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ELECROMAGNETIC THEORY FORMULA SHEET
CONTENTS
PART-A (CORE)
1. Electrostatics..... (5-17)
1.1 Coulombs Law and Superposition Principle.................................................. (5)
1.1.1 Electric field
1.2 Gausss law ..................................................................................................... (6)
1.2.1 Field lines and Electric flux
1.2.2 Applications
1.3 Electric Potential............................................................................................. (7)
1.3.1 Curl of Electric field
1.3.2 Potential of localized charges
1.4 Laplaces and Poisson equations.................................................................... (8)
1.5 Electrostatic boundary condition.................................................................... (8)
1.6 Work and Energy in electrostatics.................................................................. (9)
1.6.1 The energy of point charge distribution
1.6.2 Energy of continuous charge distribution
1.7 Basic properties Conductors ........................................................................ (10)
1.8 Multiple Expansions..................................................................................... (11)
1.8.1 The Electric Potential and Field of a Dipole
1.8.2 Approximate potential at large distances
1.9 Polarization................................................................................................. (13)
1.9.1 The Field of a polarized Object (Bound Charges)
1.10 The Electric Displacement............................................................................. (13-14)
1.10.1 Gauss Law in the Presence of Dielectrics
1.10.2 Linear Dielectrics (Susceptibility, Permittivity, Dielectric Constant)
1.10.3 Boundary Condition
1.10.4 Energy in dielectric system
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1.12 Image problems.................................................................................... (15-17)
1.12.1 The Classic Image problem
1.12.2 Induced Surface Charge
1.12.3 Force and Energy
1.12.4 Other Image Problem
2. Magnetostatic.......................................................................................... (18-24)
2.1 Magnetic force on current element............................................................. (18)
2.1.1 Current in a wire
2.1.2 Surface current density
2.1.3 Volume current density
2.2 Continuity equation................................................................................... (19)
2.3 Biot-Savart law.......................................................................................... (19)
2.3.1 Magnetic field due to wire
2.3.2 Magnetic field due to Solenoid and Toroid
2.4 Ampere's Law........................................................................................... (20)
2.5 Magnetic Vector Potential........................................................................ (20)
2.6 Magnetostatic boundary condition........................................................... (21)
2.7 Multiple Expansion of Vector Potential................................................... (22)
2.8 Magnetisation........................................................................................... (23)
2.8.1 The Field of a magnetized Object (Bound Currents)
2.9 The Auxiliary field H.......................................................................... (23-24)
2.9.1 Amperes Law in in presence of magnetic materials
2.9.2 Magnetic Susceptibility and Permeability
2.9.3 Boundary Condition
3. Dynamics of charged particles in static and uniform electromagnetic fields
3.1 Charged particle in static electric field... (25-26)
3.1.1 Charged particle enters in the direction of field (Linear motion)
3.1.2 Charged particle enters in the direction perpendicular to field
(Parabolic motion)
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3.2 Charged particle in static magnetic field.......................................................... (27)
3.2.1 Charged particle enters in the direction perpendicular to field
(Circular motion)
3.2.2 Charged particle enters in the direction making an angle with the field
(Helical motion)
3.3 Charged particle in uniform electric and magnetic field (Cycloid motion).... (28)
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6.3 Electromagnetic waves in vacuum.................................... (35)
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1. Electrostatics
The electric field at any point due to stationary source charges is called as electrostatic
field.
1.1 Coulombs Law and Superposition Principle
The electric force on a test charge Q due to a single point charge q, which is at rest and a
distance R apart is given by Coulombs law
1 Qq
F
.
4 0 R 2 R
12
C2
N .m 2
q2Q
1 q1Q
F F1 F2 ............
2 R1 2 R2 ........ ,
4 0 R1
R2
F QE
where E P
1
4 0
qi
R
i 1
2
i
Ri
E is called the electric field of the source charges. Physically E P is the force per unit
charge that would be exerted on a test charge placed at P.
If charge is distributed continuously over some region, then
E r
1
4 0
1
Rdq .
2
R
line
E r
1
4 0
( r )
Rdl where is charge per unit length.
R2
line
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For surface charge dq da
E r
1
4 0
( r )
Rda where is charge per unit area.
2
R
surface
E r
1
4 0
( r )
Rd where is charge per unit volume.
2
R
volume
1 q
4 0 r 2
where the field line are close together, and weak farther
out, where they are relatively far apart.
The field strength (E) is proportional to the number of
field lines per unit area (area perpendicular to the lines).
E .d a
Qenc
where Qenc is the total charge enclosed within the surface. This is Gausss law in integral
form.
