by placing two transistors in series (emilter to
‘emitter and placing the switching voltage between their buses.382 awpuTupe wovuLATION Ba
Balanced Chopper Modulator
Figure &4-6 indicates how two diode bridges ean be employed to alternately apply
“+a() and —a(0) across R, and thus produce the effect of a reversing switch. Note
thatthe bridges are arranged so that one bridge is open when the other is closed. It
is apparent that the closed bridge is unaffected by the open bridge and thus Bq
(G46) sill determines the value of V, required to ensure that the bridge remains
“4
Fig. 8446 Reversing evitch fr balanced chopper modulator
cose for all On the other hand, the closed bridge does affect the open bridge in
that it increases the voltage across the open bridge 10
fk
soli gta)
sence with he arguments employed to obtain Eg (64-1) we require
vir a(t gt] - 2% een
{oral to ensure that all the diodes in the open bridge remain reverse biased.
"Figure 84-7 illustrates a practical chopper modulator in which both g(t) and
v(t) ate supplied from grounded sources. The transformer 7, isa closely coupled.
‘centertapped audio transformer with a midband frequency rang> sufficient to pass
the frequency components of gi (ee Section 22), while the transformer Ty uses &
8a PRACTICAL CHOPPER NODULATIKS 383
he
ig, 84-7. Practical balanced chopper modultor
closely coupled transformer with a midband capable of passing the main frequency
components of (1). 1°), is large-amplitude sine wave, then the restrictions on
‘Tare nominal. [Although unity turns ratios are indicated forthe two transformers,
other tums ratios merely introduce a scale-factor change in g(t) and ey(] If we
assume that R, i not loaded by the transistor and that Eqs. (84-6) and [S-11) are
satisfied, then 1(¢) may be expressed as
oR,
fos wary
where SQ) is given by Eq, (82-19) And if we assume that the transistor does not
saturate, we may write
ma
ie ov )Re384 aMPUTUDE MopULATION 8s
‘and io torn
12f0) Yoo [#2 7
where 214,() is the low-pass equivslont impulse response ofthe output parallel RLC
Circuit Ifthe ovtput filter pases g) undistorted while removing the 3 component
of jt, then 0) reduces to the desired form
dak, _ Ry
2A = Vee — lt) 008 06 aria
aR, B+
85 SQUARELAW MODULATOR
“The square-law device, although quite attractive asa mixer finds very little application
as an amplitude modulator. The basie reason for this is that most pnysical devices
have half squarelaw characteristics rather than fullsquare-law characteristics. AS
‘we saw in Section 82, unless a fullsquare-law characteristic exists, not only is sup-
Dressed carrier modulation impossible but also normal AM with 100% modulation
fs impossible Consequently, unless a “quick and dirty” low-index modulator will
satiny the requirements of the situation, the other modulators discussed in this
chapter are usually employed. Therefore, we shall look only briefly at one suuare-
Jaw modulator constructed witha junction FET operating within its saturation region,
‘A typical square-law FET modultor is shown in Fig. 85-1. 1f for this circuit
wwe assume that the FET operates within its saturation (square-aw) region and that
IR, is much less than the output impedance of the FET, then we may approximate
the drain current as
nt) we
where Vp is the pinch-off voltage and Ips is the drain current with vge = 0 and
tas = ~'¥p. For the bss arrangement shown in Fig, 85-1, ip reduces to
[tacos + ALT + mst?
mid Y
esa)
Since the component of iy) centered about ais
DUngstid,
ve
then with the assumption tha the output filter removes the low-frequency and second
hharmonie components of i, 240) is given by
{1 + mf cos et,
Masti 5 mfil}e t1xgt)008 oot 653)
Bs SQUARE-LAW MODULATOR — 385
he
vee at en
rH sobe
on vie
Fig. 85-1 FET squaretaw modulator.
1f, in addition, the output iter is Nat over the band of frequencies occupisd by the
[AM signal, o,(@ simplifies to the desired form
2
elt) = Von - —* e
ARS mf} e080 ws)
‘To realize n(n the form of Eq (83-4) we mus restrict ve) > —|¥ for alltime
to ensure that operation remains within the saturation region. This may be accom
plished for any FET parameters by choosing a suficent small vilue of
In addition,
Py) + 930 2 0
{or all time to keep the FET from being cut off and
ul) + Bat) SV + Vo = Vir
for alltime to keep the gate-to-source diode from turning on. ‘These two restrictions386 awpLsruDe MoDULATION as
imply that A, ¥, and mi must satisfy the following. inequalities:
AG =m) ~ Ve 20,
A+ mK SV 5)
we desire the largest possible output with the smallest value 9 Ry (fo ensure
Ry sr.) then we satisly Eq. (8.5-5) with an equality to obtain
Ys Vay m
=z and ha sno wh
“The output voltage given hy a (@S- then rodues to
Joss R|IVol + Val? -
=o missle apoponon — 858
a er rasan fe Whew thn saree
ceeding, and ayn 25 othe:
tanith mina teancy component ff). Let ocho ene
ra a etetas sees Ban reso hoe wl be y= 2640,
1
ee 565pF
C= Be RANT x TOF adres ~ °°?
and in turn L = 1faC = 18 gH. Finally, A = 235, ¥, = L175 and
4.96 VIL + f(A} 208 co. (es)
“The square-law modulator with the above parimeter values is shown in Fiz.
