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1. Soil exploration

Foundation Design
CE-352

Arghya Das
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Email: arghya@iitk.ac.in

However, structural changes are unavoidable

due to reduction in insitu stress. Soft clays are
more sensitive to sample disturbance and
exhibit higher shear resistance.
Mainlyusedforthedeterminationofshear
strength,consolidationanddensity .
b) Disturbed sample
Disturbed samples, which are used mainly for soil classification tests,
identification of soil strata and compaction tests, can be excavated from trial
pits or obtained from the tools used to advance boreholes (e.g. from augers
and the clay cutter).

Soilsampling:equipment
2)Thinwalledsampler
Used in soils which are sensitive to disturbance such as
soft to firm clays and plastic silts.
The sampler does not employ a separate cutting shoe.
The internal diameter may range from 35 to 100 mm.
The area ratio is approximately 10%.
3)Splitspoonsampler(IS:9640 1960)
Consist of a tube which is split longitudinally into two halves.
The internal and external diameters are 35 and 50 mm, respectively.
The area ratio being approximately 100%, with the result that there
is considerable disturbance of the sample.
This sampler is use mainly in sands, being the tool specified in the
standard penetration test.

Soilsampling:equipment
1)Opendrivesampler
Suitableforallclaytypesoils
Internaldiameterofcuttingedgeshouldbe~1%
smallerthantheinternaltubediametertoreduce
frictionbetweensampleandtube(insideclearance).
Theouterdiameterofcuttingedgeisslightlyhigher
thantheouterdiameterofthetubetoreducethe
forcerequiredtowithdrawthetube(outside
clearance).
Area ratio isabout30%foropendrivesampler.

450mm

Soilsampling:type
a) Undisturbed sample
Samples must be protected to avoid any
change in water content: the samples should
be covered with molten wax immediately they
have been brought to the surface.

100mm

The volume of soil displaced by the sampler as a

proportion of the sample volume is represented by the
area ratio (Ar) of the sampler. It is a measure of sample
disturbance.
d2 d2

Ar %

d c2

100

Soilsampling:equipment
4)Stationarypistonsampler
Consistofathinwalledtubefittedwithapistonwhich
preventswaterorloosesoilfromenteringthetube.
Pistonsamplersshouldalwaysbepusheddownbyhydraulic
ormechanicaljacking:theyshouldneverbedriven.
Thediameterofthesamplerisusuallybetween35 100mm
butcanbeaslargeas250mm.
Generallyusedforsoftclaysandcanproduceundisturbed
sampleupto1minlength.
5)Windowsampler
Idealfordrycohesivesoils.
usually1minlengthandofdifferentdiameters(typically80,
60,50and36mm)
Therearelongitudinalslotsorwindowsinthewallsatone
sideofthetubestoallowthesoiltobeexaminedandenable
disturbedsamplestobetakenout.

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Soilsampling:equipment
6)Continuoussampler
The continuous sampler is a highly specialized
type of sampler which is capable of obtaining
undisturbed samples up to 25m in length and
maintain the fabric of soil specimen.
The sampler is used mainly in soft clays.
Thin strips of metal foil between the sample
and the tube to reduce frictional resistance.
7)Compressedairsampler

Soilsampling:equipment
Recoveryratio

Lr

Actual length of recovered sample

Theoratical length of recovered sample

A recovery ratio of 1 (recovered length of the sample = the length

sampler was forced into the stratum) indicates that, theoretically, the
sample did not become compressed from friction on the tube. A
recovery ratio greater than 1.0 would indicate a loosening of the sample
from rearrangement of stones, roots, removal of preload, or other
factors.

The compressed air sampler is used to obtain

undisturbed samples of sand below the water
table.

StandardPenetrationTest(SPT)IS:21311981
SPT is the most popular and economical insitu test in a borehole for
obtaining subsurface information (both on land and offshore).

StandardizationofSPT
1.Variationintheheightoffallofthedropweight(hammer)duringthetest
2.Thenumberofturnsofropearoundthecathead,andtheconditionofthe
manilarope
3.Lengthanddiameterofdrillrod
5.Diameterofborehole
6.Overburdenpressure

StandardPenetrationTest(SPT)IS:21311981
1. The split spoon sampler resting on the bottom of borehole should be allowed to
sink under its own weight (combined sampler and rod);
2. Then the split spoon sampler shall be seated 15 cm with the blows of the hammer
(63.5 kg) falling through 75 cm.
3. Thereafter, the split spoon sampler shall be further driven by 30 cm or 50 blows
(except that driving shall cease before the split spoon sampler is full).
4. The number of blows required to effect each 15 cm of penetration shall be
recorded. The first 15 cm of drive may be considered to be seating drive. The total
blows required for the second and third 15 cm of penetration shall be termed the
penetrationresistance N;
5. If the split spoon sampler is driven less than 45 cm (total), then the penetration
resistance shall be for the last 30 cm of penetration.
6. The entire sampler may sometimes sink under its own weight when very soft sub
soil stratum is encountered and SPT value should be indicated as zero.
7. Tests shall be made at every change in stratum or at intervals of not more than 1.5
m whichever is less. Tests may be made at lesser intervals if specified or
considered necessary. The intervals be increased to 3 m if in between vane shear
test is performed.

