Theorem: Let V1 and V2 be subspaces of a vector space.

Then
V1 V2 is a subspace if and only if either V1 V2 or V2 V1 .
Proof: If V1 V2 (V2 V1 ), then V1 V2 = V2 (V1 ). Then it is
a subspace.
Conversely, assume that V1 V2 is a subspace and V1 * V2 . We
want to show that V2 V1 .
Let x V2 . Since V1 * V2 , y V1 \ V2 .
x, y V1 V2 , x + y V1 V2 , since V1 V2 is a
subspace.
If x + y V2 , then y V2 , which is a contradiction.
x + y V1 x V1 V2 V1 .

Check if V0 is a subspace of V :
1. Let V = C [1, 1] and
V0 = {f V : f is an odd function }.
Solution: The zero vector belongs to V0 V0 6= .
If f , g V0 and R, then
(f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) = f (x) + (g (x)) =
(f + g )(x) f + g is an odd function.

2. Let V = P3 and V0 = {a0 + a1 X + a2 X 2 + a3 X 3 : a0 = 0}.

3. Let V = P3 and
V0 = {a0 + a1 X + a2 X 2 + a3 X 3 : a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 = 0}.

Exercise: Non-zero subspace of R2 are the stright lines passing

through the origin.
Let V be a vector space and v V . Let V0 = {v : F}.
Then V0 is a vector space.
More generally, if v1 , . . . , vn V and
V0 = {1 v1 + + n vn : i F i = 1, . . . , n}, then V0 is a
subspace of V .
Definition: Let V be a vector space and v1 , . . . , vn V . Then, by
a linear combination of v1 , . . . , vn , we mean an element in V of the
form 1 v1 + + n vn with j F, j = 1, . . . , n.

Definition: Let S be a subset of V . Then the set of all linear

combinations of elements of S is called the span of S, and is
denoted by span S.
Examples: span({0}) = {0}.
Convention: Span of the empty set is taken to be {0}.
C = span({1, i}) with scalars from R.
Let e1 = (1, 0), e2 = (0, 1). Then R2 = span({e1 , e2 })
More generally if ei denote the vector having 1 at the i-th place
and 0 everywhere else, then Rn = span({e1 , . . . , en }).

P3 = span({1, X , X 2 , X 3 }).
Let P denote the set of all polynomials of all degree. Then
P = span({1, X , X 2 , . . .}).
Caution: The set S can have infinitely many elements, but a
linear combination has only finitely many elements.
Theorem: Let V be a vector space and S V . Then span S is a
subspace of V and it is the smallest one containing S.
Proof: If S = , then span S = {0}.
If S 6= , x, y span S, then x = 1 x1 + + n xn and
y = 1 y1 + + m ym for some i , j F and xi , yj S.

Then for F,
x + y = a1 x1 + + an xn + 1 y1 + m ym span S.
If V0 is a subspace containing S, then V0 contain all linear
combination of elements of S.
span S V0 span S is the smallest subspace containing
S.
Exercise: S is a subspace of V if and only if span S = S.
Exercise: TIf S is a subset of a vector space V , then prove that
span S = {Y : Y is a subspace of V containing S}.

Exercise: Consider the system of linear equations:

a11 x1
a21 x1

am1 x1

+ a12 x2
+ a22 x2
+
+ am2 x2

+
+
+
+

+ a1n xn
+ a2n xn
+
+ amn xn

= b1
= b2
=
= bm .

Let u1 = (a11 , . . . , am1 ), u2 = (a12 , . . . , am2 ), . . .. Show that the

above system has a solution vector x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) if and only if
b = (b1 , . . . , bn ) is in the span of {u1 , . . . , un }.

Let V1 and V2 be subspaces of a vector space V . Define

V1 + V2 = {u + v : u V1 &v V2 }.

Theorem: V1 + V2 = span(V1 V2 ).
Proof: Let u + v V1 + V2 . Then clearly u + v span(V1 V2 ).
Note that V1 V2 V1 + V2 . Let v span(V1 V2 ). Then
u1 , . . . , un V1 and v1 , . . . , vm V2 such that
v = 1 u1 + + n un + 1 v1 + + m vm . Since
1 u1 + + n un V1 and 1 v1 + + m vm V2 ,
v V1 + V2 .
V1 + V2 is a subspace of V .

Note: x-axis + y -axis = ?

Exercise: Suppose V1 V2 = {0}. Then every element of V1 + V2
can be written uniquely as x1 + x2 with x1 V1 and x2 V2 .
Note: Any vector (x, y ) R2 can be uniquely written as
x(1, 0) + y (0, 1).
Suppose we take u = (1, 1), v = (1, 2), w = (1, 0). Then
(2, 3) = 3(1, 1) + 0(1, 2) + 1(1, 0)
= 1(1, 1) + 1(1, 2) + 2(1, 0).

When can we ensure the uniqueness?