.E
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1.2.2 Applications of Gausss Law
Gauss's law is always true, but it is not always useful. Gauss's law is useful for only three
kinds of symmetry:
1. Spherical symmetry. Make your Gaussian surface a concentric sphere.
2. Cylindrical symmetry. Make your Gaussian surface a coaxial cylinder.
3. Plane symmetry. Make your Gaussian surface a pillbox, which extends equally
above and below the surface.
Gaussian
surface
r
Gaussian pillbox
Gaussian surface
E .d l 0
where is some standard reference point. V then depends only on the point r. It is called
the electric potential.
Evidently, the potential difference between two points a and b is
b
V b V a E .d l
E V
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1.3.2 Potential of localized charges
Potential of a point charge q is V
1 q
where R is the distance from the charge.
4 0 R
n
1
4 0
1
4 0
The
charges
potential
and V ( r )
of
line
and
surface
i 1
qi
(r )
d
R
are
V (r )
1
(r )
dl
4 0
R
1
( r )
da .
4 0
R
Since E V and .E
2V .
0
0
This is known as Poisson's equation.
In regions where there is no charge, so that 0 , Poisson's equation reduces to Laplace's
equation, 2V 0 .
1.5 Electrostatic boundary condition
The boundary between two medium is a thin sheet of surface charge .
above below
||
||
and Eabove
Ebelow
E above E below n
0
0
where
Vabove Vbelow
n
n
0
V
V n denotes the normal derivative of V (that is the rate of change in the
n
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1.6 Work and Energy in electrostatics
The work done in moving a test charge Q in an external field E , from point a to b is
b
W F dl Q E dl Q V b V a
b
q1
q2
If a and b r
W Q V r V QV r since V 0
qi
In this sense potential is potential energy (the work it takes to create the system) per unit
charge (just as the field is the force per unit charge).
is
the
potential
due
to q1
R13
so,
q
1
W2
q2 1 .
4 0 R12
Similarly
W3
when
third
charge q3
is
placed
r1
q1
r3
R23
R12
r
2
q2
q
q
1
q3 1 2 .
4 0 R13 R23
In general, W
1
4 0
i 1 j 1
j i
qi q j
Rij
1
8 0
i 1 j 1
j i
qi q j
Rij
1 q1q2 q1q3 q2 q3
.
4 0 R12
R13
R23
1 n
qiV ri ,
2 i 1
where V(ri) is the potential at point ri (the position of qi) due to all other charges.
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1.6.2 Energy of continuous charge distribution
For a volume charge density W
1
Vd and
2
0
2
E 2 d
all space
(i) Energy of a uniformly charged spherical shell of total charge q and radius R is
W
q2
.
80 R
(ii) Energy stored in a uniformly charged solid sphere of radius R and charge q is
W
1 3q 2
.
40 5R
1. E 0 inside a conductor.
2. 0 inside a conductor.
3. Any net charge resides on the surface.
4. A conductor is an equipotential.
5. E is perpendicular to the surface, just outside a conductor.
Because the field inside a conductor is zero, boundary
condition
Vabove Vbelow
V
yields 0
n
n
n
0
determine E or V .
1 2
Force per unit area on the conductor is f
n .
2 0
This amounts to an outwards electrostatic pressure on the surface, tending to draw the
conductor into the field, regardless the sign of . Expressing the pressure in terms of the
field just outside the surface,
0 2
E .
2
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1.8 Multiple Expansions
1.8.1 The Electric Potential and Field of a Dipole
r. p
p cos
Vdip r ,
.
2
4 o r
4 o r 2
E dip r ,
3
p
r
r
4 0 r 3
Note:
(a) When a dipole is placed in a uniform electric field ( E ), net force on the dipole is zero
where p qd .
and it experiences a torque p E
(b) In non-uniform field, dipoles have net force F p E and torque p E .
1
p1 p 2 3 p1 r p 2 r .
4 0 r 3
d '
r '
V r
P
r
1 1
1
1
r ' d ' 2 r ' cos ' r ' d ' 2
4 0 r
r
r
' 2
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1
3
2 '
'
'
2 cos 2 r d ...
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1
The first term (n = 0) is the monopole contribution (it goes like ). The second term
r
1
). The third term is quadrupole; the fourth
r2
Vmon r
1 Q
.
4 0 r
1 1
1 1
1 r. p
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
Vdip r
r cos r d
r. r r d
,
4 0 r 2
4 0 r 2
4 0 r 2
'
'
'
where dipole moment p r r d .
The dipole moment is determined by the geometry (size, shape and density) of the charge
distribute. The dipole moment of a collection of point charge is
n '
p qi ri .
i 1
Note: Ordinarily, the dipole moment does change when we shift the origin, but there is
an important exception: If the total charge is zero, then the dipole moment is independent
of the choice of origin.