5-2, ‘The gate bias circuitry is obiained by first noting from Fig, 5-1 that
ge = Ve + ALL + 5/0) + ¥; 08107
(£165 V) + (L175 V9/0 + (L175 Vpcos 10" (85-8)
and then applying the — 1.65 Vto the gate by bleeding down the ~}2V supply and
Coupling the ae sources to the gate through 2 capacitor.
86 TUNED-CIRCUIT MODULATORS 387
Ry
S66 nF
ous
Fig, 85.2 FET modulator
86 TUNED-CIRCUIT MODULATORS
[As we shall en Chapter 9, generally ifcu o prove linear, high-power
outpat amples for AM sgl; therfore one wuts to sesomplih ths
modulation a as ih power kevel as posible. In vctum be nmr such
tmedulationw snos inevitably performed in the hist sage Toth exten hat he
transistor havens a curentsoirce, the tne vacnume-tjpe odlatorannot
‘imply bearanitoroed™ As we shal sein Section 99, pos sonst
cficent rinsor power apie iene both drives thm with a modulo gal
tnd simultaneously moduli the collster supply: Is the purport hs aon
to prosnt am Weald version of ite that canbe used to perform the nial
troton ofthe carer sia ha this premade here used
ea powerpig ng, Av at ign eh mech
tnd the powerapliving sages lok ident but they do nica operate in sme
what different fashions. nf eee
"he bic modulating cet beng considered is shown in Fig. 6-1. The
onertton thsi requires thecolestor bs junction ofthe rans come
‘strated (orto rm oa) tthe peak of every diving caer ele The curem pulse
that fowsas esa of ts saturation has two eects, The ditt efit nthe pa
Ciel sv cae the output unedeco volgeampltade foo he aatons388 AMPLITUDE MODULATION 86
ee
cosa
ig. 86-1 Satarating collector AM modslator
inf, The indict or eeected ft nrease the lang in he bse cel
ae apcncig the nut criving vole ao to llow he vans in
a a re orton Om elem a Ue We ase ft
an oar vllage suppl by avoage source That we neg
a cane pa ving sia loin oder 10 Be al 10 WaAE
aa rue, we make the fhe assumption tat te volge dive
eo a jaa ht the rani color current mty Be assumed
{otto asain of impules of eng
Mo pe dnabtor tr nodled as current source in parallel with an Meal diode
nd a amor siting the crn sure no wo pat [and chen
i a pra! wth he Voe> Yl vogegneratr] nd retain
L
€
ot [ m4
es i .
Qe i fees an fe r a Oe
ili He
o
Fig. 6-2 Two equivalent forms forth model of the cet of Fig 6-1
86 ‘TuNED-eIRCUrT MODULATORS — 389)
the eireui, one can reduce the circuit from the form of Fig 6-2) co the form of
Fig, 86-2(0) Im is defined as
Tem Ve
and gis defined as
a a+ mg.
then this ciruit reduces to the form shown previously in Fig, 82-6.
“Thc initial beildup of the wned-cireuit voltage in such a circuit is shown in Fig,
86-3. This buildup continues unl the step on the tip of one ofthe carrier cycles
exceeds g(t) and the tuned-cirevit voltage is eaught at this value. Thereafter, solo
fs gl?) does no! vary too rapidly, the diode will conduct on every peal und the circuit,
will “ring” between the peaks a its natural frequency,
= Wee ~ Ye
Suenstnof@
3
a ar =
8 fia, Ptah
Fig. 26.3 Tanti bin ofthe an volgen a uncut radar
IF the tuned-citeuit Qy is high enough (say more than 30) so cst the energy
decay between resetings can be considered linear, then for any constant vale of g()
the size of the step at each peak will be approximately gl)x/Q;. ‘Therefore, the
higher the value of Q, the smaller the distortion at each cycle peak. In a practical
cireuit we da not drive with impulses; hence the output voltage does no have steps.
For example, with current pulses that are 90° wide the voltage transient in the uned-
circuit voltage will be nearly imperceptible, even though the fundamental current
into the tuned cireuit i essentially the same inthe ease of impulse, and in the ease of
Wider current pulses.