Definition: A set of vectors {v1 , . . . , vn } is said to be

linearly dependent if one of the vectors can be written as a linear
combination of P
others, i.e., j {1, . . . , n} and i F, i 6= j
such that vj = i6=j i vi .
Equivalently, {v1 , . . . , vn } is linearly dependent if j such that
vj span({vi : i 6= j}).
Definition: A set of vectors {v1 , . . . , vn } is said to be
linearly independent if the set is not linearly dependent, i.e., none
of the vector can be written as a linear combination of the others.
Given a set of vectors, how do we verify these properties?
{v1 , . . . , vn } is linearly dependent
vj = 1 v1 + + j1 vj1 + j+1 vj+1 + + n vn .
1 v1 + + n vn = 0 taking j = 1.

Conversely, suppose 1 v1 + + n vn = 0 for some i F.

Suppose j 6= 0 for at least one j. Then
vj =

1
n
v1 + +
vn .
j
j

{v1 , . . . , vn } is linearly dependent.

So we conclude:
{v1 , . . . , vn } is linearly dependent if and only if 1 , . . . , n F,
not all zero, such that 1 v1 + + n vn = 0.

{v1 , . . . , vn } is linearly independent if and only if for any set of

scalars 1 , . . . , n F such that at least one of them is non-zero,
1 v1 + + n vn 6= 0.
In other words, if for some scalars 1 , . . . , n F,
1 v1 + + n vn = 0, then i = 0 for all i = 1, . . . , n.
Example 1: {(1, 0), (0, 1)} is linearly independent in R2 .
Example 2: {(1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)} is linearly independent in
R3 .
Solution: Suppose (1, 0, 0) + (1, 1, 0) + (1, 1, 1) = (0, 0, 0).
+ + = 0; + = 0; = 0.
= = = 0 the vectors are linearly independent.

Example 3: {1, X , X 2 } P2 is linearly independent.

Example 4: {sin x, cos x} C [, ] is linearly independent.
Solution: Suppose sin x + cos x = 0.
Putting x = 0 we get = 0. Now putting x = 2 , we get = 0.
Exercise: {sin x, sin 2x, sin 3x, . . . , sin nx} C [, ] is linearly
independent.

Note: Any set containing the zero vector is linearly dependent.

Caution: {v1 , . . . , vn } is linearly dependent DOES NOT IMPLY
that each vector is in the span of the remaining vectors.
Example: {(1, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2)} is linearly dependent and
(1, 0)
/ span({(1, 1), (2, 2)}).
Exercise: {u, v } is linearly dependent if and only if one of them is
a scalar multiple of the other.
Solution: If {u, v } is linearly dependent, then either
u span({v }) or v span({u}), i.e., either u = v or v = u.
Convsely suppose one of them is a scalar multiple of the other, say
u = v . Then u span({v }) {u, v } is linearly dependent.

(2,4,0)

v
W = Span({(1,1,1), (1,1,1)})

Span(u)

(2,4,0) is not in W

Some properties of Linear (in)dependence

If {u1 , . . . , un } is linearly dependent, then for any vector v V ,
the set {u1 , . . . , un , v } is linearly dependent.
Solution: Suppose 1 u1 + + n un = 0 with i 6= 0 for at least
one i.
1 u1 + + n un + 0 v = 0
{u1 , . . . , un , v } is linearly dependent.
Exercise: If E = {u1 , . . . , un } is linearly independent, then any
subset of E is linearly independent.
Exercise: Suppse {u1 , . . . , un } is linearly independent and Y is a
subspace of V such that span({u1 , . . . , un }) Y = {0}. Prove
that every vector x in the span of {u1 , . . . , un } Y can be written
uniquely as x = 1 u1 + + n un + y with 1 , . . . , n F and
y Y.

Note: The set {e1 , . . . , en } is linearly independent and

span({e1 , . . . , en }) = Rn .
The set {1, X , . . . , X n } is linearly independent and
Pn = span({1, X , . . . , X n }).
Definition: Let V be an F-vector space. A set which is linearly
independent and spans a vector space V is called an F-basis of V .
Basis is NOT unique: For example, both {1} and {2} are R-bases
of R. In fact {x}, for any non-zero x R, is an R-basis of R.
Verify if {(1, 1), (1, 2)} is an R-basis of R2 .

Since neither of them is a scalar multiple of the other, the set is

lineary independent.
span({(1, 1), (1, 2)}) = R2 ?
Does the equation (x, y ) = (1, 1) + (1, 2) has a solution in , ?
+ = x; + 2 = y .
= y x and = 2x y .

span({(1, 1), (1, 2)}) = R2

{(1, 1), (1, 2)} is an R-basis of R2 .

Example: {e1 , . . . , en } is an R-basis of Rn . This basis is called

Standard Basis of Rn .
Consider set {Mij : i = 1, . . . , m; j = 1, . . . , n}, where Mij is the
matrix with (i, j)-th entry 1 and all other entries 0. Then this is a
basis of Mmn (F), called the standard basis.
Exercise: Prove that the set {1, 1 + X , 1 + X + X 2 } is a basis for
P2 . Find a similar basis for Pn .
Exercise: If {p1 (X ), . . . , pr (X )} P be set of polynomials such
that deg p1 < deg p2 < < deg pr , then prove that
{p1 (X ), . . . , pr (X )} is linearly independent.
Exercise: Can you find a basis for R2 consisting of 3 vectors?