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1.9 Polarization
1
4 0
V r
1
1 1
P.d a '
'.P d ' .
R
4 0 V R
The first term looks like the potential of a surface bound charge b P.n (where n is
1
Thus V r
4 0
b
1
b
da '
d ' , this means the potential (and hence also the
R
4 0 V R
.D f where D 0 E P is known as the electric displacement.
.D f
Thus Gauss law reads,
Or, in integral form
D.d a Q fenc , where Q fenc denotes the total free charge enclosed
in the volume.
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1.10.2 Linear Dielectrics (Susceptibility, Permittivity, Dielectric Constant)
For any substances, the polarization is proportional to the field provided is not too
strong:
P E P 0 e E
(Materials that obey this relation are called linear dielectrics)
The constant of proportionality, e is called the electric susceptibility of the medium.
The value of e depends on the microscopic structure of the substance and also on
external conditions such as temperature.
In linear media we have
D 0 E P 0 E 0 e E 0 E (1 e ) E , where 0 (1 e )
This new constant is called the permittivity of the material.
Also r
||
||
||
Dabove
Dbelow
f and D above D below P above P below
1
D E d .
2 all space
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1.12 Image problems
1.12.1 The Classic Image problem
Suppose a point charge q is held a distance d above an infinite grounded conducting
plane. We can find out what is the potential in the region above the plane.
z
z
q
q
d
d
y
V 0
y
d
q
x
x
Forget about the actual problem; we are going to study a complete different situation.
The new problem consists of two point charges +q at (0, 0, d) and q at (0, 0,-d) and no
conducting plane.
For this configuration we can easily write down the potential:
1
q
q
V x, y, z
2
4 0 x 2 y 2 z d 2
x 2 y2 z d
(The denominators represent the distances from (x, y, z) to the charges +q and q,
respectively.) It follows that
1. V 0 when z 0 and
2. V 0 for x 2 y 2 z 2 d 2 ,
and the only charge in the region z 0 is the point charge +q at (0, 0, d). Thus the
second configuration produces exactly the same potential as the first configuration, in the
upper region z 0 .
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1.12.2 Induced Surface Charge
The surface charge density induced on the conductor surface is 0
V
z
z 0
qd
x, y
2 x 2 y 2 d 2
The charge q is attracted towards the plane, because of the negative induced surface
1
q2
charge. The force: F
z .
4 0 2d 2
One can determine the energy by calculating the work required to bring q in from
infinity.
d
d
1
q2
1 q2
1 q2
W F .dl
dz
4 0 4 z 2
4 0 4 z
4 0 4d
R'
V 0
q'
q
a
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Let us examine the completely different configuration, consisting of the point charge q
together with another point charge q '
2
R
q placed at a distance b R to the right of
a
a
V(r, )
1 q q'
40 R R
q
1
1
2
2
2
2
40 r a 2ra cos
(ra
/
R)
2ra
cos
Clearly when r = R, V 0
Force
The force on q, due to the sphere, is the same as the force of the image charge q, thus:
1
q 2 Ra
40 (a 2 R 2 )2
Energy
To bring q in from infinity to a, we do work
W
1
q 2R
40 2(a 2 R 2 )
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2. MAGNETOSTATICS
The magnetic field at any point due to steady current is called as magnetostatic field.
2.1 Magnetic force on current element
The magnetic force on a charge Q, moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B is,
F mag Q v B . This is known as Lorentz force law. In the presence of both electric and
v t
v
d
dl
perpendicular to flow.
dl
Magnetic force on surface current F mag K B da
d
J
is the current per unit area-perpendicular to
da
da
current F mag J B d .Current crossing a surface S is J d a
Flow
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2.2 Continuity equation
General continuity equation J
0 I R
0
dl ' R
B r
dl
I
4 R 2
4 R 2
where 0 4 10 7
N
( permeability of free space)
A2
dI '
0 K ( r ') R
0 J ( r ') R
( r )
da ' and (r )
d ' .
4
R2
4 R 2
2.3.1 Magnetic field due to wire
Let us find the magnetic field a distance d from a long straight wire carrying a steady
current I.
I
B 0 (sin 2 sin 1 )
4d
For Infinite wire: 1
and 2 B 0
2
2
2d
Note:
Wire segment
0 I1 I 2
.
2 d
2. If currents are in opposite direction they will repel with same magnitude.
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3. The magnetic field a distance d above the center of a circular loop of radius R, which
I
R2
carries a steady current I is B 0
z .