Failure-te Fallow Distortion
If g() increases too rapidly in cycle, then the maximum step in the tuned-cireit
voltage, AV = iC, willbe insufficient to cause the diode 10 conduct and the tuned-
circuit voltage will not track the modutating signal390 AMPLITUDE MoDULATION 86
Ian be shown forthe impulse drive case that the necessary condition to prevent
upward-going falure-to-ollow distortion is the satisfaction of the condition
ita] alte) $41 en)
‘whore «isthe real part ofthe tuned-cireuit pole, f 18 the time at any eyele peak, and
1, = 2g/Tis the fundamental component of the collector impulse train. A simple
proof of Eq, (86-1) requires only (I) the assumption of «high enough valve for Or
{hat the envelope decay during a cycle is linear and (2) the assumption of a slow rate
‘of change fora). Further investigation indicates that the results valié for al values
of Or and of Eltok.
Tntuitively tis obvious that the spat drive must always be such that 1 Ra
the peak value of g(), otherwise, falure-to-follow distortion will certainly
Equation (86-1) establishes a farther relationship among the drive signa, the circ,
fand the rate of change of the modulation.
Phase Distortion
1 gl) decreases more rapidly than the natural envelope decay’ of the tuned-circuit
vollage between current pulses then the period between diode conductions will fall
below T= 2n/g and phase modulation of the cicrier component of the tuned-
circuit voltage will result. To prevent such distortion,
alto + TYE ae 62
isa necessary and sufficient condition.
When Q, ishigh and the rateof change of gt) islow, this equation may be approxi
mated by
(BUaVe) + afta) = 0- 5-3)
[As in the case of failureto-ollow distortion, « more involved analysis shows that
Eo, (86-3) is infact valid without restrictions on either £0) or Oy.
‘To prevent either type of distortion from occurring, the two previous restrictions
may be combined to yield
LPC = Blt + eat) 2 Boa
where excessive positive values for &() lead to the violation ofthe left-hand inequality
Unnd excessive negative values of (¢) lea (othe violation of the right-hand insquaity.
‘Simisoidal Modulation
For the specific case of sinusoidal modulation where
A) = Wee ~ Very} $ M608 On
‘one may evaluate Eg (8.6-4 in orderto show the restrictions necessary on m to avoid
sither type of distortion, For downward-going modulation the restriction is
1
Sei
ees)
86 “runep-ciecurr wopuiaroes 391
for upward-poing modulation the restriction is
my 3g WaRuWec — Vez) —
86-6)
Ji nla?
Henoe if 1,R,, is greater than (Ve ~ Vey), then the downward-going restriction
governs in all cases. For 100% modulation this restriction on the minimum size for
1 is imposed at any rate: hence no wdditional hardship is ulded by the rate of vazi=
ation ofthe modulation
‘One way to ensure that m always satisfies the necestary restrictions isto place
‘the modulating signal through a low-pass filter with a ~3dB bandwidth lower than
‘eand to obtain gl) atthe filter output, Specifically, if the filter transfer fanetion Is
Uo, ten
Lien aon
ee ee
Since the resultant vale of rom Ea. (86-7 5/0) the. if i faction
is lvays equal to ores than 1/1 (ag 6-5) wil slays be sai.
Figure Bors asrates ti situa
mor
i Ta
we)
ano >
irae NP
0;
ee
Fig. 86-4 Prefitering of the modulation co
tare o distortion ithe modulated output
URL= ee Vel
For practic cireit the phaso-distortion restriction should be reduced, since
witha spread-out current pulse an ealice conduction time forthe diode conduction
Should lead to less abrupt phase shift inthe outpat. Certainly, iF (86 5) satis
fed, then distortion should be avoided
"To summariee: We have seen that, if the collector-base diode ofa transistor
conduets on crery eel, then the circuit of Fig 861 performs as an AM nodular
‘As was pointed out in& previous section, it is possible to obtain 100", modulation
from such a cireuit without the strain of driving the tune circuit hetween Zero and
Wee ~ Ve.) one merely modulates tou peak value of say, 70%, snd then sub-
teacis a eartize component sufcient to bring the valleys down to zero392, awpLsTuDe MODULATION 86 eats
‘Once again we shell point out that, though the modulator of this section Tooks Ne
tke the modulated power amplifier of Section 9.9 tv. operation of the two devices i
fot identical The modulated power amplifer ean operate perfectly sutuctorly
tren if the eollestor base diode never goes into conduction, whereas the whole basis [
Stoperation for the modulator ofthis section isthe conduction ofthis diode.
(soy) he va
PROBLEMS ns (Joou tor =
our
Akt Find the amplitude and frequency of the spectral components of) xtheos yf for
cach ofthe following cast:
a) i) = (Seas a te ay
s
b) Al) = BV) + BV)COS yi.