StandardizationofSPT(Bowles1996,MostlyusedinUSAandUK)
1.Hammerefficiencycorrection(En)
2.Drillrod,samplerandboreholecorrections(Cd,Cs,andCb)

Theoreticalinputenergybythedrophammer:

Ein weight of the hammer height of fall

= Wh 63.5 9.81 0.75 467.2 J

Experimentsshow,about3080%energyisactuallytransferreddependingon
differentfactorsmentionedabove.
Standardenergyratio:

Res

Actual hammer energy to the sample, Ea

100
Input hammer energy, Ein

Normallyenergyratioisstandardizefor60%oftheactualenergy.

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CorrectionstoSPTNvalue:

CorrectionstoSPTNvalue:

3)Correctionduetooverburden(CN):

4)Correctionduetodilation:

A density classification for sands was proposed

originally, in general terms, by Terzaghi and
Peck, on the basis of standard penetration
resistance. However, standard penetration
resistance depends not only on density index
but also on the effective stresses at the depth
of measurement.
The N value for cohesionless soil shall be
corrected for overburden as per the figure of
IS:21311981
AsperLiaoandWhitman,1986

When testing below the water table, care must be taken to avoid entry of water
through the bottom of the borehole as this would tend to loosen the sand due
to upward seepage pressure. If the test is carried out in fine sand or silty sand
below the water table the measured N value, if greater than 15, should be
corrected for the increased resistance due to negative excess pore water
pressure set up during driving and unable to dissipate immediately.

CN

N 15

1
N 15
2

istheSPTvalueafteroverburdencorrection.

95.76
100

0
0

(N1)60 = standard penetration resistance

normalized to a rod energy ratio of 60% and an
effective overburden pressure of 100 kPa.

EffectiveoverburdenpressureinkN/m2

N N CN

SPTNvaluecorrelations:

SPTNvaluecorrelations:
Relativedensity

TheSPThasbeenusedincorrelations
(a) unitweight
(b) relativedensity
(c) angleofinternalfriction
(d) unconfinedcompressivestrength
(e) bearingcapacityoffoundations
(f) estimatingthestressstrainmodulus
Relativedensity
Meyerhof,(1957)proposedrelationship

Empiricalcorrelationfornormallyconsolidated granularsoilsatdepth6mbelow
groundsurface

N
a b COCR p0
Dr2

a andb areconstants.
isthemeaneffectivestressatnormallyconsolidatedcondition.
COCR isoverconsolidationcorrectionestimatedby

1 2 K 0,nc

SPTNvaluecorrelations:

Unconfinedcompressivestrength

qu k N corrected
inkPa andk =12
accordingto(Bowle
1996)

Angleofinternalfriction(Mayerhof 1956)
Finesandwithmorethan5%siltcontent

1 2 K 0,ocr

WhereK0,nc andK0,ocr isthecoefficientofearthpressureatrestfornormally

consolidatedandoverconsolidatedconditionsrespectively.

Angleofinternalfriction
(Schmertmann,1975)

*Consideringa =32,b =0.228,unitweight=17kN/m3

Finesandwithlessthan5%siltcontent

Dr

emax e
emax emin

HererelativedensityDr isexpressedin%

StaticConePenetrationTest(CPTorSCPT)IS:4968(III)1976
Static cone penetration test is a subsurface soil exploration (both onshore and
offshore) technique for the determine the soil resistance (bearing and frictional
resistance) and delineating soil stratigraphy. Also known as Dutch cone test.
The device used in this
test consists of a
cylindrical penetrometer
(fitted with a cone
having an apex angle of
60), a sleeve (friction
jacket), a mantle tube
and a sounding rod.

100(IS)

1. Mechanical type
2. Electrical type
135(IS)

Used for soft clay, silt and fine to

medium sand.

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StaticConePenetrationTest(CPTorSCPT)IS:4968(III)1976
a=35mm
b=35mm

CPTcorrelations:

Rateofdrivingshouldbe1cm/s
Tipresistanceorcone/pointresistance

qc

Qc
Ac

TotalresistanceQt
Skinfrictionresistance

fs

Qt Qc Q f

Af
Af

In case of electrical type CPT the resistances

are measured by load sensors in the cone and
sleeve, the cables from the sensors passing
through the hollow rods to monitoring and
recording equipment at the surface.

Correlation between the angle of friction and

cone penetration resistance.

Correlation between the relative density and

cone penetration resistance.

Some models, referred to as piezocones, also incorporate a piezometer consisting of a

porous tip and a pressure transducer for the measurement of pore water pressure.

CPTcorrelations:

CPTcorrelations:

Correlation between the undrained shear strength (su) of clay with cone
penetration tip resistance (qc).

where Nk represents cone factor

and p0 is the total overburden
pressure. According to Lunne and
Kelvin (1981) Nk is following:

Mayerhof (1965) proposed SPT

and CPT correlation for fine or silty
mediumloose to mediumdense
sand:

qc MPa 0.4 N

Normalizedconeresistance,qcn (tsf)

qc N k su p0

Doglus (1984) proposed a simplified soil classification:

Frictionratio

fs
qc

Normalizedconeresistance,qcn (tsf)*

qcn qc 1 1.25log p0

Frictionratio(%)

*Tonspersquarefoot