2 (R 2 d 2 )3/2
I
At the center of the circle B(0) 0 z
2R
2.3.2 Magnetic field due to Solenoid and Toroid
The magnetic field of a very long solenoid, consisting of n closely wound turns per unit
length of a cylinder of radius R and carrying a steady current I is:
0 nI z inside the solenoid
B
outside the solenoid.
0
^
0 NI
Magnetic field due to toroid is B 2 r
0
dl
I
where
I
0
enc
enc
B 0 J
0 J r '
If J goes to zero at infinity, A r
d ' for volume current.
4 R
0 I 1
0 K
For line and surface currents, A r
dl '; A r
da '
4 R
4 R
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B.d a 0
Since
Babove
Bbelow
||
||
r
B.dl 0 I enc Babove
K
B
is
parallel
to
surface
but
to
K
below
0
||
||
B is parallel to surface and along K
B.dl 0 I enc Babove Bbelow
Thus the component of B that is parallel to the surface but perpendicular to the current
B above B below 0 K n ,
where n is a unit vector perpendicular to the surface, pointing upward.
Like the scalar potential in electrostatics, the vector potential is continuous across, an
boundary:
Aabove Abelow
For . A 0 guarantees that the normal component is continuous, and A B , in the
form
A
.
dl
B.d a
line
Aabove Abelow
But the derivative of A inherits the discontinuity of B :
0 K
n
n
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2.7 Multiple Expansion of Vector Potential
1
We can always write the potential in the form of a power series in , where r is the
r
distance to the point in question. Thus we can always write
0 I
4
1
1
1
2 3
2
r d l ' r 2 r ' cos ' d l ' r 3 r ' 2 cos ' 2 d l ' .........
z
First term, monopole dl 0 (no magnetic
Ar
monopole)
0 m r
Second term, dipole Adip r
4 r 2
where
is
the
magnetic
dipole
moment:
m sin
r 0
4 r 2
Hence
B dip r A
1
0m
0 3 3 m r r m
2
cos
sin
4 r
4 r 3
Note:
(a) When a magnetic dipole is placed in a uniform magnetic field ( B ), net force on the
dipole is zero and it experiences a torque m B .
(b) In non-uniform field, dipoles have net force F m B and torque m B .
(c) Energy of an ideal dipole m in an magnetic field B is U m.B .
(d) Interaction energy of two dipoles separated by a distance r is
1
m1 m2 3 m1 r m2 r .
4 0 r 3
.
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2.8 Magnetisation M
A r 0 M r d ' 0
4 R
4
v
1
d a .
M
r
This means the potential(and hence also the field) of a magnetized object is the same as
would be produced by a volume current J b M throughout the material, plus a
surface current K b M n , on the boundary. We first determine these bound currents,
and then find the field they produce.
B
bound current and J f is free current. Thus H J f where H
M
0
In integral form H dl I fenc where I fenc is the total free current passing through the
amperian loop.
write Gauss's law in terms of the free charge alone, H permits us to express Ampere's
law in terms of the free current alone- and free current is what we control directly.
Note:
When we have to find B or H in a problem involving magnetic materials, first look for
symmetry. If the problem exhibits cylindrical, plane, solenoid, or toroidal symmetry, then
we can get H directly from the equation H dl I fenc .
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2.9.2 Magnetic Susceptibility and Permeability
For most substances magnetization is proportional to the field H , M m H ,
where m is magnetic susceptibility of the material.
B 0 H M 0 1 m H B H
where
0 0 r 0 1 m ,
is
permeability of material.
H above H below K f n .
And
H above
H below
M above
M below
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3. Dynamics of charged particles in static and uniform electromagnetic fields
(The Lorentz Force Law)
The magnetic force on a charge Q, moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B is,
F mag Q v B
F Q E v B
QE 2
t ut r0
2m
ut
F QE
.
m
m
QE 2
t
2m
r0
QE 2
QE
t and v
t.
2m
m
W F .d l m a.d l m
1
2
1
dv
.vdt m v.d v W mv 22 v12
2
dt
1
1
m v 22 v12
2
If the particle starts from rest i.e v1 0 and final velocity is v then
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W QV
1 2
mv v
2
2QV
m
1 2 1 Q2E2 2
QE 2
t QE
t QEr
Kinetic energy of the particle K .E. mv m.
2
2
2
2m
m
3.1.2 Charged particle enters in the direction perpendicular to field (Parabolic
motion)
Let us consider a charge particle enters in an electric field region with velocity v x at t=0.
The electric field is in the y-direction and the field region has length l. After traversing a
distance l it strikes a point P on a screen which is placed at a distance L from the field
region.
L
vx
y2
y1
Ey
QE y
1
Thus y a y t 2
2
2m
QE y l
y1
2m v x
vx
and y 2 L tan
QE y l
L tan
dy QE y
x
dx mv x2
QE y
mv x2
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3.2 Charged particle in static magnetic field
The magnetic force on a charge Q, moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B is,
F mag Q v B
v
mv
R
R
QB
where R is the radius of the circle and m is the mass of the charge
particle.
p 2 Q2 B2 R2
2m
2m
2R 2m
v
QB
3.2.2 Charged particle enters in the direction making an angle with the field
(Helical motion)
If the charge particle enters in a magnetic field making an angle ,
then motion will be helical.
v v sin
and
v|| v cos ,
mv
and the radius of helix is R QB .
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||
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3.3 Charged particle in uniform electric and magnetic field (Cycloid motion)
F Q E v B Q E z Bz y By z
z
ma m
y y
z z
y z ,
z y
B
QB
where
(cylotron frequency )
m
E
E
y t
t sin t , z t 1 cos t
B
B
E
2
2
y Rt z R R 2
where R
B
This is the formula for a circle, of radius R, x
whose center is
0, Rt , R
travels in the
E
B
d l Q v B vdt 0 .
Magnetic forces may alter the direction in which a particle moves, but they can not speed
up or slow down it.
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4. Electromagnetic induction
4.1 Faradays Law
v
changing
magnetic field
Experiment 1: He pulled a loop of wire to the right through a magnetic field. A current
flowed in the loop (Figure a).
Experiment 2: He moved the magnet to the left, holding the loop still. Again, a current
flowed in the loop (Figure b).
Experiment 3: With both the loop and the magnet at rest, he changed the strength of the
field (he used an electromagnet, and varied the current in the coil). Once again current
flowed in the loop (Figure c).
Thus, universal flux rule is that, whenever (and for whatever reason) the magnetic flux
through a loop changes, an e.m.f. will appear in the loop.
d
dt
(Where magnetic flux B.d a )
In experiment 2,
B
B
Then
E dl t .d a E t
4.1.1 Lenzs Law
In Faradays law negative sign represents the Lenzs law. (The induced current will flow
in such a direction that the flux it produces tends to cancel the change).
For example if the magnetic flux is increasing then induced e.m.f will try to reduce and
vice versa.
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5. Maxwell's equations
5.1 Maxwells equation in free space
5.1.1 Electrodynamics before Maxwells
(i)
(Gauss Law),
(ii) B 0
(No name),
B
(iii)
t
(iv) B 0 J
(Fardays Law),
(Amperes law).
E
E
.J
( 0 .E ) . 0
. J 0
0 .
t
t
E
B 0 J 0 0
Thus
t
A changing electric field induces a magnetic field.
E
Maxwell called this extra term the displacement current J d 0
.
t
E
Integral form of Ampere's law B.dl 0 I enc 0 0
.d a
t
5.1.4 Maxwells equation in free space
(i)
(Gauss Law),
(ii) B 0
(No name),
B
(iii)
t
(Fardays Law),
E
(iv) B 0 J 0 0
t
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5.3 Boundary conditions on the fields at interfaces
||
||
(a ) Dabove
Dbelow
f
||
||
(b) Babove Bbelow
(d ) H above H below K f n
In particular, if there is no free charge or free current at the interface between medium1
and medium 2, then
(a )1 E1 2 E2 0
(b) B1 B2
and
|| ||
(c) E1 E 2
.
1 || 1 ||
(d ) B1
B 2 0
1
2
0
E 2 d , where E is the resulting electric field
2
The work required to get currents going (against the back emf) is
Wm
1
B 2 d , where B is the resulting magnetic field
2 0
1
B2
2
d .
0
2
0
Suppose we have some charge and current configuration which at time t, produces
fields E & B . In next instant, dt, the charges moves around a bit. The work is done by
electromagnetic forces acting on these charges in the interval dt.
According to Lorentz Force Law, the work done on a charge q is
F dl q( E v B) v dt qE v dt .
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Now q d and v J , so the rate at which work is done on all the charges in a
volume V is
dW
d 1
1 2
1
0E2
B d
dt
dt V 2
0
0
E B d a ,
1
S
EB .
0
S d a is the energy per unit time crossing the infinitesimal surface d a the energy or
energy flux density.
2 f
1 2 f
z 2 v 2 t 2
The most general solution to the wave equation is the sum of a wave to the right
(+z direction) and a wave to the left (-z direction):
f z, t g z vt h z vt .
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6.2.2 Terminology
Let us consider a function f z, t A cos k ( z vt )
A is the amplitude of the wave (it is positive, and represents the maximum displacement
from equilibrium).
The argument of the cosine is called the phase, and is the phase constant (normally,
we use a value in the range 0 2 ).
Figure given below shows this function at time t 0 . Notice that at z vt
, the phase
is zero; let's call this the central maximum. If 0 , central maximum passes the origin
at time t 0 ; more generally k is the distance by which the central maximum (and
therefore the entire wave) is delayed.
Central
maximum
f z, 0
/k
2
, for when z
k
2
, the cosine executes one complete cycle.
k
As time passes, the entire wave train proceeds to the right, at speed v . Time period of
one complete cycle is T
2
.
kv
1 kv v
.
T 2
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A sinusoidal oscillation of wave number k and angular frequency traveling to the left
would be written
f z, t A cos kz t .
Comparing this with the wave traveling to the right reveals that, in effect, we could
simply switch the sign of k to produce a wave with the same amplitude, phase constant,
frequency, and wavelength, traveling in the opposite direction.
Central
maximum
f z, 0
/k
ei cos i sin ,
the sinusoidal wave f z, t A cos kz t can be written as
f z, t Re Aei kz t ,
where Re denotes the real part of the complex number . This invites us to introduce
the complex wave function
i kz t
f z, t Ae
f z, t Re f z , t .
The advantage of the complex notation is that exponentials are much easier to manipulate
than sines and cosines.
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6.2.4 Polarization
In longitudinal wave, the displacement from the equilibrium is along the direction of
propagation. Sound waves, which are nothing but compression waves in air, are
longitudinal.
Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature. In a transverse wave displacement is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
There are two dimensions perpendicular to any given line of propagation. Accordingly,
transverse waves occur in two independent state of polarization:
i kz t x ,
Vertical polarization fv z , t Ae
i kz t y ,
Horizontal polarization fh z , t Ae
i kz t n
or along any other direction in the xy plane f z, t Ae
The polarization vector n defines the plane of vibration. Because the waves are
transverse, n is perpendicular to the direction of propagation:
n.z 0
6.3 Electromagnetic waves in vacuum
2 E
2 B
2
2
E 0 0 2
B 0 0 2
and
t
t
1 2 f
.
v t 2
0 0
A
2
, 0 8.86 1012 C
Nm 2
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6.3.2 Monochromatic plane waves
Suppose waves are traveling in the z-direction and have no x or y dependence; these are
called plane waves because the fields
are
uniform
perpendicular
over
to
the
every
plane
direction
of
propagation.
The plane waves can be represented as:
~
~
~
~
E z , t E 0 e i kz t , B z , t B0 e i kz t
0 / c
~
~
where E 0 and B0 are the (complex) y
~
~
amplitudes (the physical fields, of course are the real parts of E and B ).
That is, electromagnetic waves are transverse: the electric and magnetic fields are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
k
Also
B 0 ( z E 0 )
There is nothing special about the z direction; we can generalize the monochromatic
plane waves traveling in an arbitrary direction. The propagation vector or wave vector k
points in the direction of propagation, whose magnitude is the wave number k. The scalar
i k.r t
1 i k .r t
1
E r , t E 0 e
n,
B r , t E 0 e
k n k E
c
c
E r , t E0 cos k .r t n ,
1
B r , t E0 cos k .r t
c
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k n
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6.3.3 Energy and Momentum in Electromagnetic Wave
1
1 2
The energy per unit volume stored in electromagnetic field is u 0 E 2
B
2
0
E2
0 0 E 2
2
c
1
1 2
So the electric and magnetic contributions are equal i.e. u E u B 0 E 2
B .
2
2 0
u uE u B 0 E 2 = 0 E0 2 cos 2 ( kz wt ) .
As the wave travels, it carries this energy along with it. The energy flux density (energy
per unit area, per unit time) transported by the fields is given by the Pointing vector
1
S
( E B)
0
For monochromatic plane wave propagating in the z-direction,
S c 0 E02 cos 2 ( kz wt ) z cu z .
The energy per unit time, per unit area, transported by the wave is therefore uc.
Electromagnetic fields not only carry energy, they also carry momentum. The
momentum density stored in the field is
For monochromatic plane wave,
1
2 S .
c
1
1
0 E0 2 cos 2 ( kz wt ) z u z .
c
c
1
u 0 E02 ,
2
^
1
Average of Poynting vector S c 0 E02 z ,
2
^
1
Average momentum density 0 E02 z .
2c
Average energy density
The average power per unit area transported by an electromagnetic wave is called the
intensity
1
I S c 0 E02 .
2
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Note:
(a) When light falls on perfect absorber it delivers its momentum to the surface. In a
p Act ,
1 p 1
I
0 E02 .
A t 2
c
ct
2I
c
1
is linear and homogeneous, D E and H= B .
2E
2B
2
Now the wave equation inside matter is E 2 and B 2 .
t
t
2
1
c
where n
0 0
n
1
1
1
The energy density u E 2 B 2 u E02
2
2
^
1
1
The Poynting vector S E B S v E02 z
1
Intensity I S vE02
2
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6.5 Electromagnetic waves in conductors
Any initial free charge density f 0 given to conductor dissipate in a characteristic time
/ t
/ where is conductivity and f t e f 0 .
This reflects the familiar fact that if we put some free charge on conductor, it will flow
out to the edges. The modified wave equation for E and B are,
2 E
E
2 B
B
2
2
E 2
and B
t
t
t
t
~
~ ~
~
~ ~
The admissible plane wave solution is E z , t E 0 e i k z t , B z , t B 0 e i k z t
wave number k is complex. Let k k i where k and are real and imaginary part
of k .
1/2
2
2
1
and
2
2
Thus,
E z, t E 0 e z e i kz t , B z , t B 0 e z ei kz t
1/ 2
1
is called the skin depth (d)
e
1
;
, v ,
k
k
ck
Like any complex number, k can be expressed in terms of its modulus and phase:
k Kei
2
where K k k 2 2 1
and tan 1 k
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The complex amplitudes E 0 E0 ei E and B 0 B0 ei B are related by
k
Kei
B 0 E 0 B0 ei B
E0 ei E .
Evidently the electric and magnetic fields are no longer in phase; in fact B E , the
magnetic field lags behind the electric fields.
1/2
2
B0 K
1
E0
E z , t E0 e z cos kz t E x
Thus,
B z, t B0 e z cos kz t E y
Note:
(a) In a poor conductor ( )
,
2
1
2
1
(c) When an electromagnetic wave strikes a perfect conductor ( ) then all waves
are reflected back i.e. E 0 R E 0 I
and
E 0T 0 .
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7. Applications of Electromagnetic waves
7.1 Reflection and Refraction
7.1.1 Normal incidence
At z 0 , the combined field on the left E I E R and B I B R , must join the fields on the right
ET & BT , in accordance with the boundary conditions.
v v
0 R 2 1 0 I
v2 v1
2v2
0T
0 I
v1 v2
T
v2
v1
Note:
v1
Interface
amplitudes are
0 R
n1 n2
0I
n1 n2
0T
2n1
0 I .
n1 n2
1
Since Intensity I vE02 , then the ratio of the reflected intensity to the incident intensity is
2
2
E n n
I
the Reflection coefficient R R 0 R 1 2 .
I I E0 I n1 n2
The ratio of the transmitted intensity to the incident intensity is the Transmission coefficient
2
I
v E
4n1n2
T T 2 2 0T
.
I I 1v1 E0 I n1 n2 2
R T 1
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7.1.2 Oblique incidence
In oblique incidence an incoming wave meets the boundary at an arbitrary angle I . Of course,
normal incidence is really just a special case of oblique incidence with I 0 .
First Law (law of refraction)
kR
kT
I R
Plane of Incidence
kI
sin T n1
.
sin I n2
7.1.3 Fresnels relation (Parallel and Perpendicular Polarization)
Case I: (Polarization in the plane of incidence)
kR
E0 I and
cos T
where
cos I
and
2
E 0T
BR
E0 I
v
n
11 1 2
2v2 2 n1
ER
kT
kI
tan B
n2
n1
and I B 90o
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When light enters from denser to rarer medium ( n1 n2 ) then after a critical angle ( C )
there is total internal reflection.
sin 900 n1
sin c
n2
sin c
n2
n1
at C , T 90o .
2
and T
R T 1
1
E0 R
1
E0 I
2
E 0T
1
and
E0 I
kR
ER
R
1
Thus R
and
1
2
T
BR
R T 1
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kT
kI
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8. Potential and Field formulation for Time Varying Fields
8.1 Scalar and vector potentials
B A
A
E V
t
2V
A ...............(1)
t
0
2
2 A
V
A 0 0 2 A 0 0
J
0 ............(2)
t
t
Equations (1) and (2) contain all the information of Maxwells equations. Thus we need
to calculate only four components (one for V and three for A ) instead of six components
It follows that
V V .
t
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8.3 Coulomb and Lorentz gauge
A 0 .
Coulomb Gauge reads
V
Lorentz Gauge condition is A 0 0
.
t
2 A
V
2
Since A 0 0 2 A 0 0
A ,
0 J and V
t
t
t
0
2
2
2V
2 A
.
A 0 0 2 0 J and
0 0
2
t
0
t
The virtue of the Lorentz gauge is that it treats V and A on an equal footing: the same
2
2
differential operator
0 0
t 2
equations:
(i) 2 V
,
0
(ii)
A o J .
9.2 Waveguides
Electromagnetic waves confined to the interior of a hollow pipe or wave guide. The wave
guide is a perfect conductor, E 0 and B 0 inside the material itself, and hence the
boundary conditions at the inner wall are:
||
E 0 and B 0
Free charges and currents will be induced on the surface in such a way as to enforce these
constraints. Let us assume E.M. Waves that propagate inside the waveguide is
represented by:
E x, y, z, t E 0 ( x, y)ei kz t ,
B x, y, z, t B 0 ( x, y)ei kz t .
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These electric and magnetic field must satisfies Maxwell's equations in the interior of the
waveguide.Since confined waves are not (in general) transverse; in order to fit the
boundary conditions we shall have to include longitudinal components Ez and Bz :
E 0 Ex x E y y Ez z, B 0 Bx x By y Bz z .
Putting this into Maxwells equations(iii) and (iv) and compare R.H.S and L.H.S
E y Ex
Ez
E
ikE y i Bx , ikEx z i By ,
i Bz
y
x
x
y
By Bx
Bz
i
B
i
i
ikBy 2 Ex , ikBx z 2 E y ,
2 Ez
y
c
x
y
c
x
c
Let us rewrite these six equations
(i)
(ii)
E y
Ex
i Bz ,
y
(iv)
Ez
ikE y i Bx ,
y
(v)
(iii) ikEx
Ez
i By ,
x
By
x
Bx
i
2 Ez
y
c
Bz
i
ikBy 2 Ex
y
c
(vi) ikBx
Bz
i
2 Ey
x
c
Equation (ii), (iii), (v), and (vi) can be solved for Ex , E y , Bx , and By :
(i) Ex
Ez
B
k
z
y
k 2 x
(iii) Bx
Bz Ez
2
k
x
c y
k
(ii) E y
(iv) By
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Ez
B
k
z
x
k 2 y
Bz Ez
2
k
y
c x
k
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Finally, we will get coupled differential equation
2
2
2
(i) 2 2 k 2 Ez 0
x y c
2
2
2
(ii) 2 2 k 2 Bz 0
x y c
z
b
The
problem
is
to
solve
y 2
2
2
2
2 2 k Bz 0
x y c
(since Ez 0 )
m x n y
Thus Bz B0 cos
cos
where m 0,1,2..... and n 0,1,2......
a b
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This solution is called the TE mn mode. (The first index is conventionally associated with
the larger dimension.)
2
Wave number k is obtaine from equation k x2 kx2 k 2 0 by putting k x and k y .
c
c m a n b where 2f .
2
So wave number k
If
2
2
c m 2 n 2
c m a n b mn or f mn
b ,
2 a
the wave number is imaginary, and instead of a traveling wave we have exponentially
attenuated fields. For this reason mn or f mn is called cutoff frequency for the mode in
question.
The lowest cutoff frequency (fundamental mode) for the waveguide occurs for the
mode TE10 :
10
c
a
c
.
2a
f10
or
Wave number can be written more simply in terms of the cutoff frequency
k
Group velocity vg
1 mn
c
f
1 mn
f
1
dk
1
2
2 mn
.
c
c.
f
c 1 mn c 1 mn c .
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1 mn
377
Characteristic impedanceTE
1 mn
f
1 mn
f
377
f
1 mn
f
The
problem
is
to
solve
2
2
2
2
2
k Ez 0
2
x y c
(since Bz 0 )
||
subject to boundary condition E 0 .
m x n y
E z E0 sin
sin
where m 1,2,3..... and n 1,2,3......
a b
This solution is called the TM mn mode. (The first index is conventionally associated
with the larger dimension.)
Formula for cutoff frequency mn , wave velocity v , group velocity vg and g are same as
TE waves.
w
Characteristic impedance TM 377 1 mn
w
The fundamental mode is TM 11 and
f11
c
2
a b
1
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10. Radiation- from moving charges
10.1 Radiation
Accelerating charges and changing current produce electromagnetic waves (radiation).
If the source is localized near the origin, the total power passing out through the spherical
shell of radius r is the integral of pointing vector:
1
P r S .da
0
E B .da
Source
Prad lim P r
r
This is the energy (per unit time) that is transported out to infinity, and never comes back.
10.1.1 Power radiated by a point charge
The electric field E and magnetic field B of an EM wave due to a point charge q, having
qa sin
qa sin
E
, B
r
r
z
E
Thus
r2
16 2 c
sin 2
2
r
q
x
q 2 a 2 sin 2
q 2a2
P S .da 0 2 2 r 2 sin d d 0
6c
16 c
r
(ii) a , r and E lies in one plane.
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